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This PACER brief provides RFA's updated analysis of data on students experiencing homelessness in Pennsylvania, highlighting prevalence, challenges with identification, disparities in educational opportunities, and impact on academic outcomes. Our main findings include that: (1) Roughly 2% of students in Pennsylvania were identified as experiencing homelessness in 2021-22, a slight increase from prior years; (2) Pennsylvania has seen a statewide increase in the identification rate of homelessness (the rate of student homelessness/the rate of students in poverty), but continues to rank below the national average, now 30th out of the 50 states; (3) Students experiencing homelessness are heavily concentrated in Pennsylvania's most inadequately funded school districts, which provide fewer educational opportunities, and are increasingly enrolled in cyber charter schools where research has documented consistently poor overall student outcomes; and (4) Pennsylvania's students experiencing homelessness are exhibiting worse academic outcomes compared with all students and other economically disadvantaged students. These findings underscore the urgent need for school leaders and policymakers in Pennsylvania to prioritize new resources and comprehensive strategies to support students experiencing homelessness.

This report explores the dramatic increase in Head Start teacher turnover during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using data from the Head Start Program Information Report (PIR) from 2010 to 2022, the study investigates trends in teacher turnover across all Head Start program types and examines the reasons behind teacher departures. The report finds that teacher turnover surged significantly in both 2020-21 and 2021-22, with the 2021-22 year experiencing a particularly sharp increase exceeding 28% of teachers. Turnover rates varied by program type, with Early Head Start programs exhibiting higher turnover than traditional Head Start programs, and American Indian Alaska Native (AIAN) Early Head Start programs seeing the highest rate at 37.1%. The study reveals that compensation remains the most common reason cited for teachers' departures, both before and during the pandemic. However, COVID-19 related factors also emerged as prominent reasons for departure. This research underscores the urgent need to address the challenges of teacher turnover in the Head Start sector, particularly in the wake of the pandemic. The report advocates for policy initiatives aimed at improving teacher retention through enhanced compensation.

District leaders seeking to close schools often frame decisions as "right-sizing" or "modernizing the footprint" of the district. Historical influences such as population and economic shifts and desegregation during the civil rights era, and more recent factors like deteriorating building conditions, school performance "accountability" measures, declining enrollment, and the expansion of school choice policies have contributed to school closure decisions. Whatever language used, or factors considered, these consequential decisions often spark fierce community debate. In Pennsylvania, which operates one of the most inequitable public education systems in the nation, several communities have controversial histories of school closures, including Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and rural regions. Now, the prospect of future school closures again looms large as many districts have experienced several years of declining enrollment and face financial cliffs, challenges made worse in the wake of COVID-19. To inform community members and guide district leaders navigating these difficult decisions, this brief revisits Research for Action's 2013 Issue Brief on School Closings Policy. In this update, the authors focus on the inequitable impacts of school closures on students, staff, and surrounding communities, with particular attention to how systemic and historical inequities continue to influence the school closure process. The brief concludes with considerations from research on school closures for school district leaders and decision-makers contemplating closing schools that can better inform plans and address potential equity issues for students and surrounding communities.

The Octavius V. Catto Scholarship launched in spring 2021 at Community College of Philadelphia (CCP) to help Philadelphians achieve college success. Inspired by 19th-century civil rights leader Octavius Catto's belief in education for all, the scholarship goes beyond tuition assistance, providing wraparound supports including academic coaching, monthly direct payments, bookstore credits, and referrals to community resources. This initiative, created by former Mayor Jim Kenney, aims to combat poverty by making college more accessible and affordable. RFA conducted a mixed-methods evaluation of the Catto Scholarship aimed at identifying early successes and recommending areas for improvement. The report highlights the role of Success Coaches and other staff in building meaningful connections with Scholars and supporting them in overcoming barriers to retention and completion. The evaluation also presents findings suggesting that persistence and completion are higher among Catto Scholars than non-Catto CCP peers. The report emphasizes the importance of dedicated resources and staff in sustaining the scholarship's success. Recommendations from the evaluation include enhancing support for staff to prevent burnout, creating more community-building opportunities for scholars, and building additional community partnerships to support housing, mental health, transportation, and childcare needs.

As states reckon with racial enrollment and attainment gaps in higher education, some have made efforts to address them through their higher education funding. Two common approaches are outcomes-based funding (OBF) and Promise programs, as each can be designed with an explicit race equity lens. This report summarizes a two-year study examining the degree to which these race-specific state funding policies have advanced racial equity in higher education. Exploring initiatives in Minnesota, New Jersey, and North Carolina, this study examines how these policies aim to dismantle racial inequities by directing resources toward Black, Latinx, and Indigenous students and the institutions that serve them. This study draws on 25 interviews with state policymakers and institutional leaders at a purposive sample of public four-year institutions. Researchers sought the perspectives of individuals at Minority-serving Institutions (MSIs), Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), Native American-serving non-tribal institutions (NASNTIs), and Hispanic-serving Institutions (HSIs), but also selected one Predominantly White Institution (PWI) in OBF states to understand how, if at all, the funding model incentivized institutional change. The research suggests that while policymakers express concerns that the amount of funding tied to race equity metrics is insufficient to motivate change, institutional leaders perceive that the metrics have steered funds toward under-resourced students and the institutions serving them. However, the report highlights that without addressing historical underfunding of MSIs and HBCUs, these institutions cannot compete equitably for funds under zero-sum OBF models. The report also suggests that the design of the formula, unfunded mandates, and competing state initiatives can undermine the impact of a race-explicit OBF. Race-explicit Promise programs in this study were perceived to have bolstered enrollment and retention at participating MSIs. However, because programs were designed to cover only tuition and fees, respondents suggested that they were not providing an additional benefit beyond existing federal and state aid programs. Without covering the additional costs of college, including room and board, these programs fell short of making a four-year residential college experience accessible to students for whom they were designed. The recommendations emerging from the research urge policymakers to consider the full ecosystem of postsecondary institutions when designing funding initiatives, ensuring that funding programs are additive rather than overlapping to maximize outcomes. The report also emphasizes the importance of supporting additional costs of college in Promise programs to promote equity for students experiencing systemic barriers.

