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The post-acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection was investigated in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). During the acute phase of infection, SARS-CoV-2 was shed via nose and throat, and viral RNA was occasionally detected in feces. This phase coincided with a transient change in systemic immune activation. Even after the alleged resolution of the infection, as suggested by the absence of viral RNA in nasal and tracheal swabs, computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET)-CT were able to reveal pulmonary lesions and activated tracheobronchial lymph nodes in all animals. Post-mortem histological examination of the lung tissue revealed mostly marginal or resolving minimal lesions that were indicative of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Evidence for SARS-CoV-2-induced histopathology was also found in extrapulmonary tissue samples, like conjunctiva, cervical and mesenteric lymph nodes.However, 5-6 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 exposure, upon necropsy, viral RNA was still detectable in a wide range of tissue samples in 50% of the macaques and included amongst others the heart, the respiratory tract and surrounding lymph nodes, salivary gland, and conjunctiva. Subgenomic messenger RNA was detected in the lungs and tracheobronchial lymph nodes, indicative of ongoing virus replication during the post-acute phase. These results could be relevant for understanding the long-term consequences of COVID-19 in humans.Author summaryMore than a year after the start of the pandemic, the long-term consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection start to surface. The variety of clinical manifestations associated with post-acute COVID-19 suggests the involvement of multiple biological mechanisms. In this study, we show that rhesus and cynomolgus macaques shed virus from their respiratory tract, generate virus-specific humoral immune responses, and show signs of SARS-CoV-2-induced lung pathology. PET-CT revealed that both species showed ongoing mild to moderate pulmonary disease, even after the virus was no longer detectable in nasal and tracheal swabs. Five to six weeks after infection, necropsy confirmed minimal to mild histopathological manifestations in various tissues, like the lungs, heart, lymph nodes, and conjunctiva. We detected Viral RNA in the heart, respiratory tract, and tracheobronchial lymph nodes, and subgenomic messenger RNA in the lungs and surrounding lymph nodes, indicative of ongoing virus replication. We show widespread tissue dissemination of SARS-CoV-2 in infected macaques and the presence of replicating virus in lungs and surrounding lymph nodes after alleged convalescence of infection. This finding is intriguing in the light of long-COVID disease symptoms seen in humans as it has been hypothesized that persistent infection may contribute to this phenomenon.

Vaccination through the natural route of infection represents an attractive immunization strategy in vaccinology. In the case of tuberculosis, vaccine delivery by the respiratory route has regained interest in recent years, showing efficacy in different animal models. In this context, respiratory vaccination triggers lung immunological mechanisms which are omitted when vaccines are administered by parenteral route. However, contribution of mucosal antibodies to vaccine- induced protection has been poorly studied. In the present study, we evaluated in mice and non-human primates (NHP) a novel whole cell inactivated vaccine (MTBVAC HK), by mucosal administration. MTBVAC HK given by intranasal route to BCG-primed mice substantially improved the protective efficacy conferred by subcutaneous BCG only. Interestingly, this improved protection was absent in mice lacking polymeric Ig receptor (pIgR), suggesting a crucial role of mucosal secretory immunoglobulins in protective immunity. Our study in NHP confirmed the ability of MTBVAC HK to trigger mucosal immunoglobulins. Importantly, in vitro assays demonstrated the functionality of these immunoglobulins to induce M. tuberculosis opsonization in the presence of human macrophages. Altogether, our results suggest that mucosal immunoglobulins can be induced by vaccination to improve protection against tuberculosis and therefore, they represent a promising target for next generation tuberculosis vaccines.

