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Presently, the use of lean combustion has been growing in industrial furnaces, aero-engine, and rocket engine applications due to their low $$N{O_X}$$ N O X emission and minimum maintenance requirements. On the other hand, due to the excessively low combustion reaction rate, the operation at a low fuel–air ratio leads to the sudden shutdown of the engines, which is termed lean blowout (LBO). Therefore, to operate land-based and aircraft engines at an extremely lean fuel–air mixture, control of LBO has become indispensable. In the present work, we develop several feedback in-loop control strategies using a pixel-averaged intensity ratio between the red and blue components of the flame emission. During a lean operation, based on the quantification of the proximity of the combustion dynamics to the LBO limits using this color ratio, the control strategies make the solenoid valves active to inject a secondary pilot fuel and energize the flame base. We notice that a proper choice of the color ratio as a threshold enhances the stability of both premixed and partially premixed combustion using a low pilot fuel. Besides, we test $$N{O_X}$$ N O X emission for unpiloted and piloted operations and find that the emission is only marginally affected during a pilot injection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Automotive Digest is the property of Automotive Digest Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper shows that a magnetic coating can reduce AC copper loss caused by the proximity effect based on a measured value. A solenoid coil is used for the measurement. This reduction was quantified by supplying external magnetic fields to conductors placed in a central region of the solenoid coil and measuring AC copper loss as changes in the coil's resistance. AC copper loss in aluminum flat wires was minimized by applying a magnetic coating to the wires. The experimental and FEM results confirmed the reduction. The AC copper loss was reduced by a maximum of 59% due to applying magnetic coating. © 2024 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan and Wiley Periodicals LLC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Injected fuel mass per stroke (IFMPS) was measured by varying the driving current pattern of a solenoid-type diesel common rail injector. Repeated measurements of IFMPS were statistically analyzed to determine deviation from the average. The control of the injector's driving current waveform was achieved through pulse width modulation (PWM) on the microcontroller's CCP (capture compare and PWM) pin. The solenoid injector driving current pattern took the form of a peak & hold shape. A total of 36 types of driving current patterns were generated by manipulating peak and hold conditions in different combinations, and each driving current waveform was applied to drive injector. To evaluate the solenoid's thermal dissipation characteristics, the injector solenoid's driving energy was calculated by integrating the injector's driving current waveform over time. The IFMPS per energy consumed by the solenoid was then calculated based on the injector driving current waveform, defining it as the thermal parameter for injector solenoid (TPIS). The TPIS value can be used as a reference to identify the optimal injector drive current pattern concerning the solenoid's thermal dissipation. The fuel rail pressure was controlled at three levels: 40, 80 and 120 MPa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of key design parameters on the constant force characteristics of long-stroke moving-iron proportional solenoid actuators (MPSAs) has been explored by a method combining finite element modelling and correlation analysis. First, the finite element model (FEM) of long-stroke MPSA was developed and validated. Subsequently, the two evaluation indexes, the average-output solenoid force and maximum-output solenoid force variability, were introduced to disclose the influence law of pole shoe parameters on the constant force characteristics of a long-stroke MPSA. After that, correlation analysis was employed to quantify the influence of several parameters and parameter interaction factors on the constant force characteristics. The results indicate a strong contradiction between the average-output solenoid force and maximum-output solenoid force variability; however, increasing the inner diameter of the cone helps enhance the average-output solenoid force without causing maximum-output solenoid force variability to increase. Among all the parameters examined, the cone angle is the most significant parameter affecting the constant force characteristics. Additionally, interactions between the cone angle and the cone length, the cone angle and the inner cone diameter, the cone angle and the outer cone diameter, the cone length and the outer cone diameter, as well as the inner cone diameter and the outer cone diameter also have an important influence on the constant force characteristics. This study deepens our understanding of how the key parameters affect the constant force characteristics and assists designers in optimizing these parameters for developing new structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The counter-pressure casting (CPC) process has the technical advantages of smooth filling and solidification under pressure, which is conducive to obtaining high-quality castings. In the counter-pressure casting process, the way of fixed solenoid valve opening is used for synchronous pressurization at present. However, this synchronous pressurization method causes the melt to rise first in the transfer tube and then fall back. The falling process of the melt will lead to the formation of the double-layer oxide films on the melt surface. In the subsequent pouring stage, part of the double-layer oxide films will enter the inside of the casting to form defects. To solve this problem, the synchronous pressurization process was optimized. Combined with numerical simulation and measurement results, the influence of two kinds of processes on melt rise behavior in transfer tubes before and after optimization is compared. The optimized process can reduce the rise height of melt by about 90% in the process of synchronous pressurization and change the flow behavior of melt so that the melt is always filled forward and the fall of melt