The Wallace Foundation commissioned Research for Action and McClanahan Associates to study how out-of-school time intermediaries (OSTIs) responded to the COVID-19 pandemic and the role they could play in supporting communities moving forward. Citywide out-of-school time (OST) systems encompass a wide variety of afterschool and summer programs and associated provider organizations, youth participants, and their families. These systems were stretched during the COVID-19 pandemic and the national racial reckoning to respond to community needs in new and more equitable ways. Also impacted were OSTIs that manage OST systems within individual cities. OSTIs operate through various governance structures and perform a range of coordination functions intended to ensure quality, access, and equity in OST systems so that all youth have access to the unique out-of-school resources and opportunities they need to thrive.

Research for Action (RFA) in partnership with the University of Texas at Austin is engaged in a five-year mixed-methods study of the reforms associated with California AB 705. Over the course of the study, our team will assess the implementation, impact, and cost effectiveness of reforms associated with the law. This second interim report, presented at the conclusion of year three of the study, focuses on gaining a deeper understanding of on-campus implementation through a faculty survey administered to math and English departments across our study sample, an Interrupted Time Series analysis with nine cohorts of FTIC student data, and preliminary data collection for our cost effectiveness study. Collectively, these data highlight significant changes that colleges have made on campus regarding shifting enrollments from developmental education into transfer-level coursework in both English and math, and providing additional supports to students to promote retention and completion. We find that AB 705 has demonstrated notable successes in improving enrollment and completion rates in transfer-level courses, particularly in math, among FTIC students in California's community colleges. While our survey results suggest that faculty believe additional resources and supports would be helpful, most faculty report that implementation supports have been adequate.

This case study explores the implementation of personalized learning at an elementary school in Santa Cruz Valley Unified School District 35. The study, conducted by Research for Action and funded by KnowledgeWorks, sheds light on the shift towards personalized, competency-based learning practices within the district. Through qualitative sources and data analysis, the study examines various key aspects such as shared vision and culture, student agency, curriculum, instruction, assessment systems, flexible learning environments, learner support, professional development, and leadership development within the district context. The study outlines how SCV35 reflected many practices associated with personalized, competency-based learning, with a focus on shared vision, student agency, curriculum design, learner support, and development. Key findings revealed positive impacts on students, highlighting increased student agency, ownership of learning, and reflective practices among students and educators. Additionally, the district's efforts to align policies, frameworks, and local partnerships with the principles of personalized learning demonstrate a systematic approach towards sustainable implementation. Furthermore, the report discusses challenges encountered during the implementation, such as adjusting to student-centered instruction, overcoming space limitations, and the need to clarify the practical aspects of personalized, competency-based learning. Despite challenges, success stories were acknowledged, including improved student engagement, individualized support, and teacher collaboration. The study emphasizes the importance of ongoing professional development, teacher collaboration, and student-centered approaches to sustain and enhance the personalized learning model. Recommendations from the study point towards the necessity of continued professional development, strategic collaboration among educators, and addressing the evolving evaluation processes to align with personalized, competency-based instructional models. The report underscores the importance of clarity in implementation practices, acknowledging the varying pace of adoption across the district. By focusing on building teacher capacity, fostering student agency, and maintaining a shared vision, SCV35 aims to further advance personalized, competency-based learning to benefit all stakeholders within the educational community.

The case study explores the adoption and implementation of personalized, competency-based learning at Yuma Union High School District (YUHSD) within the broader context of the Arizona Personalized Learning Network (AZPLN). The study reveals that YUHSD has made notable strides in aligning district-wide systems with personalized learning principles, such as the adoption of standards-based grading and a shared vision for personalized learning. Leadership development, professional learning opportunities, and comprehensive assessment systems have all played a crucial role in supporting the successful implementation of personalized, competency-based learning. The study underscores the positive impact of personalized, competency-based learning on student engagement, agency, and metacognitive skills. Teachers at YUHSD have reported increased student voice and choice through strategies like choice boards, proficiency scales, and flexible learning environments. These practices have led to improved advocacy skills among students and stronger relationships between students and teachers, fostering a culture of transparency and inclusivity. Additionally, the model has facilitated student individualization and differentiated support, enhancing the overall learning experience for students across various subject areas. While the implementation of personalized, competency-based learning has been largely successful, the study also highlights several challenges faced by YUHSD. These challenges include initial resistance due to competing priorities like the AVID program, as well as obstacles in scaling the model to more teachers and classrooms. Faculty members have expressed concerns about the additional time and support needed for effective implementation, especially in addressing the diverse needs of special education students and English language learners. Faculty training and ongoing collaboration are identified as critical areas for improvement to ensure the sustained success of the personalized learning approach. The case study emphasizes the importance of addressing the challenges faced by YUHSD through targeted support for faculty, especially in providing additional training and time for implementation. Efforts should focus on increasing buy-in from core subject area teachers, enhancing support for special education students and English language learners, and promoting a deeper understanding of personalized, competency-based learning principles across the district. Aligning the approach with existing initiatives like AVID and ensuring ongoing technical assistance for faculty are key strategies for successful implementation and continued growth in personalized learning practices. Moreover, the study acknowledges the need for continued collaboration, data-driven decision-making, and stakeholder engagement to sustain and enhance the success of personalized, competency-based learning at YUHSD. By leveraging the insights from this case study, Yuma Union High School District can further advance its efforts to create student-centered learning experiences that prepare all students for success in college, career, and beyond.

Research for Action (RFA) in partnership with the University of Texas at Austin is engaged in a five-year mixed-methods study of the reforms associated with California AB 705. Over the course of the study, our team will assess the implementation, impact, and cost effectiveness of reforms associated with the law. This report first offers a descriptive quantitative analysis of short-term outcome (enrollment and completion) trends in math and English at the state level. This descriptive analysis examines the relationship between AB 705 and course enrollment and completion, which will serve as the basis for the quasi-experimental study in subsequent project years. The second part of the report presents findings from institutional site visits aimed at understanding how institutions have implemented the reforms, who is involved in implementation, and how implementation is experienced by students.

