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Presence of uranium in carbonated petroleum reservoirs has been linked to areas of good permeability, due to the existence of open fractures through which uranium-rich salt waters have circulated. Moreover, uranium is related to organic matter in reducing environments. This paper aims to shed light on nature of uranium in carbonated reservoirs that appear in Cuban gascontrolled formations. For this purpose, wells containing these reservoirs possessing geophysical well logs with electrical images of well wall, natural radioactivity of samples measured in low bottom chamber and total organic carbon content by interpretation of well logs were selected in the North Cuban Petroleum Gas Province. There is evidence that the presence of uranium cannot be considered a direct index of permeability when it appears associated with open fractures as well as closed. It was also showed its association with organic matter in areas where there is no fracturing; hence, in the resulting model, the presence of uranium cannot be considered as index of fracturing and permeability in Cuban carbonates. Integrating data from conventional geophysical well logs, the FMI well wall-imaging tool alongside laboratory work, forms the key to defining the nature of uranium in carbonates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Cuba is verified the circulation of several flaviviruses such as Dengue, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile, Zika, among others. Viruses of the Flaviviridae family are the cause of diseases in birds and mammals, including humans. Bats could be important reservoirs of these viruses; several flaviviruses have been isolated from infected bats, including St. Louis encephalitis virus and Japanese encephalitis. In addition, 26 species of bats inhabit the island, of which 10 can use architectural structures as daytime shelters, so their colonies could be in close contact with humans. However, until date, few studies have carried out related to the search for zoonotic viruses in these mammals or their ectoparasites. The objective of this study was the search for flaviviruses in bats in a peri-urban area of the Havana province. Fifty bats were captured, 40 classified as Artibeus jamaicensis (family Phyllostomidae) and 10 as Molossus milleri (family Molossidae). Samples taken from each individual were studied by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and nested (RT-nested PCR). The presence of flavivirus was determined in one of the captured individuals belonging to the species Molossus milleri. This finding reported for the first time in Cuba, is of great epidemiological importance since this bat is a synanthropic species, and therefore has direct contact with humans. The identification of the reservoir bat species could be an important advance to achieve an effective program in the control and risk reduction of arboviral diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To provide primary evidence of Trypanosoma cruzi landscape genetics in the Mexican Neotropics. Materials and methods. Trypanosoma cruzi and discrete typing units (DTU) prevalence were analyzed in landscape communities of vectors, wildlife, livestock, pets, and sympatric human populations using endpoint PCR and sequencing of all relevant amplicons from mitochondrial (kDNA) and nuclear (ME, 18S, 24Sa) gene markers. Results. Although 98% of the infected sample-set (N=2 963) contained single or mixed infections of DTUI (TcI, 96.2%) and TcVI (22.6%), TcIV and TcII were also identified. Sensitivity of individual markers varied and was dependent on host taxon; kDNA, ME and 18S combined identified 95% of infections. ME genotyped 90% of vector infections, but 60% of mammals (36% wildlife), while neither 18S nor 24Sa typed more than 20% of mammal infections. Conclusion. Available gene fragments to identify or genotype T. cruzi are not universally sensitive for all landscape parasite populations, highlighting important T. cruzi heterogeneity among mammal reservoir taxa and triatomine species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leishmania infantum is the causal agent of cutaneous and visceral canine leishmaniasis, a disease widely described in Europe and Latin America. This study describes a case of a canine Canary mastiff breed, born in Mexico that was referred to consult by an alopecic lesion and generalized lymph adenomegaly. Diagnosis of leishmaniasis was established by impression smears of the lesion that showed amastigotes within macrophages. Due to the poor body condition of the animal, euthanasia and necropsy were conducted and samples taken from skin, lymph nodes, liver, kidney, and spleen to perform histological and molecular analysis. In skin, spleen and kidney granulomatous lesions were observed showing amastigotes of Leishmania. The diagnosis of L. infantum was confirmed by using molecular tools. The report of this case suggests the potential risk of this disease in a non-endemic region from Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Tropical forests provide important ecosystem services, including disease control. However, few studies have focused on how deforestation affects species more suitable to be zoonotic vectors. Objective: To evaluate how deforestation affects the abundance and species richness of rodents and their associated ectoparasites in a tropical ecosystem. Methods: We captured rodents in 6 landscape units, 1 km² each, with 0.7; 5; 40; 46; 78 and 95 % tree cover, in Marques de Comillas, Chiapas, Southern Mexico. In each unit we set 90 Sherman traps that were active 24 hours for 7 days during two sampling seasons (October 2019, and September 2020). We manually extracted ectoparasites from all captured rodents. Results: We captured 70 rodents of five species: Sigmodon toltecus, Heteromys desmarestianus, Ototylomys phyllotis, Peromyscus mexicanus, and Oryzomys couesi. Rodent abundance increased with forest loss (R²= 0.706, P= 0.022). The greatest richness of rodent species occurred in sites with intermediate forest cover (40 and 78 %). The most abundant species were: S. toltecus (N= 45) followed by O. couesi (N= 9), these species dominated in sites with less forest cover. We recorded a total of 23 ectoparasite species, three of them known to be zoonotic vectors: Amblyomma sp., Ornithonyssus bacoti, and Androlaelaps fahrenholzi. Conclusions: The ongoing loss of forests promotes the proliferation of zoonotic disease vectors in this tropical ecosystem, which can potentially increase the frequency of affectation among the local population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Se realizó un análisis sobre la incidencia vectorial del Aedes aegypti en sus estadíos inmaduros, asociados a sus sitios de cría, se censaron 750 domicilios en tres localidades en la ciudad de Guayaquil: Cooperativas Lomas de la Florida-norte, Pablo Neruda-sur y Parroquia Letamendi centro) entre los meses de enero y marzo del 2013. Se observó que los mayores índices de infestación de casas se dieron en la Coop. Pablo Neruda con un 12% considerándose para los niveles de control operativo en emergencia, seguido de la Coop. Lomas de la Florida con un 6.8% y la Parroquia Letamendi con un 6%, éstas localidades son consideradas con signos de alarma ante futuros eventos de proliferación del vector y desplazamiento. En relación a los recipientes en uso y desuso considerados como criaderos de mosquitos presentes en los domicilios inspeccionadas se pudo observar de igual manera que en Pablo Neruda se presenta el mayor índice con el 21.2%, a diferencia del 10.8% de Lomas de la Florida y 10% de Letamendi, considerándose para los programas de control como alarma y emergencia ante un brote del vector del dengue. Así mismo se pudo determinar que los sitios de ovipostura de mayor recurrencia por esta especie en las tres localidades muestreadas es en los tanques reservorios de agua para uso diario con un 8.73%, seguido por los baldes con un 3.56%. De todas las muestras colectadas, el 75% fueron Aedes aegypti y el 25% restante se los determinó como Culex sp.

