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Students' academic achievement is a key predictor of various life outcomes and is commonly used for selection as well as for educational monitoring and accountability. With regard to achievement indicators, a differentiation has traditionally been drawn between grades and standardized tests. There is initial, albeit inconclusive, evidence that these indicators might differentially reflect students' personality as encapsulated in the Big Five personality traits as well as measures of cognitive abilities. In this article, we propose the personality-achievement saturation hypothesis (PASH) as an overarching model that describes the association between achievement indicators and personality. The PASH suggests that the differentiation between grades and tests is too simplistic and that associations between personality and achievement instead vary across five main features of the achievement measures that are used: level of standardization, relevance for the student, curricular validity, instructional sensitivity, and cognitive ability saturation. On the basis of findings from prior studies, we focused in particular on conscientiousness and openness to test the PASH. We used data from three large-scale studies (total N = 14,953) and aggregated our findings across these studies. In line with the PASH, the Big Five trait of conscientiousness was most strongly related to measures that were less standardized and less saturated with cognitive ability but higher on curriculum validity, relevance, and instructional sensitivity. In addition, openness was most strongly related to measures that were higher on standardization and cognitive ability saturation but lower on relevance, curriculum validity, and instructional sensitivity in English.Educational Impact and Implications Statement Achievement measures are of central importance for student selection, employment, and educational policy, and according to a widely shared belief, they involve intellectual abilities as well as aspects of personality such as effort and persistence. Up to now, prior research has remained rather inconclusive about why achievement measures vary in their degree of personality saturation. In this study, we developed and successfully tested a new framework (the PASH), which categorizes achievement measures along five main features and thereby contributes to a better explanation of differential associations between personality traits and different achievement measures.

Improvisational theatre (improv) is supposed to have an impact on cognitive processes (divergent thinking, flexibility, language, memory, problem solving, and co-construction), academic performance, and everyday life in many ways. However, little research studied on the psychological impact of improv, with some results highlighting a divergent thinking enhancement in children and adults, but not with teenagers, one of the most important age groups to practice improv. Therefore, this study aims to assess divergent thinking for middle school students before and after an 11-week session compared to a control group with a sport practice. The Alternative Uses Task was used before and after the session for both groups to evaluate divergent thinking. The improv group had better performance in originality, flexibility and gave less prototypical items after the improv sessions compared to before, while the control group performance was similar before and after. Our results suggest that improv helps teenagers’ divergent thinking to improve, not only with experimental games in the lab context but also after ecological sessions. We urge scientists to study in depth psychological impacts of improvisational theatre and applied improvisation, for a better understanding of improv and as a model to study embodied cognition.

Incremental implicit theories are associated with a belief regarding it is possible to improve one’s intelligence or ability through efforts. Previous studies have demonstrated that incremental implicit theories contributed to better academic achievement and positive youth development. Our study aimed to examine whether incremental implicit theories of morality significantly influenced change in students’ engagement in voluntary service activities. In our study, 54 Korean college students for Study 1 and 180 Korean 8th graders for Study 2 were recruited to conduct two two-wave studies. We surveyed participants’ implicit theories of morality and participation in voluntary service activities. The effect of implicit theories of morality on change in service engagement was analyzed through regression analysis. In Study 1, the moral growth mindset significantly moderated longitudinal change in service engagement. In Study 2, the moral growth mindset significantly influenced engagement in art-related activities, while it significantly moderated change in engagement in youth-related activities.