is eliminated. Furthermore, the formation of double-layer oxide films in the melt during synchronous pressurization is eliminated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We show that Kellendonk’s tiling semigroup of a finite local complexity substitution tiling is self-similar, in the sense of Bartholdi, Grigorchuk and Nekrashevych. We extend the notion of the limit space of a self-similar group to the setting of self-similar semigroups, and show that it is homeomorphic to the Anderson–Putnam complex for such substitution tilings, with natural self-map induced by the substitution. Thus, the inverse limit of the limit space, given by the limit solenoid of the self-similar semigroup, is homeomorphic to the translational hull of the tiling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we construct odd finitely summable spectral triples based on length functions of bounded doubling on noncommutative solenoids. Our spectral triples induce a Leibniz Lip-norm on the state spaces of the noncommutative solenoids, giving them the structure of Leibniz quantum compact metric spaces. By applying methods of R. Floricel and A. Ghorbanpour, we also show that our odd spectral triples on noncommutative solenoids can be considered as inductive limits of spectral triples on rotation algebras. In the final section, we prove a noncommutative version of Wiener's lemma and show that our odd spectral triples can be defined to have an associated smooth dense subalgebra which is stable under the holomorphic functional calculus, thus answering a question of B. Long and W. Wu. The construction of the smooth subalgebra also extends to the case of nilpotent discrete groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The punching machine is a mechanical equipment that is widely used in leather cutting. To facilitate mass production, both the punching table and layout are designed to accommodate long strokes over a large area. This enables one-time automatic continuous punching of large leather sheets. However, as the punching layout increases in size, it becomes more difficult to maintain the equal distance of the die cutter and table plate. Moreover, the table plate is overlaid with a polypropylene (PP) punching pad that is approximately 25 mm thick. Although it acts as a buffer to preserve the sharpness of the die, it causes cumulative deformation and defects in the die after repeated punching. Additionally, there often exists a height deviation of approximately 1–2 mm between the die and the punching pad at different positions. As the thickness of the leather sheet is often between 0.1 and 2 mm, automatic punching has a few drawbacks; although the leather is cut completely according to the set depth in some areas, other areas of the sheet might be over- or under-cut. This results in excessive consumption of the die or punching pad or generates excessive waste at the locations where the cutting is incomplete. To determine the effective punching stroke for a large layout (1.2 m × 2.2 m), this study proposes the innovative method of using the object packing as the reference to obtain the actual depth of the punching point for each die through automatic search before automated mass production. The results are then recorded in the packing system. In addition, the control delay time of the hydraulic solenoid valve is obtained from signal analysis. This approach enables the adjustment of the punching depth, to punch and cut the leather material successfully in a large layout. Moreover, the depth of the die mark left in the punching pad is restricted to a value between 0.1 and 0.2 mm. This effectively increases the life of the die and reduces the consumption of the punching pad, greatly improving the accuracy and stability of the punching system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The climatological characteristics and mechanisms of diurnal variation in summer precipitation over the Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent basins (i.e., the Tarim Basin, Ganges Basin, and Sichuan Basin) are investigated using observational/reanalysis data and a high-resolution dataset from convection-permitting regional climate downscaling. The results indicate that the diurnal variations of precipitation are nearly out of phase between the central Tibetan Plateau and the surrounding basins. Precipitation in the main body of the plateau preferentially occurs in the afternoon-evening hours, primarily attributed to daytime solar heating induced enhancement of local convective instability and large-scale moisture convergence. In contrast, precipitation in the surrounding basins favors the midnight-early-morning period. The diurnal oscillation of the mountain-plain solenoid circulation, which is resultant from the elevated daytime solar heating and nighttime longwave radiative cooling along the topographical slope, is identified as a crucial mechanism governing the diurnal precipitation pattern in all the basins. Additional factors contributing to the midnight-early-morning precipitation include the nocturnal strengthening of the low-level southwest monsoon flow for the Ganges and Sichuan Basins, as well as propagating convection originating from the eastern plateau and leading to a diurnal phase lag in the Sichuan Basin. These results further enhance our knowledge and understanding of the complex diurnal precipitation cycle and associated physical processes over the Tibetan Plateau and nearby regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Automotive Engineer (1674-6546) is the property of Auto Engineering Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this paper, we introduce a new algorithm for calculating the radial and axial magnetic forces between two non-coaxial circular loops with parallel axes. These formulas are derived from a modified version of Grover's formula for mutual inductance between the coils in question. Utilizing these formulas, we compute the radial and axial magnetic forces between two non-coaxial thick coils of rectangular cross-sections with parallel axes. In these calculations, we apply the filament method and conduct investigations to determine the optimal number of subdivisions for the coils in terms of computational time and accuracy. The method presented in this paper is also applicable to all conventional non-coaxial coils, such as disks, solenoids, and non-conventional