This report examines the implementation and outcomes of personalized, competency-based learning in the Arizona Personalized Learning Network (AZPLN) districts. The study conducted by Research for Action (RFA) analyzed survey data from students and teachers, as well as publicly available school-level outcomes data to assess the progress and impact of personalized learning approaches. The findings reveal that while teachers perceived strong implementation of personalized, competency-based learning, students' perceptions varied and showed moderate to strong levels of implementation. Notably, teachers reported improved implementation over time, contrasting with relatively stable student perceptions across the surveyed years. In terms of student outcomes, the analysis showed mixed results. There was evidence of negative effects on achievement outcomes in elementary schools, no discernible achievement effects in middle schools, and some positive effects observed in high schools. However, there was no conclusive evidence of effects on graduation or dropout rates in high schools. Importantly, the study found no significant relationship between students' and teachers' perceived implementation levels and student outcomes. The overlap of the COVID-19 pandemic with the initial implementation phase of personalized learning may have impacted the results, as the districts started implementation in 2019. Recommendations from the report emphasize the importance of continued study on personalized, competency-based learning and its effects on student outcomes as implementation progresses in AZPLN districts. The early stages of implementation, further complicated by the challenges posed by the pandemic, suggest caution in interpreting the current findings. Continued monitoring and evaluation of the implementation process and its impact on student outcomes are advised to understand the longer-term implications of personalized learning approaches in these educational settings. The report calls for ongoing research to deepen understanding of the relationship between implementation strategies and student outcomes over time, considering the unique context of each district within the AZPLN. Ultimately, the report underscores the need for sustained attention to personalized, competency-based learning initiatives in the AZPLN districts. Despite some positive trends in teacher perceptions and certain student outcomes, the study highlights the complex nature of implementation and its varied impact across different school levels. As the districts navigate through the early stages of personalized learning implementation, addressing the challenges and building upon the successes observed will be crucial for optimizing the educational experience and outcomes for students in the long run.

Drawing on qualitative data collected in a sample of colleges as part of a larger study on the implementation and impact of AB 705 in California, this paper explores the rollout of corequisite reforms, focusing on the use of embedded tutors in introductory math and English courses as a strategy to meet to the needs of students. This paper highlights promising practices identified through extant research and fieldwork at study institutions, provides additional evidence on the value of the reform, discusses challenges, and makes recommendations for the field.

This report presents the details of a year-long study conducted by Research for Action of the impact and implementation of the Children's Literacy Initiative (CLI) Pre-K Intervention. Thirty-five district-operated and community-based Pre-K programs from Broward County Public Schools and the Early Learning Coalition of Broward County were enrolled and randomly assigned to programs with the intervention and those operating under "business as usual" conditions. CLI hypothesized that state and local decisionmakers need a comprehensive Pre-K curriculum based in equal parts on the science of child development and the realities of the current early childhood workforce. CLI's intervention targeted low- and middle-income children enrolled in state-funded universal public Pre-K settings, investing in resources for children and the programs that serve them who live in historically under-resourced communities. The evaluation was guided by three overarching aims: (1) Examine the impact of CLI's intervention on key skills that prepare children for success in Kindergarten ("Impact Study"); (2) Describe thresholds for fidelity of the intervention and document the extent to which CLI met the thresholds in the study ("Implementation Study"); and (3) Evaluate the implementation of CLI's intervention in classrooms serving students with disabilities or development delays ("Case Study"). RFA found that implementing CLI's program was challenging, especially when it came to providing enough training for teachers and site leader professional learning. Because of these challenges, the study didn't find any evidence that CLI's program made a difference in how well students understood phonological awareness or numeracy (sounds or numbers). Overall, kids in both groups ended the year with skills that were expected for their age.

Research for Action (RFA) studied why Black teachers were leaving their jobs more than White teachers in Allegheny County from 2014 to 2020. RFA analyses found that the number of Black teachers in the area was consistently dropping, more than the decrease in the overall Black population. The data gathered from speaking directly with 38 current and former Black teachers about their perspectives and experiences through interviews and focus groups conducted in the spring of 2023 yielded three key takeaways: (1) Black teachers support Allegheny County students and schools in several unique and important ways; (2) Black teachers face many challenges that impact their experiences as educators in Allegheny County; and (3) Several factors retain and sustain Black teachers in Allegheny County. The report offers insights into the working conditions for Black teachers and provides recommendations for policymakers, school leaders, teacher diversity initiatives, and the wider community for how to improve efforts to recruit, hire, retain, and sustain Black teachers within the region and beyond. [Additional funding provided by the McElhattan Foundation and the Eden Hall Foundation.]

In 2015, Tennessee launched Tennessee Promise (TN Promise), one of the most comprehensive and well-funded statewide free-college scholarship programs in the country. To support TN Promise students, and especially those from the lowest-income households, tnAchieves, a key partner facilitating all non-financial components of TN Promise, implemented completion coaching across the state's 13 community colleges beginning in fall 2018. In partnership with tnAchieves, Research for Action (RFA) conducted a three-year mixed methods study to evaluate tnAchieves' completion coaching program, focusing on the relative effectiveness of proactive versus reactive coaching. The study included four parts: (1) an analysis of impact on student outcomes; (2) an implementation study; (3) an exploratory study of dosage effects; and (4) a cost analysis. The impact study used a randomized control trial (RCT) design that randomly assigned the fall 2019 Promise cohort to proactive or reactive coaching conditions. In this report, study findings are summarized and implications for program and policy development are discussed. The study contributes valuable insights to the field of college coaching and TN Promise programs, shedding light on the effectiveness of such programs in supporting students from low-income backgrounds.

Youth benefit from involvement in the arts. At the same time, youth from families with low incomes are about half as likely to have access to arts instruction as youth from families with more resources, due to cuts in arts education which disproportionally affect schools in under-resourced communities that have been economically and socially marginalized. Arts programming outside of schools is also inequitably distributed, and when the arts are offered in low-cost settings such as multipurpose afterschool programs, the programming tends to focus on arts and crafts rather than the creation of original artwork that develops formative artistic skills. The Youth Arts Initiative (YAI) aimed to address the gap in access to high-quality arts by developing a sustainable and scalable model of arts programming in multipurpose out-of-school time (OST) organizations. From 2019 through 2021, five Boys & Girls Club organizations, with startup resources from The Wallace Foundation, set out to test whether they could develop YAI within the resource constraints of multipurpose OST programs. This report shares early lessons learned by these five OST organizations which were documented by a two-and-a-half-year study. It provides a preliminary roadmap for multipurpose OST organizations seeking to increase the quality of their arts programming and close gaps in access to high-quality arts programming. The findings shared in this report can also be used by organizational leaders to make the case to funders and policymakers that initial investments in a high-quality arts program infrastructure are needed and that those investments will expand access and equity in arts programming for youth.