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported in Vol 115(6) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2018-63189-002). In the article, the original supplemental material has been revised to include a clarifying note to the Tests of model fit over larger sample (Samples C-G) section and post-peer review analyses added to the Post-peer review Factor Analytic Tests section. All versions of this article have been corrected.] Philosophers and behavioral scientists refer to wisdom as unbiased reasoning that guides one toward a balance of interests and promotes a good life. However, major instruments developed to test wisdom appear biased, and it is unclear whether they capture balance-related tendencies. We examined whether shifting from global, de-contextualized reports to state-level reports about concrete situations provides a less biased method to assess wise reasoning (e.g., intellectual humility, recognition of uncertainty and change, consideration of the broader context at hand and perspectives of others, integration of these perspectives or compromise), which may be aligned with the notion of balancing interests. Results of a large-scale psychometric investigation (N = 4,463) revealed that the novel Situated WIse Reasoning Scale (SWIS) is reliable and appears independent of psychological biases (attribution bias, bias blind spot, self-deception, and impression management), whereas global wisdom reports are subject to such biases. Moreover, SWIS scores were positively related to indices of living well (e.g., adaptive emotion regulation, mindfulness), and balancing of cooperative and self-protective interests, goals (influence-vs.-adjustment), and causal inferences about conflict (attribution to the self-vs.-other party). In contrast, global wisdom reports were unrelated or negatively related to balance-related measures. Notably, people showed modest within-person consistency in wise reasoning across situations or over time, suggesting that a single-shot measurement may be insufficient for whole understanding of trait-level wisdom. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for research on wisdom, judgment and decision making, well-being, and prosociality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Aspects of human life history and cognition, such as our long childhoods and extensive use of teaching, theoretically evolved to facilitate the acquisition of complex tasks. The present paper empirically examines the relationship between subsistence task difficulty and age of acquisition, rates of teaching, and rates of oblique transmission among Hadza and BaYaka foragers from Tanzania and the Republic of Congo. We further examine cross-cultural variation in how and from whom learning occurred. Learning patterns and community perceptions of task difficulty were assessed through interviews. We found no relationship between task difficulty, age of acquisition, and oblique transmission, and a weak but positive relationship between task difficulty and rates of teaching. While same-sex transmission was normative in both societies, tasks ranked as more difficult were more likely to be transmitted by men among the BaYaka, but not among the Hadza, potentially reflecting cross-cultural differences in the sexual division of subsistence and teaching labor. Further, the BaYaka were more likely to report learning via teaching, and less likely to report learning via observation, than the Hadza, possibly owing to differences in socialization practices.RéSUMé: Certains aspects de l'histoire de la vie humaine et de la cognition, comme la longue enfance et le recours intensif à l'enseignement, ont théoriquement évolué pour faciliter l'acquisition de tâches complexes. Le présent article examine empiriquement la relation entre la difficulté des tâches de subsistance et l'âge d'acquisition, les taux d'enseignement et les taux de transmission oblique chez les chasseurs-cueilleurs Hadza et BaYaka de Tanzanie et de la République du Congo. Nous avons également examiné les variations interculturelles sur la façon dont l'apprentissage se fait et auprès de qui. Les modèles d'apprentissage et les perceptions de la communauté concernant la difficulté des tâches ont été évalués par le biais d'entretiens. Nous n'avons trouvé aucune relation entre la difficulté de la tâche, l'âge d'acquisition et la transmission oblique, et une relation faible mais positive entre la difficulté de la tâche et les taux d'enseignement. Alors que la transmission entre personnes de même sexe était normative dans les deux sociétés, les tâches classées comme plus difficiles étaient plus susceptibles d'être transmises par les hommes chez les BaYaka, mais pas chez les Hadza, ce qui reflète potentiellement les différences interculturelles dans la division sexuelle touchant le travail impliqué dans la subsistance et l'enseignement. En outre, les BaYaka étaient plus susceptibles que les Hadza de déclarer qu'ils apprenaient au moyen de l'enseignement et moins susceptibles d'apprendre par observation, peut-être en raison de différences dans les pratiques de socialisation.

Research into teacher motivation has shown that teachers’ achievement goal pursuit matters, for teachers themselves (e.g., their well-being) and teaching outcomes. While most research has followed a variable-centered approach, a multiple goal perspective has also emerged within, postulating that individuals pursue different combinations of achievement goals, or goal profiles, that might be differentially adaptive or maladaptive. The latter perspective has inspired much person-centered research on students resulting in many different profiles that often primarily differed by level differences, which limits the usefulness of this approach. In the present work, we analyzed achievement goal profiles of teachers and their usefulness by investigating whether psychologically meaningful, coherent, and generalizable profiles can be found in different populations, how such profiles are associated with teachers’ self-efficacy and work-related distress, and how powerful they are beyond a variable-centered approach. Using data from three study sets (total N = 3,681) from different countries (Israel, Germany) and different institution types (schools, universities), we found six psychologically meaningful and largely generalizable goal profiles that can be helpful in describing teachers’ goal pursuit. However, several profiles primarily differed by strength of performance goals and not by further qualitative differences, which limits the usefulness of this approach for describing differences in the quality of motivations. Further, the goal profiles had little incremental explanatory value beyond well-known effects of individual goals in explaining self-efficacy and work-related distress (ΔR² < .03). Given these findings, we critically evaluate the use of achievement goal profiles for studying the motivation of teachers (and by extension possibly also students).