Este artículo presenta la implementación de pequeños dispositivos de detención de caudales en una red de alcantarillado pluvial, para la disminución de los caudales picos en zonas urbanas, con el fin de lograr el IMPACTO HIDROLÓGICO CERO. Obteniéndose como resultados de reducción del 11% al 40% del caudal pico en las alcantarillas. Además, se muestra el concepto de IMPACTO HIDROLÓGICO CERO, lo cual significa, lograr que un terreno urbanizado se comporte como si su condición natural no hubiese sido modificada, y la definición de los dispositivos de detención de caudales.

La demanda del crudo ha crecido de manera constante incrementando el número de pozos perforados para mantener la producción, pero el crudo viene con un agua fósil, este es un problema que el área de producción se toma muy en serio. La cantidad de agua es proporcional al número de pozos perforados y su aumento es intrínseco a la tasa de producción, lo cual además viene asociado a la madurez de cada pozo, esta situación supone un verdadero reto a la hora de gestionar este residuo que debido a su composición se direcciona en dos frentes, el primero como mecanismo de apoyo en recuperación de crudo y el segundo, y más usual en Ecuador es utilizar un pozo reinyector para devolver estas aguas al reservorio. Este estudio se centra en elegir una formación receptora con buenos parámetros petrofísicos que permita la admisión de estos fluidos y los mantenga aislados para evitar todo tipo de contaminación a las aguas subterráneas y al entorno.

The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most important crops worldwide, so much so that its production for the year 2019 was above 180 million tons. However, the tomato crop is susceptible to a variety of viral diseases, it is estimated that there are 136 species of virus that affect this crop. Begomoviruses are DNA viruses, monopartite or bipartite, that generate a diversity of diseases in tomato and contribute to significant economic losses, their vector is the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), which is the one to which the transfer of begomoviruses between different host plants, which favor mixed infections in crops and greater variety due to the recombination process. The objective of this study was to carry out a systematic study on the range of host plants of tomato begomoviruses and their diagnostic methods. A systematic search for publications alluding to the subject was carried out in the academic Google, Pubmed and ResearchGate databases, from the year 2000 to the year 2020, applying inclusion and exclusion criteria on the publications, for their eligibility. Results a total of 210 begomovirus host plants, distributed in 39 families, were identified. Additionally, the techniques of greater applicability in studies for the diagnosis of begomoviruses in host plants are of a molecular nature (PCR, Sequencing, and Hybridization) compared to techniques based on immunoassays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental modifications generate interface environments in which Leptospira spp. transmission may be affected. In order to identify and analyze eco-environmental variables associated with potential reservoirs of Leptospira spp. in the Reserva Ecológica Costanera Sur (RECS) (Buenos Aires, Argentina) and adjacent urbanized areas, a stratified and proportionate transect line convenience sampling was carried out. A total of 170 mammals of 11 species were captured and analyzed for the presence of Leptospira spp. by serology, culture and PCR. In conserved areas, Didelphis albiventris and Deltamys kempi were mostly recorded, while Oligoryzomys flavescens was also found in degraded areas, and Rattus norvegicus was only found in degraded areas. Leptospira spp. were not detected in wild mammals. One dog without a responsible keeper tested positive by serology. The environmental conditions of the RECS suggest a poor ecosystem for Rattus, demonstrating the importance of the conservation of natural areas in urban environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leptospirosis is caused by the bacteria Lepstospira spp, of high worldwide prevalence, related to the circulation in multiple domestic and peridomestic reservoirs. The present review aimed to provide data on infection by Leptospira spp in possible animal reservoirs. A narrative review of the literature was developed where maximum prevalence values were found in canines up to 63%, in felines 68%, in swine 86%, in equines 75% and in bovines 89%. According to the prevalence of Leptospirosis, they should be taken into account from the routine diagnosis of pathology in animals [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: this study aims to investigate the eco-epidemiological factors associated with Leishmania spp. infection in dogs from the Metropolitan Area of Bucaramanga (MAB)‚ Santander‚ eastern Colombia‚ which is a region at risk of VL. Methods: we conducted molecular and serological surveillance of Leishmania spp. in 207 dogs from MAB to determine the epidemiological factors associated with infection. Subsequently‚ we carried out a molecular and serological analysis of phlebotomine and humans in the area to describe the main features associated with the transmission cycle. Results: out of the 207 dogs tested‚ 37 (17.8 %‚ 95 % CI=12.6 - 23.1 %) were positive for Leishmania spp. by the IFAT test‚ and only 9 (4.3 %‚ 95 % CI=1.55 - 7.15 %) were positive for L. infantum in the molecular analysis. Multivariate analyses indicated that canine shelters had a higher prevalence of infection (p < 0.05). In the entomological survey‚ 69 blood-fed female phlebotomine of the