Tuberculosis (TB) still is the principal cause of death from infectious disease and improved vaccination strategies are required to reduce the disease burden and break TB transmission. Here, we investigated different routes of administration of vectored subunit vaccines based on chimpanzee-derived adenovirus serotype-3 (ChAd3) for homologous prime-boosting and modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) for heterologous boosting with both vaccine vectors expressing the same antigens from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Ag85B, ESAT6, Rv2626, Rv1733, RpfD). Prime-boost strategies were evaluated for immunogenicity and protective efficacy in highly susceptible rhesus macaques. A fully parenteral administration regimen was compared to exclusive respiratory mucosal administration, while parenteral ChAd3-5Ag prime-boosting and mucosal MVA-5Ag boosting were applied as a push-and-pull strategy from the periphery to the lung. Immune analyses corroborated compartmentalized responses induced by parenteral versus mucosal vaccination. Despite eliciting TB-specific immune responses, none of the investigational regimes conferred a protective effect by standard readouts of TB compared to non-vaccinated controls, while lack of protection by BCG underpinned the stringency of this non-human primate test modality. Yet, TB manifestation after full parenteral vaccination was significantly less compared to exclusive mucosal vaccination.

While tuberculosis continues to afflict mankind, the immunological mechanisms underlying TB disease development are still incompletely understood. Advanced preclinical models for TB research include both rhesus and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis, respectively), with rhesus typically being more susceptible to acute progressive TB disease than cynomolgus macaques. To determine which immune mechanisms are responsible for this dissimilar disease development, we profiled a broad range of innate and adaptive responses, both local and peripheral, following experimental pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection of both species. While T-cell and antibody responses appeared indistinguishable, we identified anti-inflammatory skewing of peripheral monocytes in rhesus and a more prominent local pro-inflammatory cytokine release profile in cynomolgus macaques associated with divergent TB disease outcome. Importantly, these differences were detectable both before and early after infection. This work shows that inflammatory and innate immune status prior to and at early stages after infection, critically affects outcome of TB infection.

Summary BCG vaccination can strengthen protection against pathogens through the induction of epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming of innate immune cells, a process called trained immunity. We and others recently demonstrated that mucosal or intravenous BCG better protects rhesus macaques from Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and TB disease than standard intradermal vaccination, correlating with local adaptive immune signatures. In line with prior mouse data, here, we show in rhesus macaques that intravenous BCG enhances innate cytokine production associated with changes in H3K27 acetylation typical of trained immunity. Alternative delivery of BCG does not alter the cytokine production of unfractionated bronchial lavage cells. However, mucosal but not intradermal vaccination, either with BCG or the M. tuberculosis-derived candidate MTBVAC, enhances innate cytokine production by blood- and bone marrow-derived monocytes associated with metabolic rewiring, typical of trained immunity. These results provide support to strategies for improving TB vaccination and, more broadly, modulating innate immunity via mucosal surfaces., Graphical Abstract, Highlights Nonhuman primates recapitulate trained immunity upon live attenuated TB vaccination Intravenous BCG induces changes in H3K27 acetylation and enhances cytokine production Mucosal BCG improves induction of trained immunity of monocytes over intradermal BCG The M. tuberculosis-derived candidate vaccine MTBVAC appears equally potent as BCG, Vierboom et al. demonstrate the induction of trained immunity in blood and bone marrow monocytes after vaccination with live attenuated TB vaccines in nonhuman primates. Mucosal respiratory delivery of BCG or MTBVAC induces trained immunity more efficiently compared to standard intradermal vaccination.

In general non-human primates are highly susceptible to infections with Mycobacterium tuberculosis which therefore presents an explosive health threat to colonies. To screen for M. tuberculosis infections in non-human primates, the skin test is routinely used. However, the reliability of this test in primates is debatable. The aim of this study was to compare relatively easy in vitro diagnostic tests for TB with the skin test for detection of a tuberculosis (TB) infection. Two in vitro assays, a whole blood interferon-gamma (WB IFN-gamma) assay and in vitro stimulation of isolated lymphocytes (PBMC IFN-gamma) were evaluated during both experimental TB infections in macaques as well as during an outbreak of TB in a macaque quarantine facility. The WB IFN-gamma assay was also evaluated on healthy old and new world monkeys. Our results show that both in vitro assays detected TB infection in macaques. All experimentally infected animals showed TB-specific responses in both assays. In contrast, several TB animals were not diagnosed TB positive using the skin test. In addition, during the outbreak in the quarantine facility one animal was not detected using the routinely used skin test, but it showed strong positive responses in the WB assay. In conclusion, the in vitro assays are a valuable tool for screening non-human primates for TB infection, especially because the assays cause relatively less stress for the animals compared to the skin test and give reproducible and reliable results.