Continuous norming is an increasingly popular approach to establish norms when the performance on a test is dependent on age. However, current continuous norming methods rely on a number of assumptions that are quite restrictive and may introduce bias. In this study, quantile regression was introduced as more flexible alternative. Bias and precision of quantile regression-based norming were investigated with (age-)group as covariate, varying sample sizes and score distributions, and compared with bias and precision of two other norming methods: traditional norming and mean regression-based norming. Simulations showed the norms obtained using quantile regression to be most precise in almost all conditions. Norms were nevertheless biased when the score distributions reflected a ceiling effect. Quantile regression-based norming can thus be considered a promising alternative to traditional norming and mean regression-based norming, but only if the shape of the score distribution can be expected to be close to normal.

Much has been written about instructor attitudes towards lecture capture, particularly concerning political issues such as opt-out policies and the use of recordings by management. Additionally, the pedagogical concerns of lecturers have been extensively described and focus on the belief that recording lectures will impact on attendance and will reduce interactivity and active learning activities in lectures. However, little work has looked at the relationship between attitudes towards lecture capture and broader conceptions of learning and teaching. In this pre-registered study, we administered the Conceptions of Learning and Teaching scale and a novel lecture capture attitude scale to 159 higher education teachers. We found that appreciation of active learning predicted more positive attitudes towards lecture recordings as an educational support tool, whilst higher teacher-centred scores predicted greater concern about the negative educational impact of recordings. The effects observed were small; however, they are strong evidence against the view that it is instructors who value participatory and active learning that are opposed to lecture capture. Exploratory analyses also suggested that those who did not view recordings as an essential educational resource record fewer of their lectures, highlighting the real-world impact that attitudes can have, and further strengthening the need for staff to be provided with evidence-based guidance upon which to base their teaching practice. Data, analysis code, and the pre-registration are available athttps://osf.io/uzs3t/.

Red color supposedly affects cognitive functioning in achievement situations and impairs test performance. Although this has been shown for different cognitive domains in different populations and cultural contexts, recent studies including close replications failed to corroborate this effect. Reported here is a random-effects meta-analysis of 67 effect sizes (38 samples) that compared test performance after viewing red or a control color. For anagram tests and knowledge tests no significant difference between color conditions was found (Cohen’s d of -0.06 and -0.04); for reasoning tests the pooled effect of d = -0.34, 95% CI [-0.61, -0.06] indicated significantly lower scores in the red condition. The cumulative meta-analysis revealed substantially larger effects in initial studies as compared to subsequent research. After correcting for publication bias no evidential value for an effect of red color on intellectual performance was available. The review casts doubt on the existence of a robust color-priming effect in achievement situations. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.3758/s13423-020-01772-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background Spatial skills and mathematical ability have been repeatedly identified as critical for achievement in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). Previous studies have identified correlations between spatial skills and mathematical achievement; however, questions remain regarding improvements in non-spatial areas associated with STEM achievement. The current study examined whether competency in spatial skills could be related to individuals’ motivation for mathematics. Measures of spatial skills and mathematics motivation were completed by 1056 seventh grade students. Results Using hierarchical linear modeling, spatial skills and math motivation were examined relative to students’ performance on a state standardized mathematics subtest. Results indicate that spatial skills and motivation interact to significantly predict students’ mathematics performance. Conclusions These results suggest that spatial skills in combination with motivation play a significant role in middle school students’ mathematics achievement.

People often have difficulty understanding processes of biological change, and they typically reject drastic life cycle changes such as metamorphosis, except for animals with which they are familiar. Even after a lesson about metamorphosis, people often do not generalize to animals not seen during the lesson. This might be partially due to the perceptual richness of the diagrams typically used during lessons on metamorphosis, which serves to emphasize the individual animal rather than a class of animals. In two studies, we examined whether the perceptual richness of a diagram influences adults’ learning and transfer of knowledge about metamorphosis. One study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the other online. In both studies, adults who saw the bland diagram during the lesson accurately transferred more than adults who saw the rich diagram during the lesson.