Prior to the pandemic, a survey of Pennsylvania parents found that for every child that was enrolled in an afterschool program, four more would participate if more programs were available. The pandemic has only emphasized the need for out-of-school time (OST) programs as students across Pennsylvania and the country cope with learning loss and increased social and emotional needs in the wake of the crisis. Despite the need for more programming, the only ongoing dedicated public source of funding for OST that is available statewide in Pennsylvania is the 21st Century Community Learning Centers (21stCCLC) program. This brief examines Pennsylvania's growing need for dedicated state funding to supplement the federal 21stCCLC grants, summarizes research evidence of the value of OST programming, identifies existing quality standards available to guide investments to high quality OST programs, and reviews how other states provide supplemental funding to OST that could serve as models to Pennsylvania.

With support from the William Penn Foundation, RFA sought to further examine and understand Black teacher attrition and retention in Philadelphia, and promising strategies and initiatives that can promote the retention of Black teachers in the city and elsewhere. In totality, the project includes qualitative research that centers the perspectives of a small sample of current and former teachers in the Philadelphia area who identify as Black--which is the focus of this report--and a national scan of select teacher diversification initiatives and the particular strategies they employ. The present report shares the storied experiences and actionable recommendations of a sample of 30 current and former Black teachers, organized by salient themes, providing clear and direct insight into factors that contribute to Black teacher attrition as well as ways to retain current teachers. This report describes the study's methodology, presents findings regarding the unique challenges faced by Black teachers, discusses what sustains and retains Black teachers in the profession, and shares their recommendations for increasing Black teacher retention. It concludes with reflections on the implications of these findings and opportunities for future research to further inform policies and practices that best support Black teachers.

This brief presents findings describing how Pennsylvania compares to other states in providing its students with access to educational opportunity. Following a more detailed discussion of the indicators used to define educational opportunity, Pennsylvania's rankings on overall access are first examined and then how Pennsylvania compares to other states on gaps in access to educational opportunity between (1) White and Black students, (2) White and Hispanic students, and (3) students eligible for free/reduced price lunch (FRPL) and students who are not eligible (non-FRPL). Finally, the report discusses how racial gaps in access to education vary when separately examining subsets of schools characterized as having high-, medium-, or low-concentrations of student poverty.

Research for Action's "Educational Opportunity Dashboard" is an interactive on-line tool to synthesize data and rank all 50 states by how well they provide students access to schools that offer 14 indicators of educational opportunity from the federal Civil Rights Data Collection. On the Dashboard the indicators are compiled into an Average Opportunity Score and into three indexes of educational opportunity: (1) Access to Quality Educators Index; (2) Access to a Positive School Climate Index; and (3) Access to a College/Career Readiness Curriculum Index. This report provides a high-level discussion of educational opportunity and inequity at the national level as found on the Dashboard. Key findings include: (1) Black and Hispanic students had less access compared to White and Asian students on all three indexes of educational opportunity; (2) Students eligible for Free/Reduced-Price Lunch (FRPL) had less access to educational opportunities compared to students not eligible for FRPL on all three indexes; (3) The concentration of Black and Hispanic students in high-poverty schools appears to be a primary factor driving gaps in access to educational opportunity; however, racial disparities often exist even within levels of school poverty. For example (a) Within low-, mid-, and high-poverty schools, Black students had less access to quality educators compared to White students and less access to a positive school climate; and (b) Hispanic students had less access to quality educators compared to White students across every level of school poverty; and (4) Inequities by race/ethnicity and student income are found in both primary and secondary schools, with larger gaps in secondary schools.

Personalized, competency-based learning efforts often take place in a single classroom or school, but not systematically across districts, let alone states. To address this dynamic and increase the scale of personalized, competency-based learning, KnowledgeWorks, an independent nonprofit organization that partners with education stakeholders to advance personalized competency-based learning efforts, has engaged in state level implementation support of personalized, competency-based learning in a number of states, including Arizona, Nevada, North Dakota, and South Carolina. The purpose of this report is to serve as a resource for the states and districts already involved in personalized, competency-based learning, provide considerations for other states adopting personalized, competency-based learning, and offer lessons learned for the wider field. The research team and KnowledgeWorks established three goals for the study at the outset: (1) Document approaches and lessons learned from policy adoption and implementation of personalized, competency-based learning policies in four states; (2) Identify how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the move towards personalized, competency-based learning in each state; and (3) Identify how each state defines and operationalizes its equity commitment within the state's personalized, competency-based learning efforts.

Pennsylvania has "the highest cyber charter school enrollment in the country" with student enrollment soaring in 2020-21 due to concerns related to the COVID-19 pandemic. School districts paid over $1 billion in tuition for students enrolled in Pennsylvania's 14 cyber charter schools in 2020-21, a $335 million increase over the prior school year. Districts now cite charter school tuition as their top budget pressure. In a 2017 study, Research for Action found that districts are unable to realize substantial savings when students depart for charter schools, leaving the vast majority of tuition as a "stranded cost" or negative fiscal impact on district finances. Here we apply the findings of that study to estimate the fiscal impact of the expansion of cyber charter schools attributable to the pandemic. We find that year-one stranded costs ranged from $290 to $308 million dollars statewide, highlighting the need for policymakers to address the inefficient spending on cyber charter schools in current law. We also describe the broader context of cyber charter schools in Pennsylvania.

Earning a high school diploma is a milestone that has been linked to many later life outcomes, from employment to incarceration to physical health, and impacts society as a whole through tax revenues and government spending. Yet, youth leaving school prior to obtaining a diploma remains a challenge nationwide, particularly in large cities. Given the importance of a high school credential, many interventions have been tested to curb school-leaving and support students through graduation. Congreso's Éxito program, the focus of this report, is focused on providing that support and consists of an afterschool program combined with case management services provided to a subset of students. This report focuses on the impact the Éxito program had on participating students at Kensington Creative and Performing Arts (KCAPA) who started high school in 2016-17 and examines their outcomes through 2019-20, what should have been their senior year. This report concludes with recommendations for Congreso and for the wider out-of-school time field. [This report was co-produced by Congreso de Latinos Unidos.]

Definitions of teacher experience vary by state and research study. Most states consider a teacher inexperienced if they have between 1-5 years of experience in the classroom as full-time educator. Pennsylvania's 2015 plan identified inexperienced teachers as those with one or less years of teaching experience, but the federal Civil Rights Data Collection definition for inexperienced teachers includes first or second year teachers. Using personnel records from the Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE), this Allegheny County Education Research (ACER) report, takes a closer look at teacher experience in Allegheny County, examining whether equity gaps exist between district and charter schools and between student subgroups.