Recombinant pathogenic microorganisms expressing host cytokines such as gamma interferon (IFN-γ) have been shown to modulate immune responses, leading to enhanced protection (15-17, 19, 35, 43, 47). Vaccinia virus and simian immunodeficiency viruses expressing a range of host cytokines were attenuated in vivo, leading to enhanced immune responses (15-17), and Leishmania major expressing host IFN-γ was significantly attenuated in nude mice (47). These data indicate that in vivo expression of host cytokines by pathogens can manipulate the host-pathogen interaction and generate protective host responses. Thus far, expression of host cytokines by malaria parasites has not been examined. The development of transfection technology for malaria parasites (18, 49, 51, 54) now enables expression of recombinant host proteins, such as cytokines in Plasmodium. IFN-γ is one of the central effector cytokines in host response to malaria infection, especially during the liver stage (14, 21, 33, 38-40) and hence is attractive for expression in malaria parasites. In vitro and in vivo studies in rodent models of malaria have demonstrated that IFN-γ plays a central role in protection against malaria liver-stage infection, possibly by inducing the infected hepatocyte to produce nitric oxide that kills parasites (31, 33). In clinical vaccination studies with an attenuated sporozoite vaccine (reviewed in reference 32), vaccinated humans were protected from subsequent infection through IFN-γ-dependent responses. In separate studies in mice and monkeys, sterile protection was achieved through IFN-γ-dependent responses after exogenous treatment with interleukin-12 (IL-12) (21, 39). Studies using rodent and human malaria models have demonstrated that IFN-γ also plays a role in protection against malaria blood stages when either endogenously produced (11, 20, 28, 44, 45, 55) or exogenously administered (2, 8, 9, 41). Although cytokines have been shown to mediate protection against malaria infection after exogenous delivery (8, 21, 39, 41), systemically delivered cytokines are short-lived and require repetitive administration (often in large doses that could be toxic to the host) (6, 9, 22), and only a small portion reaches the site of infection (6, 26). Alternatively, cytokine expression by the pathogen itself will ensure that the cytokine is released where its activity is required, as long as the infection persists and in proportion to the level of infection. In this report, Plasmodium knowlesi, a natural malaria parasite of macaque monkeys (5) and an experimental system for human malaria, was transfected in vitro to express Macaca mulatta IFN-γ. In vitro expression and bioactivity of P. knowlesi-expressed rhesus monkey IFN-γ (rhIFN-γ) was characterized, showing for the first time that malaria parasites can produce a bioactive recombinant host cytokine.

Adults and children have differences in their susceptibility to schistosomiasis. The relative influences of age-dependent innate resistance and acquired immunity in the differences between susceptibility to schistosomiasis are difficult to assess in humans. Therefore, we exposed juvenile and adult female rhesus monkeys to primary infection with Schistosoma mansoni. In contrast to the adult animals, the juvenile rhesus monkeys had low levels of interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-5 production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells after schistosome infection, as well as lower levels of parasite-antigen-specific antibody (IgG, IgM, and IgA) responses, and produced limited antigen-specific or total IgE. Juvenile animals had statistically nonsignificant increased worm burdens and tissue or fecal egg counts, compared with that of adults, whereas circulating schistosome antigens were significantly higher in infected juvenile monkeys. These results suggest that juvenile rhesus monkeys have reduced type 2 cytokine responses after primary schistosome infections and perhaps are more susceptible to parasite infection.

