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It has been clearly established that the Portuguese introduced coconuts to the Cape Verde islands in 1499, and these supplied the Atlantic coasts and the Caribbean in the 1500s. By contrast, early 16th century reports of coconuts on the Pacific coast of Panama are controversial. Recent DNA analysis of modern coconut populations there shows them to be similar to Philippine varieties, agreeing with morphometric analysis. Hence, coconuts must have been brought by boat from the western Pacific, but no archaeological, ethnobotanical or linguistic evidence for pre-Columbian coconuts has been found. Thus, the most parsimonious explanation is that coconuts were introduced to Panama after Spanish conquest, as supported by DNA analysis and historical records of Spanish voyages. New collections along the Pacific coast, from Mexico to Colombia, are increasing the sampling for genetic analysis, and further work in the Philippines is suggested to test probable origins. Unless new archaeological discoveries prove otherwise, the strong hypothesis of Philippine origin should direct future research on the sources of American Pacific coast coconuts.

Air transport brings areas 'closer together'. But it leaves some places relatively more isolated than when all depended on other modes of transport. Improved technology accentuates this tendency. Where traffic is low and distance long, the maintenance of links is costly. These issues are examined at both international and national scales in the case of Tonga, using several measures of distance and relative accessibility.

Systems of contract labor are established in specific political, economic and social conditions to meet the needs of employers, governments and, sometimes, employees. They are maintained if these conditions continue or if one or more of the participant groups has sufficient power or interest to maintain the system. In the case examined here the interests of government, employers and, by proxy, employees were seen to converge and led to the establishment of Papua New Guinea's Highland Labour Scheme. This opened up a hitherto little known population and untapped source of labor with few previous contacts outside their own tribal group. It was the initial avenue by which highlanders entered the monetary economy and the wider national polity. The scheme was successful in controlling the more destructive effects of over-rapid introduction to new socioeconomic systems and disease. When medical transport and political contexts changed the scheme was no longer justified and was abolished.

During the last century and a half, Fijians have made great changes to the ways they allocate and control land. Some changes now have the sanction of ‘custom’ or government law. Some current practices are sanctioned by either custom or law, or both; others by neither. Government land and labour policies of the 1870s and 1880s were designed to protect Fijians from loss of their land and from the social disruption which, it was thought, would follow such loss. These policies, which codified a quasi-traditional order, ran the risk of creating a strait jacket preventing adjustment to new social, political and economic situations. The longer-term consequences have not been as serious a constraint on socio-economic change as they might, largely because people have simply ignored the regulations and their intent. Older flexible practices of land allocation and use continued, or new practices emerged which, though unsanctioned by ‘custom’ and sometimes illegal, have met new needs. What is often assumed to be a ‘traditional’ land tenure system now differs from the practices followed prior to codification of Fijian land tenure by the colonial government. Major discrepancies now exist between those registered as owners of land held under ‘customary’ tenure, legally called ‘native land’, and those who use it; and between legally sanctioned means of allocating use of native land to non-Fijians and the way much native land is made available to such people. These discrepancies are rarely acknowledged publicly in policy-making circles.

The Pacific Science Association (PSA), which is dedicated to the science of and in the Pacific, is the oldest Asia-Pacific regional inter-disciplinary science association. The PSA has been an influential organisation in the region over the course of its eight decade history. It has also served as a seedbed for other organisations and projects. The changing contexts of the late 20th century posed challenges for the PSA as they did for other scientific organisations. The complexity of current demographic, environmental and development concerns demands inter-disciplinary approaches to contemporary challenges. The PSA, an inter-disciplinary organisation from its inception, must review its mission, address its policy relevance, adopt new communication strategies and become a scientific resource for the future.

Debate on the origin and dispersal of Cocos nu- cifera has generally concluded that the palm has a South- east Asia-Melanesian origin. The means of dispersal to the margins of its pre-industrial range is in more dispute. The literature on this question is reviewed. A stochastic simula- tion model of the winds, currents and islands of the Pacific Ocean tests the hypothesis of trans-Pacific drift dispersal. The model suggests that the probability of coconuts drifting unaided to the west coast of Panama while remaining viable is extremely low. Dispersal to Panama by humans seems more likely.

* This survey was compiled from data collected in the course of a regional study carried out by the Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation, in conjunction with P.A. Management Consultants Pty. Ltd., G.P. McGowan and Associates Pty. Ltd., Gavan McDonell and Company Pty. Ltd., and Australian Aerial Mapping (W.A.) Pty. Ltd. Their report to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Canberra, is printed in seven volumes under the general title Preliminary Regional Survey for Road Network Identification in Kalimantan Barat—Indonesia, December 1973. The authors of the present summary were both members of the study team and wish to express their thanks to the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation for permission to draw on the reports of that study.

Summary A brief survey of the work of geographers in, and on, Papua New Guinea is followed by a preliminary bibliography of their publications.

The author examines some of the assumptions classifications and techniques that affect the study of migration in specific countries. Using migration in Papua New Guinea as an example he critically reviews the conventional approaches to the study of migration (ANNOTATION)

(1974). The new New Guinea: Constraints and opportunities. Australian Geographer: Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 497-509.

Dilemmas in South Pacific Agriculture. — Agriculture is basic to Pacific Island economies. National self-sufficiency in food production is a major goal, but may not be attainable because of environmental, social, political and economic constraints. Imported foods are often preferred for economic or social reasons. Traditional agricultural systems have changed under market influences but smallholder systems are often unable to meet either cash income needs of farmers or the export production levels sought by governments. The future may require some larger-scale production units; the provision of marketing, research and technical services to smallholders; and, especially in atolls and remote islands, a major effort to improve subsistence productivity., L'agriculture est à la base de l'économie des îles du Pacifique. L'indépendance alimentaire de chaque nation constitue un objectif majeur, mais elle peut ne pas être accessible à cause de contraintes d'environnement ou de contraintes sociales, politiques et économiques. Les nourritures importées sont elles-mêmes souvent préférées pour des raisons économiques ou sociales. Les systèmes agricoles traditionnels se sont transformés sous l'influence de l'économie de marché, mais les systèmes de petite exploitation restent le plus souvent incapables de répondre aux besoins monétaires des fermiers ou même d'atteindre le niveau de production suffisant pour l'exportation que souhaitent les gouvernements. L'avenir implique la constitution d'unités de production à plus grande échelle, l'approvisionnement et l'organisation des marchés, l'assistance technique et scientifique aux petites exploitations; et spécialement dans les atolls et les îles isolées, un effort important pour augmenter la production vivriere., Ward R. GerardWard R. Gerard. Les dilemmes de l'agriculture dans le Pacifique Sud. In: L'Espace géographique, tome 11, n°4, 1982. pp. 269-280.

(1976). In their own image: Australia's impact on Papua New Guinea and lessons for future aid. Australian Outlook: Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 439-458.

(1986). Reflections on Pacific Island agriculture in the late 20th century. The Journal of Pacific History: Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 217-226.

(1969). Land use and land alienation in Fiji to 1885. The Journal of Pacific History: Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 3-25.

(1968). Unpublished manuscripts IV. The Journal of Pacific History: Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 178-180.