genus Lutzomyia were captured in canine shelters‚ among them‚ 55 % were identified as Lutzomyia camposi‚ 29 % as Lu. ovallesi‚ 7 % as Lu. dubitans‚ 6 % as Lu. torvida‚ and 3 % as Lu. cayennensis. The identified meal sources of the phlebotomine included human‚ pig‚ avian‚ cattle‚ and porcupine (Coendou quichua) blood. However‚ no phlebotomine positive for Leishmania spp. were detected by molecular analyses. Finally‚ 14 humans who had frequent contact with L. infantum-positive dogs were analyzed through rK39 test‚ but none was positive for IgG/IgM antibodies. Conclusion: the molecular and serological analyses indicate a low prevalence of L. infantum in dogs from MAB‚ with canine shelters having the highest prevalence of infection. The entomological survey of canine shelters showed a significant diversity of phlebotomine without potential vectors of L. infantum‚ suggesting that the infection in dogs from these areas could take place in other locations or through other transmission routes. The circulation of L. infantum in multiple dogs from MAB suggests a latent risk of zoonotic transmission of VL in these cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antecedentes: la leishmaniasis visceral (LV) o Kala-Azar es una enfermedad zoonótica donde el canino es el principal reservorio de L. infantum/chagasi. La enfermedad no se distribuye homogéneamente en la naturaleza‚ sino que se circunscribe a zonas geográficas específicas llamadas focos naturales de transmisión la enfermedad en Colombia tiene dos focos de transmisión: uno en los departamentos de Bolívar‚ Sucre y Córdoba y el segundo‚ en el valle medio del río Magdalena (Cundinamarca‚ Tolima y Huila). En el año 2017 se registró en la ciudad de Neiva un brote de LV con un caso mortal infantil. Como parte del seguimiento de la enfermedad‚ la secretaría de salud municipal viene realizando un proceso de vigilancia epidemiológica activa. Objetivos: determinar la presencia de LV en caninos con manifestaciones clínicas compatibles y sus contactos cercanos en tres comunas de la ciudad de Neiva durante el primer semestre del 2022. Métodos: a un total de 603 caninos se les tomó una muestra de suero‚ la cual fue analizada mediante un test de diagnóstico rápido de alta especificidad y sensibilidad‚ basado en inmunocromatografía utilizando el antígeno recombinante rK39 RDT. Las muestras positivas fueron analizadas utilizando frotis directos‚ cultivos a partir de aspirados de ganglios linfáticos‚ PCR de punto final y PCR en tiempo real‚ Resultados: en total 40 caninos fueron positivos y se les realizó la debida eutanasia‚ la presencia de Leishmania fue confirmada en el laboratorio de Ciencias Biomédicas de la Universidad de Pamplona. 15 fueron positivos utilizando PCR de punto final‚ 7 a la PCR en tiempo real‚ 4 fueron detectados por frotis directo y 7 fueron positivos a cultivos a partir de aspirados de ganglios linfáticos Conclusiones: los resultados encontrados confirman la presencia de la enfermedad y su endemicidad en la zona, así como la circulación del parásito‚ representando un gran riesgo para la salud pública. La combinación de métodos diagnósticos permite una mayor efectividad en los procesos de identificación en brotes de enfermedades de interés zoonótico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article titled "Frequency of hemotropic parasites in bats (Chiroptera) in the department of Córdoba, Colombia" reports on the presence of blood parasites in bats in the Córdoba region, Colombia. Captures of 265 bats were made in different areas of Córdoba, and it was found that 7.54% of the samples were positive for hemotropic parasites. The most infected genera were Artibeus jamaicensis, A. literatus, A. phaeotis, Uroderma bilobatum, Glossophaga soricina, Phyllostomus discolor, and Sturnira parvidens. Species of Filaria sp, Anaplasma sp, and Plasmodium sp were detected. This finding is important for understanding the diversity of hemotropic parasites in bats and their potential as vectors of zoonotic diseases. [Extracted from the article]

Introducción y objetivos: Pascalia glauca es una maleza tóxica para el ganado, con amplia distribución en la Argentina. La toxicidad es producida por un atractilósido, pero la especie también contiene compuestos como las saponinas, resinas y aceites con propiedades tóxicas. Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron: 1- realizar un análisis cualitativo de saponinas en los órganos subterráneos (rizomas + raíces) y aéreos durante las cuatro estaciones del año; 2- estudiar la anatomía de los órganos vegetativos y reproductivos en busca de estructuras secretoras; 3- identificar resinas y aceites mediante pruebas histoquímicas. M&M: En cada estación de los años 2016-2017 se recolectaron plantas completas. Este material se usó para estudiar la anatomía mediante técnicas convencionales; determinar saponinas e identificar resinas y aceites mediante pruebas histoquímicas. Resultados: Las saponinas se encontraron en todos los órganos en escasa cantidad y su contenido mostró variabilidad con la estación del año, resultado que se expresa en función de los valores medios de temperatura y lluvias. Los conductos secretores con resinas y aceites se localizaron en los rizomas, tallos, hojas e inflorescencias, excepto en la raíz. Conclusiones: De acuerdo con los resultados, todos estos compuestos actúan como tóxicos durante todo el año pero principalmente en primavera y se incrementa en el período de verano-otoño por la abundancia de aceites esenciales en las inflorescencias, característica que además la indicaría como una especie promisoria para su utilización en el control de plagas agrícolas.