coils like Bitter coils, all with parallel axes. This paper emphasizes the accuracy and computational efficiency of the calculations. Furthermore, the new method is validated according to several previously established methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), which transmits control data through electronic tags in a non-contact manner, provides a new approach for efficient and low-cost remote control of oil downhole tools. However, the interference of harsh downhole environments and the high-speed movement of tags seriously affect the performance of the current downhole reader. To effectively address this issue, in this study, a novel downhole RFID reader is presented. By introducing the half-duplex communication protocol to replace the current full-duplex communication protocol in the hardware circuits of the reader, its tag recognition ability can be improved. Then, the corresponding hardware circuits and software programs are designed. Furthermore, a sparse solenoid antenna is adopted to replace the traditional tightly wound solenoid antenna, which can provide a longer reading area range to cope with the high-moving tag, and its total length and spacing parameters between adjacent coils are designed in detail. The test results show that the proposed RFID reader based on a half-duplex communication protocol can communicate with tags normally, and its sparse solenoid antenna provides significantly more tag reading times than traditional tightly wound solenoid antennas under the same antenna inductance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional wet plug charging for autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) limits its application. Inductive power transfer (IPT) is an effective solution to this problem. This paper proposes an arc‐shaped magnetic coupler incorporated with solenoid coils to achieve a stable and efficient output against rotational misalignment for charging AUV. The novel magnetic coupler consists of two solenoid coils and an arc‐shaped coil with a reverse winding, guaranteeing a relatively constant total mutual inductance and decoupling from each other. This magnetic coupler has the characteristics of a compact structure, an ultra‐wide coupling range, and a relatively stable equivalent mutual inductance. The experimental IPT prototype can deliver 1.29 kW with a dc–dc efficiency of 93% under the fully aligned case and 1.2 kW with a dc–dc efficiency of 91% under the misaligned case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) technology is widely used in wireless charging systems because of its safety, convenience, and reliability. However, the loosely coupled transformer, the most significant part of an ICPT system, has misalignment conditions in practical applications, which have a negative effect on the efficiency of the ICPT system. This paper proposes a new loosely coupled transformer structure, where the primary side is composed of two hybrid winding D coils and a solenoid coil, and the secondary side consists of a D coil and a solenoid coil, which is referred to as a "double-D solenoid coil–D solenoid coil" (DDS–DS). The hybrid winding D coils, which are composed of multiple layers of windings, can construct a uniform magnetic field at the operational air gap. The S coil is added to the primary and secondary sides of the transformer to build a mutually perpendicular energy channel with the D coils, which compensates the coupling valley without introducing cross-coupling. Therefore, the DDS–DS structure can construct a wide uniform magnetic field and effectively improve the anti-offset capability of the system. Finally, an experimental prototype is established, and the effective charging width reaches 78% of the transmitting coil's width with a 50 mm operational air gap, which verifies that the structure has good anti-offset capability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For enhancing the static magnetic field and reducing the size of torsional guided wave magnetostrictive patch transducer (MPT) with permanent magnets, a MPT with Halbach arrays is proposed. The structural parameters design of the MPT can be guided by finite element simulation. It is found that increasing the central angle of the radially magnetised magnets can increase the strength of the static magnetic field, and it can be adjusted through designing the radial size and lift-off distance of the magnets. The Halbach magnet arrays composed of circumferentially magnetised magnets with a circumferential size of 6 mm and radially magnetised magnets with a circumferential size of 4 mm are selected to experimentally compare with the alternating magnetised magnet arrays composed of magnets with a circumferential size of 10 mm. The results show that the static magnetic field strength can be increased by 54.7% using Halbach magnet arrays. The proposed MPT composed of the Halbach magnet arrays and a linear solenoid array can excite and receive T(0,1) guided wave. Compared with the alternating magnetised magnet array MPT, the guided wave signal amplitude is increased by about 70% generated and received by the MPT with the Halbach magnet arrays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We extend Nekrashevych's KK-duality for C^*-algebras of regular, recurrent, contracting self-similar group actions to regular, contracting self-similar groupoid actions on a graph, removing the recurrence condition entirely and generalising from a finite alphabet to a finite graph. More precisely, given a regular and contracting self-similar groupoid (G,E) acting faithfully on a finite directed graph E, we associate two C^*-algebras, \mathcal {O}(G,E) and \widehat {\mathcal {O}}(G,E), to it and prove that they are strongly Morita equivalent to the stable and unstable Ruelle C*-algebras of a Smale space arising from a Wieler solenoid of the self-similar limit space. That these algebras are Spanier-Whitehead dual in KK-theory follows from the general result for Ruelle algebras of irreducible Smale spaces proved by Kaminker, Putnam, and the last author. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of China Mining Magazine is the property of China Mining Magazine Co., Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The maximum radial size of the conventional three-bit four-way electromagnetic cartridge valve is greater than the largest containable size of the fluid control valve used for downhole robots. This paper proposes two kinds of solutions to reduce the radial dimension of the three-bit four-way electromagnetic insertion valve: one is to reduce the radial arrangement of the coil and increase the axial arrangement of the coil, and the other is to reduce the diameter of the moving iron core to reduce the winding radius of the coil. Using the theoretical model established in the following text, a simulation experiment was conducted. The results show that the movement of the valve spool is basically completed within 30 ms. Then, a matching experiment on the electromagnetic insertion valve was designed and conducted. The experimental results show that the opening time of the solenoid valve on the left coil is about 52 ms, and the opening time of the solenoid valve on the right coil is about 44 ms. The reaction time of the valve spool is suitable for the practical application of the solenoid valve. The significance of this paper is the reduced radial size of the three-bit four-way electromagnetic insertion valve. These improvements have reduced the size of downhole drilling robots, which facilitates the application of downhole drilling robots in narrower environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an experimental setup of magnetic field taper variations to optimize the efficiency of a Ka-band pulsed gyrotron. Experimental optimization of the gyrotron's efficiency is presented. The efficiency dependence on three input parameters—beam current, magnetic field amplitude, and variations in the magnetic field taper profile—is studied. A gyrotron electron efficiency improvement from 25.4% for a non-tapered magnetic curve to 36.4% for a tapered magnetic curve is measured. The stability of the millimeter wave excitation in the cavity is also affected by the magnetic taper gradient. The magnetic taper is obtained by a practical modification of the solenoid that leads to an 11% electron efficiency improvement. Magnetic tapering can be combined with other types of efficiency enhancement concepts to obtain an overall improved efficiency that can be important for industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Commercial-of-the shelf (COTS) space qualified solenoid valves for small satellite missions are financially unviable. • Thrusters control spacecraft attitude, the response time, and parameters of the solenoid valve is critical in mission design. • A mathematical model was developed to find the optimized geometrical configuration of the solenoid valve. • This paper presents a practical solution for designing custom solenoid valves. • The developed mathematical model validated using COTS space qualified solenoid valves. Small satellites and spacecrafts use propulsion systems to stabilize their attitude, control orientation and deorbit it at the end of the mission life. The flow and thrust of the liquid propulsion system are controlled by the control valve, typically operated by solenoid. According to recent literature, space-qualified solenoid valves are expensive and financially non viable, especially for small satellite missions. In this paper, a detailed methodology is presented to design the solenoid valve dedicated for small satellites. This study includes design criteria focusing on geometrical configuration. The dynamic, and electro-magnetic models are used to characterize the solenoid valve. Dynamic modelling helps to determine the response time of valve, affecting the thruster minimum impulse bit. The physical dimensions of the designed solenoid valve are smaller than those available in commercial off-the shelf (COTS) solenoid valves. However, the efficacy of the proposed design is proven effective with the COTS space grade valve specifications, and it shows that the proposed valve consumes less power than the conventional valves. Finally, it is worth noting that despite their modest and compact physical dimensions, the proposed valve are ideal for small satellite missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil. Hydroponics, a subset of hydro culture, is a growing plant without soil, using mineral nutrient solutions in a water solvent. In soil less culture especially, hydroponics, the problem of regular maintenance of nutrient solution and required technical knowledge. The automation in hydroponics further helps to boom up the hydroponic cultivation. Automated nutrient regulation in hydroponics environment with automatic nutrient feed technology was developed and tested in the present study. The experiment was carried out an automated controlling and regulation of pH, TDS, temperature in polyhouse hydroponic system using Arduino-Uno controller, solenoid valves containing nutrients, water, pH-up, and pH-down and sensors. In this study, the sensors are connected to Arduino-Uno controller in which liquid crystal display (LCD) of Arduino-Uno circuit controls and regulates the system based on the coding which has been programmed previously. Calibration was done for all the parameters in the automated system. TDS and pH values of nutrient solution were recorded by using TDS and pH sensor probes respectively were fed to Arduino which adjusts the values, if required, through actuators. The prototype model was able to monitor and control the pH and TDS of hydroponic water in the required range with high accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is about the periodic points characterization of automorphisms of some solenoids, whose duals are subgroups of algebraic number fields. Here, we use the theory of adeles for describing a solenoid and the periodic points of its automorphisms. This is in line with the earlier characterizations which considered other classes of solenoids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to solve the problems of bottom pod leakage and soil removal by header, a soybean header profiling system was designed in this paper. The cutter height off-ground detection device was installed on both sides of the header, and the cutter distance from the ground was represented by the angle sensor turning when the profiling wheel met the rolling ground. The hydraulic electromagnetic reversing valve was installed so that the profiling system could automatically control the lifting of the header, the unilateral power of the solenoid valve was 0.15 s, and the height of the cutter from the ground was changed