This is an original manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in Scientific Studies of Reading (SSR) on 14th April, 2020, available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/[Article DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2020.1750618].The procedural deficit hypothesis claims that impaired procedural learning is a causal risk factor for developmental dyslexia and developmental language disorder. We investigated the relationships between measures of basic cognitive processes (declarative learning, procedural learning and attention) and measures of attainment (reading, grammar and arithmetic) in a large sample of 7- and 8-year-old children. A latent variable path model showed that verbal declarative memory skills predicted attainment but were not significantly related to attention. Procedural learning was only weakly related to measures of attainment and attention assessed during the procedural learning task accounted entirely for its relationship with measures of attainment. Our results challenge the procedural deficit hypothesis of reading and language disorders, but suggest that attentional skills (rather than procedural learning ability per se) may be an important predictor of reading, arithmetic and grammatical skills.

Interest in wisdom in the cognitive sciences, psychology, and education has been paralleled by conceptual confusions about its nature and assessment. To clarify these issues and promote consensus in the field, wisdom researchers met in Toronto in July of 2019, resolving disputes through discussion. Guided by a survey of scientists who study wisdom-related constructs, we established a common wisdom model, observing that empirical approaches to wisdom converge on the morally-grounded application of metacognition to reasoning and problem-solving. After outlining the function of relevant metacognitive and moral processes, we critically evaluate existing empirical approaches to measurement and offer recommendations for best practices. In the subsequent sections, we use the common wisdom model to selectively review evidence about the role of individual differences for development and manifestation of wisdom, approaches to wisdom development and training, as well as cultural, subcultural, and social-contextual differences. We conclude by discussing wisdom’s conceptual overlap with a host of other constructs and outline unresolved conceptual and methodological challenges.

There is growing interest in the role that morphological knowledge plays in literacy acquisition, but there is no research directly comparing the efficacy of different forms of morphological instruction. Here we compare two methods of teaching English morphology in the context of a memory experiment when words were organized by affix during study (e.g., a list of words was presented that all share an affix, such as , , , , etc.) or by base during study (e.g., a list of words was presented that all share a base, such as , , , ). We show that memory for morphologically complex words is better in both conditions compared to a control condition that does not highlight the morphological composition of words, and most importantly, show that studying words in a base-centric format improves memory further still. We argue that the morphological matrix that organizes words around a common base may provide an important new tool for literacy instruction.

This study explored how exposure to a mine fire and smoke event influenced students' academic outcomes.The academic results for 303 students (aged 7.8-16.2 years) were accessed and students completed the Children's Revised Impact of Events Scale to measure their level of distress resulting from the mine fire.The longitudinal analysis found that secondary students, who attended schools in the town most exposed to particulate matter from the mine fire, experienced an 18.5-month delay in academic progress (95% CI [13.6, 23.5]) after the mine fire, relative to the wider area. No evidence was found in academic delays related to exposure to the mine fire among primary school students. There was also no evidence of additional delays in academic progress for students with higher levels of event-related distress.Schools should monitor and provide academic support to students to protect them against academic decline after a disaster. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The positive manifold of intelligence has fascinated generations of scholars in human ability. In the past century, various formal explanations have been proposed, including the dominant g factor, the revived sampling theory, and the recent multiplier effect model and mutualism model. In this article, we propose a novel idiographic explanation. We formally conceptualize intelligence as evolving networks in which new facts and procedures are wired together during development. The static model, an extension of the Fortuin–Kasteleyn model, provides a parsimonious explanation of the positive manifold and intelligence’s hierarchical factor structure. We show how it can explain the Matthew effect across developmental stages. Finally, we introduce a method for studying growth dynamics. Our truly idiographic approach offers a new view on a century-old construct and ultimately allows the fields of human ability and human learning to coalesce.

It is important to understand the nature of math anxiety in the general adult population, as the importance of math skills does not end when one leaves school. To this end, we present a well-powered, preregistered study of English-speaking U.S. adults describing the nature of math anxiety in this population. 1000 participants were recruited online. Math anxiety was approximately normally distributed, with the mean between “some” and “moderate”. Math anxiety was significantly negatively correlated with probability knowledge and math fluency, and significantly positively correlated with general anxiety and test anxiety. Women reported higher math anxiety than did men. Participants who had completed graduate school or had a STEM career had significantly lower levels of math anxiety than did those with less education, or non-STEM careers. Thus, we see evidence for math anxiety in U.S. adults and that it correlates with factors also reported in previous studies using younger and student populations.