Background and aims: Pascalia glauca is a toxic weed for cattle, with wide distribution in Argentina. The toxicity is produced by an atractiloside, but the species also contains other compounds such as saponins, resins and oils with toxic properties. The aims of this work were: 1- to perform a qualitative analysis of saponins in the underground (rhizomes + roots) and aerial organs during the four seasons of the year; 2- to study the anatomy of the vegetative and reproductive organs in search of secretory structures; 3- to identify resins and oils through histochemical tests. M&M: In each season of the years 2016-2017 full plants were collected. This material was used to study anatomy by conventional techniques; determine saponins and identify resins and oils by histochemical tests. Results: Saponins were found in all organs in small quantities and their content showed variability with the season of the year, a result that is expressed in terms of average values of temperature and rainfall. The secretory ducts with resins and oils were located in the rhizomes, stems, leaves and inflorescences, not in root. Conclusions: According to the results, all these compounds act as toxic during the year, principally in spring and increase in the summer-autumn period, due to the abundance of essential oils in the inflorescences, a characteristic that would indicate it as a promising species for its use in the control of agricultural pests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Knowledge of the geographical distribution of Leishmania species allows guiding the sampling to little studied areas and implementing strategies to define risk zones and priority areas for control. Given that there is no publication that collects this information, the search, review and compilation of the available scientific literature that has identified species in Colombia is presented in this paper. Materials and methods: A bibliographic search was performed in PubMed, Web of Knowledge, Google Scholar, SciELO and LILACS with the terms "(Leishmania OR Leishmaniasis) AND species AND Colombia", without restrictions on publication year, language or infected organism; records of national scientific events and repositories of theses from Colombian universities were also included. Results: Eighty five scientific documents articles published between 1985 and 2017 were found in which the species of Leishmania spp. and their geographical origin were indicated. The species reported, in descending order of frequency were: Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis, L. (V.) braziliensis, L. (V.) guyanensis, L. (Leishmania) infantum, L. (L.) amazonensis, L. (L.) mexicana, L. (V.) colombiensis, L. (V.) lainsoni and L. (V.) equatorensis; the 3 last ones were found with the same frequency. Leishmania species were reported from 29 departaments. Conclusion: Information on the distribution of Leishmania species in Colombia is limited; therefore, it is necessary to gather existing data and propose studies that consolidate the distribution maps of Leishmania species in Colombia. This would allow the identification of areas where species have not been identified and would allow the comparison of existing parasite and vector distributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El orden Rodentia comprende el grupo de mamíferos con la mayor diversidad de especies vivientes que son hospederos y reservorios naturales de hantavirus. Los hantavirus que causan síndrome cardiopulmonar en América utilizan como reservorio a la subfamilia Sig-modontinae. Cada hantavirus posee afinidad con un roedor hospedero específico. En 1976 en Corea se cultivó del pulmón del ratón Apodemus agrarius, el primer virus Hantaan. En 1978 se identificó el virus Seoul de Rattus norvegicus. En 1997 en Finlandia se aisló el hantavirus Puumala del pulmón de Myodes glareolus. En 1993 se aisló hantavirus Dobrava (Eslovenia) de Apodemus flavicolis y en 1982 fue aislado de Microtus pennsylvanicusel primer hantavirus no patógeno en las Américas: Prospect Hill. No obstante, en 1993 una misteriosa enfermedad pulmonar se expandió en Four Corners (USA); los pacientes repentinamente enfermaron y muchos murieron debido a shock y/o edema pulmonar; los síntomas no fueron asociados con hantavirus. Más tarde se aisló un nuevo hantavirus del roedor Peromyscus maniculatis, el cual era desconocido, y se lo denominó como Virus Sin Nombre y se asoció como la causa de este brote epidémico. En Suramérica se han reportado hantavirus en distintos hospederos naturales. En Colombia, entre 2004 y 2015 se han publicado diversos estudios realizados en el Caribe colombiano y en Urabá en los que se evidenció la presencia de hantavirus en humanos y en roedores. Recientemente se tuvo el primer reporte serológico de infección por hantavirus en humanos en la región de la Orinoquia colombiana. Sin embargo, la hantavirosis no es considerada una enfermedad de notificación obligatoria, y es probable que actualmente esté en silencio epidemiológico.

Los embalses Cabra Corral y El Tunal de la cuenca del Juramento (ACJ), constituyen los reservorios de mayor relevancia de la provincia de Salta (Argentina). Se analizó la composición y estructura del fitoplancton en ambas presas en febrero, mayo y octubre en el período 1998-2011, utilizando técnicas normalizadas. El inventario algal comprendió un total de 334 spp., siendo los grupos más diversos: Chlorophyta (116), Bacillariophyta (112) y Cianophyta (64). La abundancia y diversidad de especies estuvieron asociadas con los cambios en las descargas de agua. Los valores más altos de riqueza y diversidad específicas, se alcanzaron durante los períodos de lluvias, siendo inversa la situación en estiaje, cuando incrementó la biomasa total; excepto durante los picos de floraciones de Dinophyta. La aparición de cianobacterias con potencial tóxico fue más significativa en el verano tardío y otoño. A pesar de que el número total de especies registrado es alto comparado con otros reservorios subropicales, sólo unas pocas pueden ser consideradas como comunes o frecuentes (Aulacoseira granulata, Cyclotella meneghiniana, Sphaerocystis schroeteri, Chroomonas minuta). La biomasa estuvo asociada a nivel local con las precipitaciones y el manejo del nivel hidrométrico y a nivel regional con el área superficial de los reservorios.