by 10 mm. The height of the cutter off the ground was set to 80 mm, and the adjustment range of the soybean header profiling system was 45–125 mm. The test results showed that the maximum absolute error of the cutter off the ground height detection device was 5.98 mm, the minimum absolute error was 1.00 mm, and the relative error was 0.038. The cutter height adjustment device was powered for 0.15 s, and the average adjustment distance was 11.158 mm. The soybean header profiling system did not shovel soil during field harvest, and the stubble height of 85% of soybean plants was less than 10 mm from the set height after harvest. The results showed that the soybean header profiling system could effectively adjust the cutter height from the ground so that the cutter height from the ground was kept at 80 mm. This study could provide a reference for the intelligent design of soybean harvesters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An effective approach to high-sensitivity magnetic field detection under low-frequency excitation by soft magnetic ribbons and a rectangular solenoid is proposed and certificated. The solenoid wound by nonmagnetic copper wire is located at the geometric center region of the soft magnetic ribbons that act as the magnetic core. The proposed magnetic sensor utilizes the nonlinear magnetization of soft magnetic ribbons and the magneto-inductive effect and proximity effect of the solenoid, exhibiting significant impedance variation at a relatively low frequency. The impedance ratio and impedance sensitivity of the prototype reaches the maximum value of 5630% and 570% Oe−1 at 500 kHz, which is far superior to the conventional giant magneto-impedance (GMI) magnetic sensor and planar coil laminated GMI magnetic sensor. The investigation indicates the fabricated magnetic sensor with optimal dimension parameters can provide a sensitivity of 3329 mV Oe−1 at 500 kHz. More importantly, the proposed prototype is particularly suitable for micromachining, providing the possibility for manufacturing high-sensitivity micro-magnetic sensors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electromagnetic forming (EMF) has shown considerable promise in lightweight alloy tube manufacturing industry. However, the generated force field falls short of meeting the stringent forming accuracy requirements for variable-diameter tubes. To solve this, this paper proposes an EMF process using a novel coil structure, named as segmented coil, to improve the forming quality of tubes. The design and implementation of coil, as well as the deformation behavior of tubes, are discussed. Results show that a multi-layer solenoid coil can generate excessive force on the upper portion of the tube, thus causing an undesired gap between the coil and tube that is unfavorable for forming performance. In contrast, when employing a segmented coil, the force applied to this section is mitigated, allowing the tube to fit into the die from bottom to top and achieving a maximum die-fitting gap of no more than 0.1 mm. Besides, it is found that the forming accuracy increases with increasing discharge energy, and an optimal coil structure exists when the discharge energy is fixed. This work showcases the considerable flexibility of the segmented coil in controlling the Lorentz force distribution and tube deformation behavior. These findings hold significant implications for expanding the applications of EMF technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The possibility of using modern energy-intensive storage devices based on supercapacitors in relation to the tasks of powering magnetic systems of high-power microwave generators based on a relativistic backward wave tube (BWT) is described. Magnetic systems of such generators consist of a two-section solenoid. During the operation of the generator, a current of up to 700 A flows through the windings of a solenoid for few seconds. The magnetic system is powered from a capacitive storage device based on supercapacitor modules through step-down current regulators. Current stabilization is carried out by increasing the duration of the open state of the switches as the storage device is discharged. The control system contains a microprocessor that controls the power switches of current regulators as well as the management of the drive charging processes and interaction with peripheral devices. The work presents all the necessary formulas for calculating the parameters of the current regulator and estimating the storage capacity and its energy characteristics. Also, two variations for the implementation of similar power supplies are presented: the maximum output power of the first one is 280 kW with an output current duration of up to 1.5 s, and the maximum output power of the second one is 90 kW with an output current duration of up to 2.5 s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A model-based study is conducted to optimize the dynamic performance of a solenoid actuator in a compressed natural gas (CNG) injector. A mechanical model, an electromagnetic model, and an optimum model using particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm are built to depict operation and optimize the dynamic response times of the injector solenoid actuator. Effects of the number of coil turns (N), spring stiffness (k), and gap between plunger and cylinder wall (g), on the dynamic characteristics of the injector solenoid actuator are investigated. Simulation results show that, when k increases from 560 to 2560 N/m, and g increases from 0.1 to 0.5 mm, the opening response time increases 35.41% and 48.03%, respectively; however, the closing response time of the injector solenoid actuator reduces 27.27% and 45.25%, respectively. When N is increased from 342 to 552, the opening response time reduces 35.48%; nevertheless, the closing response time increases considerably with a 195.45% increment. Using PSO algorithm, it is found that the optimum version of the injector solenoid actuator has improvements for both opening and closing response times, in which the opening response time reduces 11.41% when compared with the original version. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High performance of clutch control is essential for dual-clutch transmission (DCT) system to ensure good shifting smoothness of vehicle driving. The control performance of clutch in DCT driven by proportional solenoid valve depends on the output pressure control of the solenoid valve, while the output pressure of the solenoid valve is directly controlled by the energized current. Therefore, the relationship between working current and output pressure of the solenoid valve has significant impact on the clutch control and affects driving performance of the vehicle accordingly. However, the pressure-to-current (P/I) relationship of proportional solenoid valve has nonlinear hysteresis characteristic caused by magnetic materials, oil viscous friction, operation temperature, etc., which has negative effects on the accuracy and stability of solenoid valve pressure control. To cope with this problem, a machine learning model called long short-term memory (LSTM) for P/I of solenoid valve based on data mining is adopted in this paper, which is then used as feedforward compensation for closed-loop control of solenoid valve. The test result demonstrates that the machine learning model can effectively predict the output pressure at rising and falling phase of the same working current. Besides, this smart control method which has better applicability in engineering can effectively improve the control performance of proportional solenoid valve and further improve clutch control and vehicle driving performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ENN Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd. (ENN) is committed to generating fusion energy in an environmentally friendly and cost-effective manner, which requires abundant aneutronic fuel. Proton-boron (p-11B or p-B) fusion is considered an ideal choice for this purpose. Recent studies have suggested that p-B fusion, although challenging, is feasible based on new cross section data, provided that a hot ion mode and high wall reflection can be achieved to reduce electron radiation loss. The high beta and good confinement of the spherical torus (ST) make it an ideal candidate for p-B fusion. By utilizing the new spherical torus energy confinement scaling law, a reactor with a major radius R 0 = 4 m, central magnetic field B 0 = 6 T, central temperature T i 0 = 150 keV, plasma current I p = 30 MA, and hot ion mode T i / T e = 4 can yield p-B fusion with Q > 10. A roadmap for p-B fusion has been developed, with the next-generation device named EHL-2. EHL stands for ENN He-Long, which literally means "peaceful Chinese Loong." The main target parameters include R 0 ≃ 1.05 m, A ≃ 1.85 , B 0 ≃ 3 T, T i 0 ≃ 30 keV, I p ≃ 3 MA, and T i / T e ≥ 2. The existing ST device EXL-50 was simultaneously upgraded to provide experimental support for the new roadmap, involving the installation and upgrading of the central solenoid, vacuum chamber, and magnetic systems. The construction of the upgraded ST fusion device, EXL-50U, was completed at the end of 2023, and it achieved its first plasma in January 2024. The construction of EHL-2 is estimated to be completed by 2026. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In view of the problem that the output thrust of the solenoid actuator is affected by various factors and is difficult to calculate in actual working conditions, this paper proposes a semi-analytical model constructed by magnetic field subdomain method with internal and external boundary conditions in a cylindrical coordinate system for calculation, and the general solution equations of magnetic vector potential for each subdomain are derived and solved by MATLAB. Taking a push–pull electromagnet as an example, the finite element simulation and experimental comparative analysis are carried out. The correctness and applicable conditions of the subdomain method are illustrated by comparing the gradient plot of magnetic vector potential, inductance curve and electromagnetic force. It is shown that the results calculated by the subdomain method are very close to the finite element method when the magnetic saturation problem is neglected. However, when the nonlinearity of core permeability is considered, the magnetic saturation gradually deepens with the increase in current, and the error of the subdomain method calculation results gradually increases. Through simulation and experimental verification at slight magnetic saturation, the output thrust after considering the core gravity, spring force and electromagnetic force, it is shown that this method has the advantage of computational flexibility compared with the finite element method, and it is easier to write special algorithms according to various working conditions to calculate the important parameters in engineering applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of solenoid magnets in welding processes has attracted attention due to their potential to influence the properties of welded joints. This research investigates the effect of the size of the magnetic induction solenoid on the tensile strength and impact toughness of welds between mild steel and medium carbon steel. Welding experiments were carried out using various sizes of solenoid magnets (0; 1.71mT; 2.11mT; 2.31mT; 2.60mT), and the welding results were tested for tensile strength and impact toughness. The findings show that the size of the magnetic induction solenoid has a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the weld. The larger induction size in this study increased the tensile strength of the welded joint, namely 431.576 N/mm2 without induction and 533.33 N/mm2 with induction. Meanwhile, the impact toughness of welded joints also increases, namely 95.92N.m without treatment and 217.35N.m with induction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The basic physics of magnetic fields is presented for a target audience of NMR workers. This group often does not have formal training in electromagnetism, but could benefit from an understanding of a selected subset of topics. The focus here is on a relatively non-mathematical view, intended to deliver an intuitive understanding of the topic. The covered topics start with the fields arising from simple idealized currents, including long straight wires, short flat coils, infinite current sheets, long solenoids, and magnetic dipole moments. The generation of field gradients and shim fields is discussed. All of these can be unified by considering the divergence and curl of the magnetic field. Magnetic materials are treated, both linear magnetizable materials (including the sample itself) and permanently magnetized materials; the approaches of equivalent currents and Ampere's theorem for magnetic circuits are presented.