Teacher mobility, or teacher turnover, has long garnered attention as a critical educational equity gap. This attention is warranted as, within schools, teachers have the single greatest impact on student achievement. The unprecedented interruptions to school-based learning and the trials of navigating remote and hybrid instruction due to the COVID-19 pandemic heightened concerns about the stability of the teacher workforce and the potential of a pending teacher shortage across the U.S., state of Pennsylvania, and locally in Allegheny County. This study takes a closer look at teacher mobility in the region by examining six years of data leading up to the pandemic. Specifically, this study: (1) Identifies teacher mobility trends in Allegheny County public schools from 2014-2015 to 2019-2020; (2) Describes the destinations of mobile teachers; and (3) Identifies key characteristics of mobile teachers and the schools they exited and entered within the county to determine if potential equity gaps exist. This report concludes with implications for policy and practice including a list of suggestions for educational leaders to reduce mobility and eliminate consequential disparities for students.

Every year millions of Americans gain valuable college credit-worthy learning through workplace training, the military, apprenticeships, & professional certifications. Nearly all of this learning goes unrecognized by colleges & universities. Without a consistent way to recognize, reward, and transfer this learning, many people are left with postsecondary-level skills and abilities but no credit to show for it. The shortcomings of our current system disproportionately affect individuals whose learning occurs in a variety of non-classroom settings. Most degree and credential pathways reward traditional in-class learning, privileging students who take more traditional paths while reinforcing barriers for those historically not well served by postsecondary institutions. The result is persistent inequities and lower educational attainment for many--especially adult learners, first generation students, veterans, and Black, Latinx, and Native American learners. This policy toolkit seeks to support states in ensuring all college-level learning is applied to college credentials. Such efforts promise to expand opportunities for academic and career advancement, meet growing demand for jobs in new sectors, and dismantle barriers to economic and social mobility. This toolkit includes: (1) State policy priorities and must-haves that detail how states can support credentialing out-of-classroom learning through improved data, statewide transfer and articulation, uniform learning recognition, transparent credential pathways and supportive policy infrastructure. Each policy priority area outlines "must-have" elements to ensure policies are comprehensive and center equity, accountability, quality, and affordability; (2) State policy exemplars that provide examples of innovative statewide policies that support a system to recognize all learning. Particular attention is paid to promoting equity, accountability, quality, and affordability in the design of policies; (3) Barriers and solutions that explain common barriers to adopting an ALC statewide agenda and provides examples and strategies for overcoming challenges; and (4) No Time to Waste: Standards for Statewide Crosswalks That Ensure All Learning Counts, a report that clarifies how states can create clear and comprehensive crosswalks that show how learning from multiple providers can be combined to put people closer to a degree or credential of value.

Close to 3,000 students in Allegheny County public schools were identified as experiencing homelessness during the 2018-19 school year, or 2.0% of the total student population. Meanwhile, homelessness rates have been growing in recent years and lost income due to COVID-19 is likely to bring even more students to the point of housing and educational instability. Students who have experienced homelessness face substantial barriers to receiving the same education as that of their peers living in stable housing, and the first step to alleviating those barriers is identification. By comparing student homeless to overall student poverty, we find that, on average, Allegheny County schools identify students experiencing homelessness at below the national average. Rates of identification vary widely across Allegheny County school districts, with many identifying at less than half the national rate, while others exceeded the national rate. Districts with lower rates of identification can adopt practices of neighboring districts to improve identification of SEH. This brief follows a recent statewide report on "Students Experiencing Homelessness in Pennsylvania: New Evidence of Under-Identification and Inequity" from RFA's PACER series. [For "Students Experiencing Homelessness in Pennsylvania: New Evidence of Under-Identification and Inequity," see ED611597.]

This brief communicates findings from Phase 1 of "State Responses to COVID-19 -- Implications for Outcomes-Based Funding" a 50-state policy scan to determine how Outcomes-Based or Student Success Funding (PBF/OBF/SSF) policies are shifting in response to COVID-19 related budget fluctuations. Conducted between August and December of 2020, this 50-state scan included the following goals: (1) explore how COVID-19 and related budget cuts have impacted state SSF policies; and (2) explore how, if at all, shifts in SSF policies affected the level or type of support provided to sectors and institutions that serve Black, Latinx and low-income students. The research team reviewed publicly available websites, including those of state legislatures, higher education agencies, local and state-level media, and systematically recorded data along several key elements. Research for Action (RFA) found that over one third of states running SFF/PBF/OBF models in FY20 either implemented a new hold harmless provision, extended a FY20 hold harmless provision that had been set to expire, or paused their formula for FY21. Few states heightened their focus on racial equity through SSF models. Some states communicated an intent to increase institutional focus on underrepresented minority students through SFF/PBF/OBF models, but none adopted new equity metrics for FY21. [For a related report, "The State of Promise Programs during COVID-19: Results from a Policy Scan," see ED614912.]

This brief communicates findings from Phase 1 of "State Responses to COVID-19 -- Implications for Outcomes-Based Funding and Promise Programs," a 50-state policy scan to determine how Promise Program policies are shifting in response to COVID-19 related budget fluctuations. Conducted between August and December of 2020, this 50-state scan included the following goals: (1) explore how COVID-19 and related budget cuts have impacted state Promise Programs; and (2) explore how, if at all, shifts in Promise Programs affected the level or type of support provided to sectors and institutions that serve Black, Latinx and low-income students. The research team reviewed publicly available websites, including those of state legislatures, higher education agencies, local and state-level media, and systematically recorded data along several key elements. Overall, more than half of statewide Promise programs made changes to program components in response to COVID-19. Of the 15 programs that made changes, it was found that 11 programs adjusted eligibility requirements, with many relaxing requirements to maintain access and others imposing additional eligibility requirements in response to budget cuts. Of the programs that adjusted eligibility requirements, most sought to maintain or expand access for students to account for challenges during the coronavirus pandemic. [For a related report, "The State of Student Success Funding during COVID-19: Results from a Policy Scan," see ED614911.]

As Research for Action (RFA) found in 2018 (see ED593694), Pennsylvania schools have a history of under-identifying students experiencing homelessness, denying likely hundreds of students the educational rights afforded by federal law each year. Now the state, along with the whole nation, is facing multiple crises as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, from healthcare to job and housing loss. The aftershocks of this pandemic are likely to bring more families to the tipping point of overcrowding, temporary housing, and homelessness. PA schools will need to support these growing numbers of students experiencing homelessness ("SEH") over the next few years. This brief provides some evidence of improvement in identification of SEH in PA since RFA's 2018 report. However, rates vary by school community and Pennsylvania overall ranks only 36th out of 50 states in identification of SEH per school-aged children in poverty. Data indicate that Philadelphia -- the city with the highest overall population of people experiencing homelessness -- is particularly under-identifying SEH, especially in its charter school sector. Meanwhile, in cyber charter schools across the state enrollment of SEH has increased dramatically over time. Finally, the brief concludes with a discussion of the growing rural student homelessness population in PA, a trend that brings to light the statewide nature of the student homelessness crisis.