Chlamydia psittaci (Cp) is an obligate intracellular bacterium that causes avian chlamydiosis, capable of infecting more than 460 bird species. However, since 2008, other chlamydial species have been identified in free-living and captive birds. This study aimed to identify a segment of the 16s rDNA gene of Cp using nested polymerase chain reaction in two Psittacidae birds of the genus Ara ararauna and Ara chloropterus from a zoo in Venezuela. The results revealed that these birds did not have DNA compatible with Cp, but they did have for the Chlamydiaceae family. Thus, the paper evidences the presence of another possible chlamydial species in the sampled Ara in an asymptomatic carrier state. These birds were confiscated and their origin was unknown. These factors favor infection by another species of Chlamydia. Although the resulting polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products were not sequenced, there is a high probability of being a non-psittaci Chlamydia, because a large number of reports on a global scale affirm the transmission capacity of the rest of the species in birds. In this sense, it is necessary to report chlamydial findings in order to study their pathogenic capacity in new reservoirs, zoonotic risk, and the protection of wildlife and animals in captivity, mainly those at risk of extinction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Los síndromes infecciosos asociados a arenavirus en América del sur son cuatro: síndrome febril de origen viral; fiebres hemorrágicas con o sin compromiso neurológico; meningitis asépticas y meningo-encefalitis. Entre los Arenavirus del nuevo mundo, está el complejo Tacaribe donde se encuentran los virus: Junín (Argentina), Guanarito (Venezuela), Machupo (Bolivia) y Sabiá (Brasil), que se caracterizan por causar fiebres hemorrágicas. En Colombia fue aislado el arenavirus Pichindé en 1965, del roedor Oryzomys albigularis, en el valle de Pichindé (Valle del Cauca). Este arenavirus produce una infección persistente en su hospedero y no es patógeno para el hombre. Hay evidencias de la circulación del virus Guanarito en roedores de Córdoba, pero no existen casos diagnosticados en humanos; en Sincelejo (Colombia) se detectó el genoma del virus coriomeningitis linfocítica en cerebros de roedores Mus musculus. El diagnóstico se basa en el conocimiento de la epidemiología local y la sospecha de un paciente con un cuadro febril en zonas endémicas, donde se han excluido infecciones como: malaria, dengue y leptospirosis, sepsis de origen bacteriano y rickectsiosis. El aislamiento viral en periodo febril es el gold standart, pero implica el contacto con el virus que es altamente infectante, lo que representa un problema de salud pública. Se ha usado la serología para el diagnóstico, pero no hay pruebas comerciales y sólo grupos de investigación y grandes laboratorios de salud pública poseen estas pruebas. La mayor parte de los pacientes presentan un cuadro de gravedad moderada, que necesita una adecuada hidratación, antipiréticos y antiinflamatorios. Todos los pacientes con signos de severos deben tener un manejo agresivo. El uso de medicamentos no ha demostrado una disminución de la mortalidad, pero si una reducción significativa de la viremia.

Los hantavirus, virus que son los agentes causantes de síndrome pulmonar por hantavirus en humanos en America; los reservorios primarios están en los roedores de la sub-familia Sigmodontinae. En Suramérica, se han diagnosticado casos del síndrome pulmonar por hantavirus y se han identifico numerosos genotipos virales. En Colombia, se han publicado diferentes estudios serológicos que reportaron la circulación de hantavirus en humanos y roedores. Estos virus actúan en una íntima asociación con una especie de roedor que le sirve de reservorio y presentan una distribución alrededor del roedor silvestre, limitándose a una región geográfica especifica. En Suramérica, el primer hantavirus asociado a SPH fue descrito en 1993 en Brasil y se denominó Juquitiva y desde 1993 hasta el 2012, se habían identificado más de 1400 casos en Brasil. Se debe sospechar de este síndrome en todo paciente con síndrome de distrés respiratorio de etiología no clara, en las zonas endémicas para la enfermedad sobre todo si se acompaña de fiebre, leucocitosis marcada y trombocitopenia e infiltrados intersticiales bilaterales. El síndrome febril hemorrágico aún no se han descrito casos en las Américas. No existen signos clínicos o de laboratorio que sean patognomónicos de la infección por hantavirus. El tratamiento se hace con base en una adecuada hidratación y del uno de antipiréticos y antiinflamatorios y los pacientes con signos de severidad se debe instaurar un manejo más agresivo. El triage es indispensable, pacientes con co-morbilidades tienen un riesgo de mortalidad mayor y por lo tanto deben ser hospitalizados. La investigación futura en Colombia deberá encaminarse a estudios multidisciplinarios que incluyan el aislamiento viral, las diferentes formas clínicas de presentación de los casos, las diferencias epidemiológicas, los factores de riesgo y la taxonomía de virus y roedores.

Hantaviruses are the causative agents of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in humans in the Americas; The primary reservoirs are in the rodents of the subfamily Sigmodontinae. In South America, cases of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome caused by numerous viral genotypes have been diagnosed. In Colombia, different serological studies have reported the circulation of hantavirus in humans and rodents. These viruses act in an intimate association with a rodent species that serves as a reservoir and have a distribution around the wild rodent, being limited to a specific geographic region. In South America, the first HPS-associated hantavirus was described in 1993 in Brazil and was called Juquitiva and from 1993 to 2012, more than 1400 cases had been identified in Brazil. This syndrome should be suspected in all patients with respiratory distress syndrome of unclear etiology, in areas endemic for the disease, especially if accompanied by fever, marked leukocytosis and thrombocytopenia and bilateral interstitial infiltrates. Hemorrhagic febrile syndrome has not yet been described in the Americas. There are no clinical or laboratory signs that are pathognomonic of hantavirus infection. The treatment is based on adequate hydration, use of antipyretics and anti-inflammatories and patients with signs of severity should establish a more aggressive management. Triage is indispensable, patients with co-morbidities have a higher mortality risk and therefore should be hospitalized. Future research in Colombia should be directed to multidisciplinary studies that include viral isolation, different clinical forms of case presentation, epidemiological differences, risk factors