In this article we describe the origins of the subtests that appear on the modern Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5), Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV). We found that the majority of these subtest formats were first created in 1908 or earlier and that only three have been created since 1980. We discuss the implications of these findings, which are that (1) many subtests have lengthy research histories that support their use in measuring intelligence; (2) many subtests have formats that predate modern theories of test creation, cognitive psychology, and intelligence; and (3) the history of many subtests is more complex than psychologists probably realize.

Teachers’ content-related humor matters for the quality of higher education, however, little is known about the circumstances under which teachers use it. From a socio-cognitive perspective, teachers’ achievement goals and self-efficacy appear to be relevant personal precursors. We investigated their effects on content-related humor in two studies. In Study 1, 229 teachers (79 female; 159 PhDs; 33 full professors) participated with 387 courses while 10,296 students assessed the humor in these courses. Study 2 used a similar design for 45 teachers (20 female; 27 PhDs, 9 full professors), 116 course sessions, and 2,333 student assessments. Three-level-analyses pointed to substantial variance in students’ assessments of content-related humor which could be attributed to differences between courses/sessions within teachers (ICC=.12–.13) and between teachers themselves (ICC=.21). In both studies, performance (appearance component) avoidance goals emerged as negative predictors, and relational goals and self-efficacy as positive predictors of content-related humor, highlighting the relevance of instructors’ motivations for the use of instructional humor.

We developed and tested a behavioral version of the Defining Issues Test-1 revised (DIT-1r), which is a measure of the development of moral judgment. We conducted a behavioral experiment using the behavioral Defining Issues Test (bDIT) to examine the relationship between participants’ moral developmental status, moral competence, and reaction time when making moral judgments. We found that when the judgments were made based on the preferred moral schema, the reaction time for moral judgments was significantly moderated by the moral developmental status. In addition, as a participant becomes more confident with moral judgment, the participant differentiates the preferred versus other schemas better particularly when the participant’s abilities for moral judgment are more developed.

Awe is described as an a “epistemic emotion” because it is hypothesized to make gaps in one’s knowledge salient. However, no empirical evidence for this yet exists. Awe is also hypothesized to be an antecedent to interest in science because science is one way to fill those knowledge gaps. Results from four pre-registered studies (N = 1,518) indicate that manipulating awe through online (Studies 1a, 1b, and 1c) and virtual reality (Study 2) videos, led to greater awareness of knowledge gaps. Awareness of knowledge gaps was consistently associated with greater science interest and to choosing tickets to a science museum over tickets to an art museum (Study 1b). These effects were not consistently observed on, nor moderated by, other measures related to cognition, religion, and spirituality. However, exploratory analyses showed that science interest was better predicted by positive emotions than by awe. Still, these results provide the first empirical evidence of awe as an “epistemic emotion” by demonstrating its effects on awareness of knowledge gaps. These findings are also extended to the effects of awe on science interest as one possible outcome of awareness of knowledge gaps.

Empirical scientists cannot do without statistics. This fact is reflected by the pervasiveness of statistics courses in the curricula of essentially all scientific disciplines. Unfortunately, many students exhibit statistics anxiety, that is, ''feelings of anxiety [...] when taking a statistics course or doing statistical analyses'' (Cruise, Cash, & Bolton, 1985, p. 92). In a recent publication, Siew, McCartney, & Vitevitch (2019) aim to shed new light on this highly relevant topic by using data analysis tools from the field of network science. However, just as with any other statistical model, one has to carefully assess the adequacy and robustness of a network model. In this commentary, we point to a number of shortcomings in the article by Siew et al. (2019) with respect to this goal that question their main conclusions. We explain each problem and suggest ways to address it. We hope that these suggestions help to put future investigation of statistics anxiety using network models on a firm methodological basis.