Introduction: During the COVID-19 pandemic, ventilator shortages necessitated the development of new, low-cost ventilator designs. The fundamental requirements of a ventilator include precise gas delivery, rapid adjustments, durability, and user-friendliness, often achieved through solenoid valves. However, few solenoid-valve assisted low-cost ventilator (LCV) designs have been published, and gas exchange evaluation during LCV testing is lacking. This study describes the development and performance evaluation of a solenoid-valve assisted low-cost ventilator (SV-LCV) in vitro and in vivo, focusing on gas exchange and respiratory mechanics. Methods: The SV-LCV, a fully open ventilator device, was developed with comprehensive hardware and design documentation, utilizing solenoid valves for gas delivery regulation. Lung simulator testing calibrated tidal volumes at specified inspiratory and expiratory times, followed by in vivo testing in a porcine model to compare SV-LCV performance with a conventional ventilator. Results: The SV-LCV closely matched the control ventilator's respiratory profile and gas exchange across all test cycles. Lung simulator testing revealed direct effects of compliance and resistance changes on peak pressures and tidal volumes, with no significant changes in respiratory rate. In vivo testing demonstrated comparable gas exchange parameters between SV-LCV and conventional ventilator across all cycles. Specifically, in cycle 1, the SV-LCV showed arterial blood gas (ABG) results of pH 7.54, PCO2 34.5 mmHg, and PO2 91.7 mmHg, compared to the control ventilator's ABG of pH 7.53, PCO2 37.1 mmHg, and PO2 134 mmHg. Cycle 2 exhibited ABG results of pH 7.53, PCO2 33.6 mmHg, and PO2 84.3 mmHg for SV-LCV, and pH 7.5, PCO2 34.2 mmHg, and PO2 93.5 mmHg for the control ventilator. Similarly, cycle 3 showed ABG results of pH 7.53, PCO2 32.1 mmHg, and PO2 127 mmHg for SV-LCV, and pH 7.5, PCO2 35.5 mmHg, and PO2 91.3 mmHg for the control ventilator. Conclusion: The SV-LCV provides similar gas exchange and respiratory mechanic profiles compared to a conventional ventilator. With a streamlined design and performance akin to commercially available ventilators, the SV-LCV presents a viable, readily available, and reliable short-term solution for overcoming ventilator supply shortages during crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a new condition indicator (CI) for cost-effective industrial direct current (DC)-powered solenoid valves (SVs). First, a literature review of the failure modes for SVs is reported. The failure regarding the impeded movement of the valve plunger is considered. The proposed CI for this failure mode is computed from only some significant points of the SVs excitation current and their time instants. The proposed CI is evaluated by a large endurance campaign on a set of SVs. Then, a Remaining Useful Life (RUL) estimation algorithm is proposed and evaluated on the experimental data. Experimental results show the goodness of the proposed CI for RUL estimation of cost-effective industrial DC SVs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the procedure for creating a electronic simulation model of a solenoid power electronic driver with a nonlinear inductive load. Furthermore, it discusses the electromagnetic interaction between the driver and the load example electromagnetic valve. The consideration of nonlinear effects in the power electronic components MOSFET and diode is particularly important to distinguish their effects from the nonlinear behaviour of the inductive load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

McKibben pneumatic actuators (MPAs) are soft actuators that exert tension by applying compressed air to expand a rubber tube. Although electro-pneumatic regulators can control air pressure, most are large and expensive. This study utilizes a dynamic quantizer to control the MPA with a small solenoid valve that can only open and close the valve instead of an electro-pneumatic regulator. A dynamic quantizer is one of the quantizers that converts continuous signals to discrete signals. Our previous study confirmed that tension control of MPA under isometric conditions could be realized using a dynamic quantizer. However, it is often necessary to control the length of the MPA as well as the tension of the MPA. This study implements a dynamic quantizer to control the length of the MPA with a small solenoid valve. Numerical simulations and experimental tests verify the effectiveness of the proposed method. The results of the numerical simulations and experimental tests confirmed that the length of the MPA can be controlled using the dynamic quantizer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fundamental understanding of the theory and measurement procedures for characterizing a solenoid is crucial for making a project cost-effective and achieving the desired performance for its use in a LINAC. This paper attempts to comprehend the beam dynamics of charged particles by considering the conservation of canonical angular momentum, which can take on positive, negative, and zero values. The analytical expression to generate a parallel beam using a solenoid is derived. The effect of the final beam size on the values of a solenoid's spherical aberration coefficient and the position of the minimum beam size with respect to the focal length is studied using electron trajectories. A practical procedure to tune the above two parameters of a solenoid is demonstrated by simply modifying the demountable disks connected at each end. A mathematical model is proposed to accurately determine the axis of a solenoid and the magnetic centre using the measured magnetic field data, which is validated experimentally. Several solenoids, used in the 9.5 MeV 10 kW electron LINAC suitable for sterilizing medical products and food irradiation, have been characterised using this procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spot sprayers that can distinguish between different types of plants, such as weeds and crops, have recently been introduced into the field. These sprayers are all equipped with a system capable of recognising and spraying individual plants. These components are not included in