Multiple exposures of chimpanzees to the radiation-attenuated schistosome vaccine provoked a strong parasite-specific cellular and humoral immune response. Specific IgM and IgG were directed mainly against glycans on antigens released by cercariae; these were also cross-reactive with soluble antigens from larvae, adult worms, and eggs. Egg deposition was the major antigenic stimulus after challenge of vaccinated and control chimpanzees with normal parasites, eliciting strong antiglycan responses to egg secretions. Glycan epitopes recognized included LacdiNAc, fucosylated LacdiNAc, Lewis(X) (weakly), and those on keyhole limpet hemocyanin. Antibodies to peptide epitopes became prominent only during the chronic phase of infection, as glycan-specific IgM and IgG decreased. Because of their intensity and cross-reactivity, the antiglycan responses resulting from infection could be a smoke screen to subvert the immune system away from more vulnerable larval peptide epitopes. Their occurrence in humans might explain the long time required for antischistosome immunity to build up after infection.

Despite the widespread use of bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccination, Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection remains globally the leading cause of death from a single infectious disease. The complicated and often protracted dynamics of infection and disease make clinical trials to test new tuberculosis vaccines extremely complex. Preclinical selection of only the most promising candidates is therefore essential. Because macaque monkeys develop a disease very similar to humans, they have potential to provide important information in addition to small animal models. To assess the relative merits of rhesus and cynomolgus monkeys as screens for tuberculosis vaccines, we compared the efficacy of bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccination and the course of infection in both species. Unvaccinated rhesus and cynomolgus monkeys both developed progressive disease with high levels of C-reactive protein, M. tuberculosis -specific IgG, and extensive pathology including cavitation and caseous necrosis. Bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccination protected cynomolgus almost completely toward the development of pathology, reflected in a striking 2-log reduction in viable bacteria in the lungs compared with nonvaccinated animals. Rhesus, on the other hand, were not protected efficiently by the bacillus Calmette–Guérin. The vaccinated animals developed substantial pathology and had negligible reductions of colony-forming units in the lungs. Comparative studies in these closely related species are likely to provide insight into mechanisms involved in protection against tuberculosis.

Aotus monkeys offer one of the few models that can be used for the evaluation of the immunogenicity and efficacy of new vaccine candidates against the human malarias, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. However, the tools available for evaluation of the immune responses in these New World primates are still limited. In the present study, a previously selected set of monoclonal antibodies that were raised against human T cell determinants and were reactive with at least one other primate species was investigated for its reactivity with Aotus lymphocytes using FACS analysis, indirect immunofluorescence (IFA) and immunohistochemistry. From a panel of 19 mAb, six were found to react consistently with Aotus lymphocytes using FACS analysis. Further evaluation of the mAb using IFA confirmed these findings. Analysis of the selected mAb on spleen sections of Aotus monkeys identified one anti-CD4 and one anti-CD8 mAb that can be used for immunohistochemical studies. The set of mAb identified in this study can be used for the detection of various T lymphocyte markers in peripheral blood and in tissues of Aotus monkeys. Together with data published by others, mAb are now identified for detection of six different markers of Aotus T lymphocytes. These mAb are very valuable for the characterisation of immune responses after vaccination and infection in the Aotus malaria models.

In human airways, beta-defensins function in the elimination of various pathogens. They have been identified in a wide range of species. Here we report the identification and expression of chimpanzee beta-defensin-1 (cBD1), which is a homolog of human beta-defensin-1, in chimpanzee airways and skin. The cBD1 cDNA sequence differs by only one synonymous nucleotide substitution compared to the human cDNA sequence. In situ hybridization revealed that in lung tissue beside alveolar macrophages also airway epithelial cells, endothelial cells and type II pneumocytes express cBD1 mRNA. In skin, cBD1 mRNA was expressed in keratinocytes and endothelial cells. Together, these results show similarity in structure and expression pattern and perhaps in function.