and taxonomy of viruses and rodents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The infectious syndromes associated with arenaviruses in South America are four: febrile syndrome of viral origin; Haemorrhagic fevers with or without neurological involvement; Aseptic meningitis and meningo-encephalitis. Among the Arenavirus of the new world is the Tacaribe complex where the viruses are found: Junín (Argentina), Guanarito (Venezuela), Machupo (Bolivia) and Sabiá (Brazil), which are characterized by hemorrhagic fevers. In Colombia the arenavirus Pichindé was isolated in 1965, from the rodent Oryzomys albigularis, in the valley of Pichindé (Valle del Cauca). This arenavirus produces a persistent infection in its host and is not pathogenic for the man. There is evidence of the circulation of the Guanarito virus in rodents from Córdoba, but there are no cases diagnosed in humans; In Colombia, the genome of the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus was detected in the brains of rodents Mus musculus. The diagnosis is based on the knowledge of local epidemiology and the suspicion of a patient with fever in endemic areas, where infections such as malaria, dengue and leptospirosis, sepsis of bacterial origin and rickectomy have been excluded. Virus isolation in the feverish period is the gold standart, but it implies contact with the virus that is highly infectious, which represents a public health problem. Serology has been used for diagnosis, but there is no commercial evidence and only research groups and large public health laboratories have these tests. Most of the patients present a moderate severity, which needs adequate hydration, antipyretics and anti-inflammatories. All patients with severe signs should be aggressively treated. The use of drugs has not demonstrated a decrease in mortality but a significant reduction in viremia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Vibrio cholerae reside habitualmente en aguas marinas y continentales. Según las condiciones ambientales y los recursos le sean “favorables” o “desfavorables”, se generan estados viables cultivables (VC) o viables no cultivables (VNC) respectivamente y, bajo esta última forma sobrevive. Para abordar la problemática del cólera en la Cuenca del Río Salí (Tucumán, Argentina), se realizaron muestreos durante los años 2003-2005 donde se consideraron aspectos fisicos, químicos, biológicos y sanitarios. Para evaluar los probables reservorios del patógeno, se analizó el zooplancton del Río Salí (Canal Norte y Banda Río Salí) y Río Lules. La mayor representatividad taxonómica la registraron los copépodos, especialmente Eucyclops neumani (Pesta, 1927), junto a Acanthocyclops robustus (Sars, 1863), Metacyclops sp., Paracyclops chiltoni y Notodiaptomus incompositus (Brian, 1925), además de algunos rotíferos y cladóceros como (Lecane sp.), y (Brachionus sp., Moina sp. y Leydigia sp.). La frecuencia de ocurrencia fue baja y no superó el 25%. El Canal Norte fue ambiente más propicio por la riqueza específica, abundancia y constancia de la comunidad. Las variables fisicas y químicas asociadas al zooplancton coincidirían con los valores que por nuestros registros y los antecedentes, se conocen para el desarrollo del patógeno. En el período estival hubo coincidencia entre la presencia de la forma VNC de V. cholerae O1 (inmunofluorescencia con anticuerpos anti O1) y el desarrollo del zooplancton. Se observaron formas VNC sobre apéndices o estructuras de copépodos ciclopoideos y cladóceros quidóridos, reflejando probablemente afinidad con sustratos quitinosos.Vibrio cholerae habitually lives in marine and continental waters. According to "favourable" or "unfavourable" resources and environmental conditions, viable (VC) or viable non-culturable (VNC) states will be generated, surviving only the latter form. To address the problem of cholera in the Salí River Basin (Tucumán Argentina), samples were taken during the years 2003 to 2005, taking into consideration physic -chemical, biological and sanitary aspects. To infer about the probable reservoirs of the pathogen, we examined the zooplankton of the Salí River (“Canal Norte” and “Banda Río Salí”) and Lules River. The highest taxonomic representation was recorded for copepods, especially Eucyclops neumani (Pesta, 1927), along with Acanthocyclops robustus (Sars, 1863), Metacyclops sp., Paracyclops chiltoni and Notodiaptomus incompositus (Brian, 1925), plus some rotifers and cladocerans such as Lecane sp. and Brachionus sp., Moina sp. and Leydigia sp. The occurrence frequency was low, not exceeding 25%. Canal Norte stood out as the best environment for the species richness, abundance and constancy of the community. The physicochemical variables associated with the zooplankton would coincide with the values that, for our records and previous reports, are known for the development of the pathogen. In summer periods there was coincidence between the presence of the VNC form of V. cholerae O1 (immunofluorescence with antibodies anti O1) and the development of zooplankton. VNC forms on ciclopoid copepods and chidorids cladocerans appendages or structures were observed, probably showing an affinity with chitin substrates.

Se realizó esta investigación, para conocer el comportamiento epidemiológico de esta enfermedad, los vectores relacionados y las especies de leishmanias causantes. Métodos: fuentes de información fueron los boletines epidemiológicos del Ministerio de Salud del 2001 al 2007 y el Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos. Se calcularon tasas de incidencia por sexo, grupos de edad, provincia y cantón. Las tasas del último trienio se compararon con una investigación que describe la situación epidemiológica de 1973 a 1975, para identificar cambios epidemiológicos de la enfermedad. La revisión bibliográfica permitió describir las formas clínicas y la distribución geográfica de los vectores que la ocasionan. Resultados y conclusión: la incidencia aumentó de 10,5 del 2001 a 40,7 x100.000 habitantes en el 2007. Los menores de 19 años fueron los más afectados. Talamanca presentó la mayor incidencia cantonal. El agente etiológico más frecuente de la leishmaniosis cutánea es la Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis, aunque también existe la L. (V.) braziliensis. Los mosquitos trasmisores fueron Lutzomyia ylephiletor y L. trapidoi. Los reservorios del parásito son los perezosos: Bradypus griseus y Choloepus hoffmanni y un roedor Heteromys desmarestianus. Existe también la leishmaniosis cutánea atípica, producida por Leishmania infantum (= Leishmania chagasi), productora responsable de un caso de leishmaniosis visceral. L.longipalpis, esta asociada a la transmisión de estas dos últimas formas de leishmaniosis. Debe entrenarse al personal de salud, en la detección de esta enfermedad, y educar a la población.