"Where Do We Go Next?" explores three interconnected areas of young people's lives that have been particularly salient over the past year and are fundamental to supporting their learning and growth in the future. Those three areas are young people's sense of wellbeing, including their mental health and relationships; their opportunities to learn about race and racism in school and how that affects the ways they understand and engage with the world around them; and their plans for after high school and sense of readiness for pursuing those plans.

The scarcity of teachers of color (TOCs) in Pennsylvania has been well-documented. In 2018, Research for Action (RFA) reviewed the literature on the benefits of teachers of color for all students and highlighted barriers, strategies, and initiatives in "Patching the Leaky Pipeline: Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color in Pennsylvania." Using national survey data from 2011-12, it was found that Pennsylvania's rate of disproportionality between students of color (SOCs) and TOCs is among the highest in the nation. Later that year, in collaboration with WHYY and the Philadelphia Public School Notebook, 2016-17 data provided by the Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE) was examined, finding that the majority of Pennsylvania schools and 37% of entire school districts employed only White teachers. A key observation in each of these studies was that, in contrast to widely available data on student race/ethnicity, there is no regular public reporting of teacher race/ethnicity in Pennsylvania. More than two years later, that is still the case. Recently, WHYY obtained seven years of teacher race/ethnicity data via records request from PDE, dating from 2013-14 through 2019-20 school years. RFA cleaned this data and merged it with student data to calculate the percentages of teachers and students by race/ethnicity at the state, county, district, and school levels for all Pennsylvania public schools. This brief presents descriptive findings of RFA's examination of this new data. The brief begins by updating prior analyses of the general distribution of teacher and student demographics across the Commonwealth. Next, the association between student and teacher demographics is examined. Finally, additional analyses are included to compare race/ethnicity between: (1) subgroups of full-time, part-time, and split-time teachers; (2) teachers of elementary, secondary, and ungraded classes, and; (3) teachers of different instructional subjects. An Appendix is included, with tables that identify schools and districts which have consistently employed the highest rates of TOCs and schools that have employed only white teachers over the past seven years, despite high rates of SOCs. [For "Patching the Leaky Pipeline: Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color in Pennsylvania. A PACER Policy Brief," see ED589381.]

In recent years, some school districts across Allegheny County have made noteworthy changes to school policing. While some districts have sought to reduce or eliminate reliance on police, a growing number of other districts in the county have, with community support announced expanded police presence and in some cases have decided to arm police. Yet there has been little public reporting about the actual presence of police in Allegheny County schools. While data on police presence is limited, in this brief we find that: (1) school police presence has increased across Allegheny County over the past five years; (2) school security guards are disproportionately located in county districts with the highest concentrations of students of color, while school police are more evenly distributed; and (3) Allegheny County school districts with higher concentrations of students of color spend more per pupil on "safety and security" measures. [This is a publication of Allegheny County Education Research (ACER), a project of Research for Action (RFA).]

Nationally, credit recovery has been used as a strategy to encourage and enable students to re-take previously failed courses needed to graduate. The School District of Philadelphia (SDP) offers both in-person and online options for recovering failed or missing credits required for graduation. This study provides a snapshot of the district's school-year credit recovery utilization--including eligibility, enrollment, and completion--using newly available data for high school students who entered the 2018-19 school year with a record of one or more failed courses. The authors first examine credit recovery eligibility in traditional high schools at the end of the 2017-18 school year. Then, the authors examine school-year credit recovery enrollment the following school year in 2018-19, among those eligible. They then examine course completion and pass rates among students who enrolled in credit recovery in 2018-19. The authors also follow students through 2019-20 to examine subsequent course-taking among those who successfully recovered credits the previous year. District stakeholders can use these findings to inform district and school credit recovery policies. In addition, the descriptive data presented here can be used to generate more specific research questions about which credit recovery options work best and for whom, and what supports are needed to ensure equity in course completion and pass rates for all students and all schools across the district.

Long before closures due to the coronavirus pandemic, many Pennsylvania schools faced a different health crisis: unsafe facilities. Crumbling buildings, asbestos, lead, and other school facility health and safety risks plague many schools across Pennsylvania, particularly in low-income districts and those that enroll a high percentage of Black and Latinx students. The Commonwealth's failure to provide adequate facilities funding has created what Pennsylvania school administrators and school business officials have called a "growing disparity between those school districts that can address vital school construction, renovation or maintenance needs and those that cannot." This brief: (1) examines available evidence related to the condition of Pennsylvania's school facilities; (2) reviews past, current, and proposed policies related to how the state funds emergency facilities expenses; and (3) discusses how other states provide for emergency school facilities funding. Four findings are discussed in detail and recommendations are provided for how Pennsylvania can improve current funding policy to ensure safe and healthy school facilities and address disparities in district capacity to do so.

When schools in Pennsylvania and across the nation were suddenly shuttered in March due to COVID-19, teachers were faced with an enormous challenge: how to effectively teach and engage their students remotely when the vast majority had never done so before. In order to meet this challenge, teachers turned to an array of digital tools-such as Zoom, Google Classroom, and others-to plan and deliver instruction, engage students, and assess their progress. But how effective were these tools? Research for Action conducted a survey to find out. The survey reached public school teachers to gauge their opinions about on-line teaching tools. Survey responses revealed that: (1) More than 80% of teachers said that online tools are effective with most students; (2) Digital teaching tools were most useful for instructional planning and delivery, but were less effective for assessing student learning and keeping students engaged; (3) Notably, fewer teachers said digital tools were effective for teaching students with special needs and those who are dual-language learners than for general education students; (4) Over 80% of teachers report that they would continue to use on-line tools, whether teaching remotely or in-person; and (5) Teachers felt strongly that they need professional development to continue to teach effectively using these tools.