BACKGROUND: Continuous high global tuberculosis (TB) mortality rates and variable vaccine efficacy of Mycobacterium bovis Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) motivate the search for better vaccine regimes. Relevant models are required to downselect the most promising vaccines entering clinical efficacy testing and to identify correlates of protection. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Here, we evaluated immunogenicity and protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in rhesus monkeys with two novel strategies: BCG boosted by modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing antigen 85A (MVA.85A), and attenuated M. tuberculosis with a disrupted phoP gene (SO2) as a single-dose vaccine. Both strategies were well tolerated, and immunogenic as evidenced by induction of specific IFNgamma responses. Antigen 85A-specific IFNgamma secretion was specifically increased by MVA.85A boosting. Importantly, both MVA.85A and SO2 treatment significantly reduced pathology and chest X-ray scores upon infectious challenge with M. tuberculosis Erdman strain. MVA.85A and SO2 treatment also showed reduced average lung bacterial counts (1.0 and 1.2 log respectively, compared with 0.4 log for BCG) and significant protective effect by reduction in C-reactive protein levels, body weight loss, and decrease of erythrocyte-associated hematologic parameters (MCV, MCH, Hb, Ht) as markers of inflammatory infection, all relative to non-vaccinated controls. Lymphocyte stimulation revealed Ag85A-induced IFNgamma levels post-infection as the strongest immunocorrelate for protection (spearman's rho: -0.60). CONCLUSIONS: Both the BCG/MVA.85A prime-boost regime and the novel live attenuated, phoP deficient TB vaccine candidate SO2 showed significant protective efficacy by various parameters in rhesus macaques. Considering the phylogenetic relationship between macaque and man and the similarity in manifestations of TB disease, these data support further development of these primary and combination TB vaccine candidates.

ICC-1132 is a malaria vaccine candidate based on a modified hepatitis B virus core particle (HBc) bearing putative protective epitopes from the circumsporozoite protein (CS) of Plasmodium falciparum. While the epitope carrier itself is immunogenic, its potency can be increased by formulation with adjuvants. As a prelude to Phase I clinical trials, rhesus macaques were immunised twice with GMP grade ICC--1132 in saline or formulated with the adjuvants Alhydrogel (Alhydrogel) or Montanide((R)) ISA 720 (Montanide). Both adjuvant formulations gave significant humoral responses after the first injection, with titres increasing further after the second dose. The Montanide formulation was the most immunogenic, but undesirable reactogenicity in the form of sterile abscesses was associated with higher dosage levels of ICC--1132. These side effects could be avoided with lower antigen load, or by formulation of the second dose in Alhydrogel. Such measures also reduced peak titres and longevity of antibodies against CS, demonstrating the delicate balance between immunogenicity and reactogenicity of new vaccine formulations.

The radiation-attenuatedSchistosoma mansonivaccine is highly effective in rodents and primates but has never been tested in humans, primarily for safety reasons. To strengthen its status as a paradigm for a human recombinant antigen vaccine, we have undertaken a small-scale vaccination and challenge experiment in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Immunological, clinical, and parasitological parameters were measured in three animals after multiple vaccinations, together with three controls, during the acute and chronic stages of challenge infection up to chemotherapeutic cure. Vaccination induced a strong in vitro proliferative response and early gamma interferon production, but type 2 cytokines were dominant by the time of challenge. The controls showed little response to challenge infection before the acute stage of the disease, initiated by egg deposition. In contrast, the responses of vaccinated animals were muted throughout the challenge period. Vaccination also induced parasite-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG, which reached high levels at the time of challenge, while in control animals levels did not rise markedly before egg deposition. The protective effects of vaccination were manifested as an amelioration of acute disease and overall morbidity, revealed by differences in gamma-glutamyl transferase level, leukocytosis, eosinophilia, and hematocrit. Moreover, vaccinated chimpanzees had a 46% lower level of circulating cathodic antigen and a 38% reduction in fecal egg output, compared to controls, during the chronic phase of infection.