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Avances is the property of Instituto de Informacion Cientifica y Tecnologica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Trypanosoma cruzi is known as the causal agent of American trypanosomiasis, endemic zoonotic disease in Mexico, whose most important reservoirs are rodents. T. cruzi refers tropism to heart, causing various lesions and colonizing with nests of amastigotes; so the histological examination of this tissue helps for diagnosis. A total of 262 individuals were captured in Yucatan, Mexico; all considered in the microscopic analysis, in which different lesions consistent with T. cruzi infection were identified: inflammatory cell infiltration (86.7%), degeneration of cardiac fibers (6.8%) and pericarditis (6.3%). It was also possible to identify several nests with amastigotes (2.2%). This is the first histological study made in synanthropic rodents probably infected by T. cruzi in Yucatan, Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJETIVO: Determinar la prevalencia de anticuerpos contra Trypanosoma cruzi y su relación con los factores bióticos y abióticos en Palmar de Bravo, Puebla, México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal efectuado en agosto de 2000 a septiembre de 2001, con una muestra aleatoria simple de 390 voluntarios residentes en Palmar de Bravo, Puebla, México. Se hizo determinación de anticuerpos contra T cruzi con técnicas serológicas validadas, búsqueda del vector y de reservorios domésticos, así como determinación de asociación entre caso positivo y factores de riesgo bióticos y abióticos. El análisis estadístico consistió en índice Kappa para las pruebas diagnósticas, empleando tabla de contingencia de 2 x 2; ji cuadrada corregida de Yates, exacta de Fisher y la razón de posibilidad para estimar la significancia de la asociación de factores bióticos y abióticos. RESULTADOS: La seroprevalencia fue de 4% en la población humana estudiada y de los reservorios (equinos, porcinos y caninos), sólo 10% de los caninos resultaron reactivos. Los vectores identificados fueron T barberi y T pallidipennis, con índice de dispersión e índice de colonización de 55 y 40%, respectivamente. Los factores de riesgo más importantes fueron la altitud (>2 150 y OBJECTIVE: To establish the relationship between seroprevalence for antibodies against Trypanosoma cruzi and its relationship with biotic and abiotic factors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted between August 2000 and September 2001. The study population consisted of a simple random sample of 390 volunteers residing in Palmar de Bravo, Puebla, Mexico. Sample and data collection procedures included assaying antibodies against T cruzi with validated assays, and searching for domestic reservoirs and triatomine bugs. The relationship between biotic and abiotic factors with seropositivity was assessed. Statistical analysis was conducted using Kappa values for diagnostic tests; statistical significance was assessed with 2 x 2 tables, chi-squared test with Yates' correction, Fisher exact test, and odds ratios. RESULTS: The seroprevalence of T cruzi infection in humans was 4%; in domestic reservoirs (horses, pigs, and dogs) only 10% of canine reservoirs were positive. Vector species recognized were T barberi and T pallidipennis, with a Dispersion Area Index and a Colonization Index of 55% and 40%, respectively. The most important risk factors associated with positive serology were altitude (>2 150 y

Rabies continues to be a challenge for public health authorities and a constraint to the livestock industry in Latin America. Wild and domestic canines and vampire bats are the main transmitter species and reservoirs of the disease. Currently, variations observed in the epidemiological profile of rabies, where the species of hematophagous bat Desmodus rotundus constitutes the main transmitting species. Over the years, knowledge has accumulated about the ecology, biology and behavior of this species and the natural history of rabies, which should lead to continuous development of methods of population control of d. Rotundus as well as prevention and diagnostic tools for rabies. Ecological relationships of this species with other hematophagous and non-hematophagous bats is unknown, and there is much room for improvement in reporting systems and surveillance, as well as creating greater awareness among the farming community. Understanding the impact of human-induced environmental changes on the rabies virus in bats should be cause for further investigation. This will require a combination of field studies with mathematical models and new diagnostic tools. This review aims to present the most relevant issues on the role of hematophagous bats as reservoirs and transmitters of the rabies virus.

Se presenta por primera vez en antioquia un estudio sobre la enfermedad de Chagas, en el cual se evaluaron simultáneamente los tres componentes fundamentales de esta parasitosis: vector, parásito y reservorio. Se evaluaron 640 domicilios en 9 veredas del municipio de Amalfi, se capturaron 196 triatominos, pertenecientes a las especies Panstrongylus geniculatus (49%), P. rufotuberculatus (47%), Triatoma dispar (3%) y Rhodnius pallescens (0.5%). En total se capturaron 33 animales silvestres, pertenecientes a las especies Didelphis marsupialis (8), Marmosa robinsoni (1), Hoplomys gimnurus (3), Dasypus novemcinctus (2), Proechymis sp (13), Oryzomis sp (3), Philander opossum (3), así como 63 perros (Canis lupus). Los indicadores de riesgo de transmisión de Tripanosoma cruzi por triatominos, fueron: dispersión (100%), infestación domiciliaria (14,5%), densidad (30,5%), hacinamiento (204,2%) e infección relativa (12,5%). Se obtuvo una alta prevalencia de anticuerpos en los perros de las veredas Montebello (61.1%) y La Gardenia (70.0%) y serología positiva en un humano adulto. In this paper we report the first Chagas disease study in Antioquia-Colombia, in which the main components of this disease were simultaneously evaluated: vector, parasite and host. Field studies were carried out evaluating 640 houses in nine localities from the municipality of Amalfi; 196 triatomine bugs were captured: Panstrongylus geniculatus (49%), Panstrongylus rufotuberculatus (47%), Triatoma dispar (3%) and Rhodnius pallescens (0.5%). Thirty three wild animals were captured: Didelphis marsupialis (8), Marmosa robinsoni (1), Hoplomys gimnurus (3), Dasypus novemcinctus (2), Proechymis sp (13), Oryzomis sp (3), Philander opossum (3) as well as 63 dogs (Canis lupus). Transmission risk indicators for Trypanosoma cruzi were: Dispersion (100%), Domiciliary infestation (14,5%), Insect density (30,5%), crowding (204,2%) and Relative infection (12,5%). Of the nine localities studied, Montebello (61.1%) and La Gardenia (70.0%) presented the highest prevalence of antibodies in dogs. In addition to this, the first human positive serology for T. cruzi in Antioquia was found in La Gardenia.