In 2018, the School District of Philadelphia (SDP) developed an indicator for being "on track" at the end of a high school student's freshman year. As part of the district's overall strategy for improving graduation rates, school administrators currently use the Ninth Grade On-Track indicator as an early marker of progress towards graduation and to identify students in need of intervention. Using four cohorts of SDP data prior to its development and implementation, Philadelphia Education Research Consortium (PERC) found that one-third of first-time freshman in 2013-2017 would have been flagged by On-Track indicator as "off-track" after their first year of high school. Although the On-Track indicator was not yet in place, the reports serve as a benchmark against which progress can be measured. Building upon this prior work, this report examines two of those same cohorts of off-track freshman in the expected graduating classes of 2017 and 2018, following them over time to understand which students were able to graduate and when they got back on track. Similar to the prior work, these findings describe student experiences that pre-date the establishment of SDP's On-Track indicator. Thus, this report serves as baseline for the district to assess progress toward efforts to improve graduation rates through schools' use of the On-Track indicator to identify and connect students to supports. The goal of examining these patterns is to understand which off-track students and which schools might need the most support. This report offers a first-time look at graduation rates for off-track students in SDP. The findings will be informative to school and district administrators working to support high school students who fall off-track in ninth grade. These findings raise questions about whether some students and schools may benefit from more resources and/or different systems or approaches than others. The findings also point to the need for more research to examine why some students in some schools recover at higher rates than others and build evidence for effective interventions for getting students back on track. Four appendices are included in this report. [This is Brief 3 of the Back to School series. For Brief 2, "How Long Will It Take Me to Get to School? Transit Times to School District of Philadelphia High Schools," see ED608080.]

In Philadelphia, if a student chooses not to attend their neighborhood school, other options include schools with specialized programming in the arts, sciences, or business fields, schools with career and technical education options, and competitive magnet schools. But choosing an out-of-catchment school rather than a neighborhood school may require a longer or more complicated commute, particularly for students relying on public transit to get to school. Research has shown that commute time and complexity can influence attendance, academic achievement, engagement in school, and health factors associated with sleep. This report uses School District of Philadelphia high school student enrollment and residence data to estimate student commutes to all 52 traditional district high schools via public transit. Transit data from the 2017-18 school year was estimated how long it would take for high schoolers to get to school using public transit based on where they live and under optimal conditions (i.e., no delays and use of all available routes). Also analyzed was how estimated commutes vary by type of school admission (i.e., Neighborhood, Citywide, or Special Admission) and student residential neighborhood (defined as the City Council District in which they live). The findings of this study, can help guide families and students to consider commute time and complexity when selecting schools. The authors also anticipate that the analysis of variation in commutes may be useful for policy makers at the School District of Philadelphia (SDP) and its School Board, City Council, and Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) (Philadelphia's transit authority) as they make ongoing decisions about system-wide school offerings, start times and scheduling options, and transit networks. Four appendices are included in this report. [This is Brief 2 of the Back to School series. For Brief 1, "Strategies for Reducing Student Absenteeism in Philadelphia," see ED608079.]

As many districts in Pennsylvania pivot to hybrid or virtual models of education in response to Covid-19, it is hard to think about what "attendance" means or how to track it. Yet attendance is more important than ever. Students need to stay engaged to continue their learning and to access the myriad supports that districts are offering. And we know that chronic absenteeism leads to lower performance and increases the likelihood of dropout. How can we keep students coming to school? Increased communication with parents and timely use of data to identify and overcome the barriers to attendance are more important than ever--especially in districts with already high rates of absenteeism. [This is Brief 1 of the Back to School series.]

Educators are centrally important in the fight for racial justice and access to high-quality education. This has never been more true than in the age of the COVID-19 pandemic, as the public acknowledges the crucial role that our public school teachers play in the well-being of our children and of our society at large. Yet our teacher workforce is under duress. As has been true across the country, Philadelphia's public schools faced teacher shortages even before the pandemic. COVID-19 is likely to result in further contraction of the teacher preparation pipeline, and in higher rates of attrition as teachers exit their professions due to physical or mental health stressors. And while we know that all students-particularly students of color-benefit from a diverse teaching force, the number of teachers of color is shrinking as well. When taken together, these are troubling trends. This latest brief -- the fourth in RFA and PERC's Back to School series -- draws on data from the Common Core of Data, Civil Rights Data Collection, and other state and federal sources to provide an overview of the pre-pandemic status of the teaching workforce in Philadelphia's 320 district and charter public schools, and provides some recommendations for recruiting and retaining a diverse and well-prepared teaching force. Key findings: (1) Philadelphia would need over 1,500 additional teachers just to reach the state average student/teacher ratio; (2) Black and Hispanic students in district and charter schools are more likely to be taught by teachers who do not hold any certifications, are not certified in their subject areas (particularly math and science), or are inexperienced; (3) Fewer persons of color are entering teacher preparation programs statewide, likely exacerbating the dearth of teachers of color in Philadelphia; and (4) Teachers in Philadelphia are paid less, on average, than teachers in most of the city's bordering school districts, even though Philadelphia's students have among the highest needs. The brief concludes with "implications and recommendations" of strategies to recruit and retain a qualified, more diverse teaching workforce, many of which are already underway in the School District. [For Brief 3, "Back on Track: How Off-Track Ninth Graders Progressed in Later Years of High School, Class of 2017 and 2018," see ED608081.]

In March 2020, when the coronavirus pandemic caused schools to close for the remainder of the school year, all Pennsylvania school districts and charter schools were required to "make good faith efforts to implement continuity of education plans for the duration of the 2019-20 school year." RFA analyzed these plans for each of the 43 districts and for 13 charter schools located in Allegheny County. During these months of remote instruction in Allegheny County: (1) Districts and charters relied heavily on asynchronous (work at your own pace) instruction and alternative grading and attendance tracking; (2) Students missed significant amounts of formal instruction time; (3) The overall quality of remote instruction varied widely, with students experiencing inequitable access to devices and other technology; (4) Most plans provided only vague descriptions of how they would provide special education and student support services; and (5) Access to quality remote instruction varied by student race and poverty. [This is a publication of Allegheny County Education Research (ACER).]