Background Among animal models of schistosomiasis, the rhesus macaque is unique in that an infection establishes but egg excretion rapidly diminishes, potentially due to loss of adult worms from the portal system via shunts or death by immune attack. Principal Findings To investigate this, six rhesus macaques were exposed to Schistosoma mansoni cercariae and the infection monitored until portal perfusion at 18 weeks. Despite a wide variation in worm numbers recovered, fecal egg output and circulating antigen levels indicated that a substantial population had established in all animals. Half the macaques had portal hypertension but only one had portacaval shunts, ruling out translocation to the lungs as the reason for loss of adult burden. Many worms had a shrunken and pallid appearance, with degenerative changes in intestines and reproductive organs. Tegument, gut epithelia and muscles appeared cytologically intact but the parenchyma was virtually devoid of content. An early and intense IgG production correlated with low worm burden at perfusion, and blood-feeding worms cultured in the presence of serum from these animals had stunted growth. Using immunoproteomics, gut digestive enzymes, tegument surface hydrolases and antioxidant enzymes were identified as targets of IgG in the high responder animals. Significance It appears that worms starve to death after cessation of blood feeding, as a result of antibody-mediated processes. We suggest that proteins in the three categories above, formulated to trigger the appropriate mechanisms operating in rhesus macaques, would have both prophylactic and therapeutic potential as a human vaccine., Author Summary Infection with blood-dwelling schistosome worms is a major cause of human disease in many tropical countries. Despite intensive efforts a vaccine has proved elusive, not least because the chronic nature of the infection provides few pointers for vaccine development. The rhesus macaque appears unique among animal models in that adult worms establish but are eventually lost. We investigated whether this was due to pathological or immunological causes by monitoring the fate of a schistosome infection, and were able to rule out escape of worms from the portal system as a result of egg-induced vascular shunts. A substantial worm population established in all animals but there was a wide variation in the numbers recovered at 18 weeks. We observed a strong inverse association between the rapidity and intensity of the IgG response and worm burden. Rather than an acute lethal attack, immune-mediated elimination of worms appeared to be a prolonged process directed against vital components of exposed surfaces, causing worms to starve to death. We suggest that if the mechanisms deployed by the rhesus macaque could be replicated in humans by administration of key recombinant antigens, they would form the basis for a vaccine with both prophylactic and therapeutic properties.

Summary To fight tuberculosis, better vaccination strategies are needed. Live attenuated Mycobacterium tuberculosis-derived vaccine, MTBVAC, is a promising candidate in the pipeline, proven to be safe and immunogenic in humans so far. Independent studies have shown that pulmonary mucosal delivery of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), the only tuberculosis (TB) vaccine available today, confers superior protection over standard intradermal immunization. Here we demonstrate that mucosal MTBVAC is well tolerated, eliciting polyfunctional T helper type 17 cells, interleukin-10, and immunoglobulins in the airway and yielding a broader antigenic profile than BCG in rhesus macaques. Beyond our previous work, we show that local immunoglobulins, induced by MTBVAC and BCG, bind to M. tuberculosis and enhance pathogen uptake. Furthermore, after pulmonary vaccination, but not M. tuberculosis infection, local T cells expressed high levels of mucosal homing and tissue residency markers. Our data show that pulmonary MTBVAC administration has the potential to enhance its efficacy and justifies further exploration of mucosal vaccination strategies in preclinical efficacy studies., Graphical Abstract, Highlights Pulmonary MTBVAC delivery confers immune signature correlating with TB protection This signature spreads through the lung without a recall response in the skin Vaccine-induced T cells have increased mucosal homing and tissue residency markers Vaccine-induced antibodies enhance phagocytosis of M. tuberculosis, Dijkman et al. show that pulmonary immunization with the M. tuberculosis-derived vaccine candidate MTBVAC confers a local mucosal antigen-specific signature—polyfunctional Th1/Th17 cells exhibiting increased homing and tissue residency marker expression, IL-10, and phagocytosis-promoting immunoglobulins—that has been associated previously with protection from TB infection and disease in rhesus macaques.