The objective of this article is to perform a critical analysis and guide veterinarians in the management of canine Leishmaniosis. A systematic literature review was performed between 2005 and 2014 including scientific papers which take into account experiences and reports of: pathogenesis, diagnosis, clinical presentation, treatment, vaccination, prevention and control strategies. We discuss the different aspects of VL management and aspects that should be taken into account depending on the country, after a patient is suspected or confirmed as positive, including the possibility of euthanasia. We describe the different clinical manifestations of the disease, diagnosis, signs and treatment of canine leishmaniosis. Canine leishmaniosis is present in different parts of the country, therefore it must be considered as a possible differential diagnosis in the veterinary clinic, in patients with dermatological and systemic signs that are compatible with various diseases. In Colombia, the patients diagnosed with cutaneous leishmaniasis could be treated and have a favorable prognosis, whereas in canines with diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis euthanasia should be considered because of the public health implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Introduction. The Middle-East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) was originated in 2012, and is caused by a bat's coronavirus that broke the species barrier until it could affect humans and generated an epidemic that is affecting several Arab and European countries. Objective. Study, retrospectively, MERS-CoV from cases registered in humans, by the use of the information available and provided by the World Health Organization and the International Society for Infectious Diseases, ISID. Materials and methods. An observational retrospective study of the descriptive type was performed, analyzing the information from the daily cases and having as a reference the frequency and the distribution of an epidemiological event that corresponded to the morbidity and the mortality, in order to describe occurrence patterns related to the individual variables (gender, age, race, etc), the time and the place. Results. The highest percentage of cases reported took place in May 2013, affecting older adults. There were cases in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Germany, Italy, France, England, Morocco and the Middle East. Conclusions. The current importance of emerging viruses and their relation with the epidemiology and the public health has been reaffirmed, and so has the necessity of making follow up studies in order to determine possible reservoirs, secondary guests and future prevention measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rabies continues to be a challenge for public health authorities and a constraint to the livestock industry in Latin America. Wild and domestic canines and vampire bats are the main transmitter species and reservoirs of the disease. Currently, variations observed in the epidemiological profile of rabies, where the species of hematophagous bat Desmodus rotundus constitutes the main transmitting species. Over the years, knowledge has accumulated about the ecology, biology and behavior of this species and the natural history of rabies, which should lead to continuous development of methods of population control of d. Rotundus as well as prevention and diagnostic tools for rabies. Ecological relationships of this species with other hematophagous and non-hematophagous bats is unknown, and there is much room for improvement in reporting systems and surveillance, as well as creating greater awareness among the farming community. Understanding the impact of human-induced environmental changes on the rabies virus in bats should be cause for further investigation. This will require a combination of field studies with mathematical models and new diagnostic tools. This review aims to present the most relevant issues on the role of hematophagous bats as reservoirs and transmitters of the rabies virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) affects mainly the poorest human populations with difficult access to health services. Climate change and environmental fluctuations modify the epidemiological dynamics of CL, complicating the design and implementation of control strategies. It is therefore fundamental to study the ecoepidemiology of each transmission focus in order to better adapt control measures to each situation. Our objective was to describe an endemic focus of CL in Puerto Valdivia, Antioquia. Methods: We collected sandflies with CDC and Shannon traps, and as well as through active search for resting sites. Samples were taken from wild mammals captured with Tomahawk® traps and from dogs volunteered by their owners. We diagnosed human CL cases through direct examination and aspirate of the lesion. All samples obtained were processed through parasite culture and molecular methods. Results: Thirteen species of sandflies were taxonomically identified, of which Lutzomyia trapidoi, Lu. gomezi, Lu. yuilli, Lu. panamensis, Lu. olmeca bicolor and Lu. hartmanni are of medical importance according to literature. Antibodies against Leishmania were detected in two of the 32 sera samples obtained from the dogs. Two species of wild mammals were captured: Didelphis marsupialis (n=3) and Proechimys semispinosus (n=1), which were negative for both parasite isolation in culture and molecular diagnosis. The parasite species found in patients was Leishmania (V.) panamensis. Conclusion: the transmission of the disease is favored by the coexistence of six species of highly anthropophilic sandflies that have been incriminated as vectors, particularly of L. (V.) panamensis, which is present in the area of study. We suggest the implementation of entomological surveillance studies to determine the main vector of CL in Puerto Valdivia, to recommend the most appropriate prevention and control measures for this focus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Se recolectaron mediante punción de la vena yugular, muestras de sangre de 384 bovinos en 32 fincas productoras de leche, localizadas en El Vigía, municipio Alberto Adriani, estado Mérida, Venezuela. Se realizó la prueba de aglutinación microscópica (AM). De los 384 sueros, 231 (60,1%) resultaron positivos y 153 negativos (39,9%). El serovar hardjo estaba presente en el 40,78% y el hebdomadis en un 30,74% de los sueros positivos. Sesenta y dos sueros (26,83%) reaccionaron aisladamente al serovar hardjo, y 9 sueros (3,89%) al serovar hebdomadis; el resto reaccionó contra más de un serovar. Se obtuvo asociación estadística entre leptospirosis y fincas con problemas graves de roedores, entre abortos y leptospirosis; a su vez se detectaron diferencias significativas (P < 0,05) en las explotaciones donde existía asistencia veterinaria permanente y en las fincas donde se suplementaron los animales con concentrado. Se determinó asociación causal entre leptospira y los factores: sexo, vacunación, abortos y tipo de explotación.