To support state efforts to close postsecondary attainment equity gaps for students of color, Research for Action (RFA) developed a framework that describes three drivers behind efforts to place racial equity at the center of postsecondary policymaking and practice: awareness, inclusion, and integration. The framework is adapted from Equity in the Center's Race Equity Cycle and is informed by Research for Action's examination of the three states in the first cohort of the Lumina Foundation's Talent, Innovation, and Equity (TIE) states -- Colorado, Tennessee, and Oregon. This report highlights four important factors that affect how state higher education agencies worked to advance racial equity: (1) data availability and use; (2) culture at the system or state agency; (3) state leadership; and (4) statewide advocacy environment. This report provides recommendations for how state agencies can drive awareness, inclusion, and integration across each factor. Recommendations are informed by data on the best practices and lessons learned from the implementation of each state's TIE initiative. While each TIE state developed their own strategies for advancing equity and closing racial attainment gaps, the primary pillars of the work were similar -- state-level awareness, coalition-building, and institutional engagement. The first in a series, this report examines state-level strategies for closing racial equity gaps. The next two reports in this series will explore lessons learned in advancing racial equity through statewide coalition-building and investments in institutional efforts.

RFA's three-year mixed methods evaluation of Children's Literacy Initiative's language and literacy supports found positive impacts despite higher-than-typical teacher turnover. In pre-K centers receiving CLI supports, teachers were more able to implement effective instructional practices and created richer classroom literacy environments, and children's vocabulary grew faster by an order of magnitude of two-and-a-half months, relative to teachers and children in similar pre-K centers. We observed these impacts consistently throughout the study even though year-to year teacher turnover was higher than national averages. We found that challenges associated with the high turnover inhibited consistently robust implementation of the CLI's intervention. Fewer than one in five teachers received the full intended level of support, and less than half of surveyed teachers reported implementing with fidelity all three of the key instructional approaches of the Blueprint for Early Literacy curriculum supplement (Message Time Plus, Intentional Read Aloud, and Power of Three). Despite variable dosage, the study finds statistically significant positive impact for student learning and teacher practice. This, along with teacher and center director descriptions of ease of use, suggests that CLI's early language and literacy supports are particularly well-suited for improving quality and outcomes in high-need pre-K environments. [Additional funding for Blueprint implementation was provided by Boeing Company Charitable Trust, the 25th Century Foundation, the Caroline Alexander Buck Foundation, and the Capital Group Companies.]

Statewide College Promise programs have the potential to broadly increase affordability, access, and success for students pursuing a postsecondary credential. Statewide College Promise programs also generate controversy because they encompass critical decisions about how a large proportion of state financial aid dollars are spent, and on whom. Much of the debate surrounding these programs is centered on issues of equity. Do Promise programs drive dollars to middle class students rather than lower income students? How can poorly resourced colleges and universities that serve disproportionate numbers of students of color effectively support the influx of new Promise students? Do Promise programs exclude part-time students, working adults, or undocumented students? There are no monolithic answers to these questions because statewide Promise programs are as varied as the states they operate in. In crafting Promise programs, policymakers make a series of decisions and tradeoffs that affect affordability, access, and student success. This brief provides considerations for state policymakers and postsecondary institutional leaders as they prioritize equity in their approach to Promise programs.

Tennessee has gained national recognition for its comprehensive strategy to increase college attainment. This report describes the development and expansion of Tennessee's completion agenda through a set of related and interlocking policies designed to produce a statewide culture of college completion, as well as the evolution of Tennessee's completion strategy and points to important successes. It also identifies several enduring challenges that threaten the state's capacity to bridge equity gaps and make college completion a reality for traditionally underserved students. This report is based on four years of research examining postsecondary policies in Tennessee between 2015 and 2019.

In this brief, Research for Action examines the prevalence of school policing in Pennsylvania schools. While data on police presence is limited, this brief is able to examine: (1) race/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in school police staffing and spending; (2) race/ethnic disparities in referrals to law enforcement and school-based arrests by gender, grade, and special education status; and (3) changes over time in Pennsylvania's school police staffing and school-based referrals and arrests. This brief is part two of three in the "Police in Pennsylvania Schools" series, designed to inform conversations for Pennsylvania policymakers, school leaders, and other stakeholders. [For "What Impact Does the Presence of School Police Have on School Safety? Police in Pennsylvania Schools Series," see ED608041.]

In partnership with the Consortium for Policy Research in Education, RFA has been studying Philadelphia schools' take-up of an instructional reform that has demonstrated positive impacts on teacher knowledge and student learning in math. The Ongoing Assessment Project (OGAP) is designed to deepen teachers' understanding of foundational concepts in math and engage them in regular formative assessment of their students' problem-solving strategies. Implementing an ambitious educational reform such as this one is notoriously challenging, as project staff, district personnel, and school leaders struggle to move from initial professional development--where so much money is invested--to deep, routine engagement in schools and classrooms. Teachers' instructional practices are difficult to change, and it is particularly hard to engender reform ownership in contexts full of competing demands. In our 2019 study of OGAP in Philadelphia, one school's engagement with the project offered key lessons in how to successfully approach such a reform. School faculty and project staff layered supports and distributed leadership in unique ways, and they carved out space for teachers to learn, practice, and take ownership of OGAP. This brief shares six lessons from this school for those who wish to facilitate deep ownership of an ambitious instructional reform, including reform developers/staff, district leaders, and school leaders. The brief concludes with tables of questions that readers in each of these roles can ask themselves when designing and/or implementing similar reforms.

The United States is plagued by large disparities in life outcomes between racial and ethnic groups. Researchers have documented how gaps in outcomes are related to gaps in access to opportunity, both in education and otherwise. Yet, as documented in this report, too often state policymakers still fail to provide equitable learning opportunities to their students. The Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) is administered biennially by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights. This data set provides dozens of indicators related to access to educational opportunity from virtually every public school in the nation. To determine the extent to which high school students have access to schools that provide quality educational opportunities, we analyzed 14 CRDC indicators. From these 14 indicators, we generated composite indices of three broad domains of access to educational opportunity for high school students: (1) Access to Quality Educators Index; (2) Access to College and Career Readiness Curriculum Index; and (3) Access to Positive School Climate Index.

Pennsylvania's students consistently score above the national average on overall student achievement. However, the state's achievement gaps between White students and Black and Hispanic students are consistently among the worst in the country, even when controlling for gaps in family income, poverty, unemployment, and parental educational attainment. In this brief, the authors highlight how Pennsylvania compares to other states in providing equitable access to educational opportunity. Following a more detailed discussion of the educational opportunity indicators, the authors first examine Pennsylvania's rankings on overall access and then how Pennsylvania compares to other states on gaps in access to educational opportunity between White and Black students, between White and Hispanic students, and between students eligible for free/reduced price lunch and students who are not eligible. Finally, the authors discuss how racial gaps in access to educational opportunity persist or change when examining just the subsets of high schools with high, medium, or low concentrations of student poverty.