existing test procedures for testing sprayers in use. In order to investigate the applicability of existing test procedures, the Ecorobotix spot sprayer was tested according to EN ISO 16122. With a few exceptions due to additional functionalities, this standard is well suited for carrying out such a test on spot sprayers in use. The entire electronic detection system, consisting of camera, computer and solenoid valve system, has to be tested with new test procedures. The positive experience with the use of protocols for band sprayers leads to the conclusion that they can also be applied to the testing of spot sprayers, but must be extended to test the new elements of these sprayers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The magnetic field method for preparing aligned steel fiber-reinforced concrete (ASFRC) by solenoid coil has a limitation, which is that the specimen must be placed inside the solenoid coil, limiting its practical engineering application. To overcome this shortcoming, this study proposes a method for preparing ASFRCs using an external magnetic field created by assembled magnets. A theoretical model is proposed to predict the distribution of the external magnetic field and the orientation coefficient of ASFRCs prepared by assembled magnets. The predicted results are compared with the experimental results to verify the proposed model. Finally, flexural tests are used to compare the mechanical characteristics of ASFRCs prepared using assembled magnets and solenoid coil. The results indicate that the assembled magnets can be used to prepare the ASFRC with an orientation coefficient of 0.9 or higher, and the flexural strength is similar to that of the ASFRC prepared by the solenoid coil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atomic bandpass filters are used in a variety of applications due to their narrow bandwidths and high transmission at specific frequencies. Predominantly, these filters are in the Faraday (Voigt) geometry, using an applied axial (transverse) magnetic field with respect to the laser propagation direction. Recently, there has been interest in filters realized with arbitrary-angle magnetic fields, which have been made by rotating permanent magnets with respect to the k-vector of the interrogating laser beam. However, the magnetic field angle achievable with this method is limited as field uniformity across the cell decreases as the rotation angle increases. In this work, we propose and demonstrate a new method of generating an arbitrary-angle magnetic field, using a solenoid to produce a small, and easily alterable, axial field, in conjunction with fixed permanent magnets to produce a large transverse field. We directly measure the fields produced by both methods, finding them to be very similar over the length of the vapor cell. We then compare the transmission profiles of filters produced using both methods, again finding excellent agreement. Finally, we demonstrate the sensitivity of the filter profile to changing magnetic field angle (solenoid current), which becomes easier to exploit with the much improved angle control and precision offered by our new design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the efficiency of the double-acting hydraulic cylinders with shock absorber at stroke end. In the present work, the simulation of two hydraulic circuits and an electro-hydraulic circuit with double-acting cylinders with shock absorber is studied. Thus, the first hydraulic circuit is made of the following components: tank, throttle check valve, 4/2-way hand lever valve with spring, filter, fixed displacement pump, and double-acting cylinder with shock absorber at stroke end (Dacs 1-1). The second hydraulic scheme has the following devices: pump unit, throttle valve, 4/3-way hand lever valve, and two double-acting cylinders with shock absorber at stroke end (Dacs 2-1 and Dacs 2-2). The third circuit studied is an electro-hydraulic scheme. The last scheme is made of the following components: tank, 4/3-way solenoid valve, nozzle, relay, valve solenoid, lamp, capacitive proximity switch, and double-acting cylinder with shock absorber (Dacs 3-1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of programmable controllers, PLCs, has allowed the digital approach to hydraulic and pneumatic applications made with proportional devices. Thus, the presence of built-in PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) blocks in most PLCs allows the direct control of the valve coils, using a simple electrical circuit to adapt the digital output of the PLC to the solenoid of the proportional device. This paper presents the calculus of the parameters for PWM drive according to the parameters of the proportional solenoid valve. An original method of increasing the native resolution of the PWM block is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the decay of correlations for certain dynamical systems with non-uniformly hyperbolic attractors, which natural invariant measure is the Sinai-Ruelle-Bowen (SRB) measure. The system $ g $ that we consider is produced by applying the slow-down procedure to a uniformly hyperbolic diffeomorphism $ f $ with an attractor. Under certain assumptions on the map $ f $ and the slow-down neighborhood, we show that the map $ g $ admits polynomial upper and lower bounds on correlations with respect to its SRB measure and the class of Hölder continuous observables. Our results apply to the Smale-Williams solenoid, as well as its sufficiently small perturbations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students may calculate the mutual inductance between an infinite solenoid and a surrounding circular loop using an incorrect method that yields the correct answer, causing frustration and confusion. A physical explanation for the agreement of the two methods is provided that is based on the translational symmetry of the solenoid. As a consequence, the conclusion generalizes to infinite uniform solenoids of arbitrary cross section. When students obtain the right answer using an unjustified method, instructors are faced with a grading quandary. Finding himself in that situation, this author asked, "Why?" The resulting paper, which will be enjoyed by instructors of electromagnetism, shares the explanation, involving the mutual inductance of a solenoid and a loop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]