Boys show less adaptive behaviour and engagement than girls at school. Much research has examined gender differences in academic motivation to explain gender differences in school engagement. However, students engage in schools both academically and socially, and gender differences in social motivation may further contribute to the gender gap in academic engagement. In this study, 536 secondary school students in England (ages 13–14) reported their social achievement goals, academic achievement goals, and self-handicapping behaviours. Boys were more likely to adopt social demonstration goals, performance-approach and -avoidance goals, and reported greater behavioural self-handicapping. Moreover, structural equation models showed that social demonstration goals uniquely mediated the relationship between gender and self-handicapping, beyond the effect of performance-avoidance goals. Results highlight the importance of social achievement goals in explaining gender differences in self-handicapping. The findings suggest that educators need to attend to adolescents' social goals in addition to their academic goals in secondary school.

Critical thinking is of paramount importance in our society. People regularly assume that critical thinking is a way to reduce conspiracy belief, although the relationship between critical thinking ability and conspiracy belief has never been tested. Interestingly, certain conspiracy believers claim to have higher critical thinking ability, whereas most researchers hypothesize that conspiracy believers have lower critical thinking ability. To resolve this debate, we conducted two studies (Study 1, N = 86; Study 2, N = 252), in which we found that critical thinking ability—measured by a writing task that requires identifying poor arguments and reasoning—is negatively associated with belief in conspiracy theories. Additionally, we did not find a significant relationship between self-reported (subjective) critical thinking ability and conspiracy belief. Our results support the idea that conspiracy believers have less developed critical thinking ability and stimulate discussion about the possibility to reduce conspiracy beliefs via critical thinking development.

Background Britain is rich in longitudinal population cohort studies that posit valuable data resources for social science. However, education researchers currently underutilize these resources. Aims The current paper (1) outlines the power and benefits of secondary data analyses for educational science and (2) provides a practical guide for education researchers on the characteristics, data, and accessibility of British population cohort studies. Methods We identified eight British population cohort studies from the past 40 years that collected scholastic performance data during primary and secondary schooling, including (1) Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents And Children (ALSPAC), (2) Twins Early Development Study (TEDS), (3) Effective Pre-School, Primary and Secondary Education Project (EPPSE), (4) Millennium Cohort Study (MCS), (5) Born in Bradford (BiB), (6) Next Steps (LYSPE1), (7) Understanding Society (US), and (8) Our Future (LYSPE2). Participants across these studies were born between 1989 and 2010, and followed up at least once and up to 68 times, over periods of 7 to 29 years. For each study, we summarize here the context and aims, review the assessed variables, and describe the process for accessing the data. Conclusions We hope this article will encourage and support education researchers to widely utilize existing population cohort studies to further advance education science in Britain and elsewhere.

Most studies utilizing a person-oriented approach to investigating students’ achievement goal orientation profiles have been domain-general or focused on a single domain (usually mathematics), thus excluding the possibility of identifying distinct subject-specific motivational profiles. In this study, we looked into this by examining upper secondary school students’ subject-specific achievement goal orientation profiles simultaneously in mathematics and English. As distinct profiles might contribute to how students invest time and effort in studying, we also examined differences in perceived subject-specific cost (i.e., effort required, emotional cost, opportunity cost) among students with different profiles, and how this was linked with students’ more general academic well-being (i.e., school engagement, burnout). The 434 Finnish general upper secondary school students participating in the study were classified based on their achievement goal orientations in the two subjects using latent profile analysis, and the predictions of the latent profile on distal outcomes (i.e., measures of cost and academic well-being) were examined within the mixture model. Five divergent achievement goal orientation profiles were identified: indifferent (29%), success-oriented (26%), mastery-oriented (25%), English-oriented, math-avoidant (14%), and avoidance-oriented (6%). The English-oriented, math-avoidant students showed the most distinct domain-specificity in their profile but, in general, profiles indicated more cross-domain generality than specificity. Overall, mastery-oriented students showed the most adaptive academic well-being, while avoidance-oriented students were the least engaged. Success-oriented students were characterised by high multiple goals in both subjects, elevated costs, and high scores on both positive (engagement) and negative (burnout) well-being indicators. The English-oriented, math-avoidant students perceived studying math as costly. The findings suggest that addressing students’ achievement motivation in different subjects may be useful for recognising factors endangering or fostering student learning and well-being.

Argumentation competence is a major skill to be acquired in university education. However, there is a lack of advanced argumentation competence even for graduate students. To foster argumentation competence, typical interventions focus on example-based learning. Another approach is learning from advocatory errors. The combination of both approaches is presenting examples of erroneous arguments. Drawing on the concept of case-based learning, we developed a learning intervention that presents examples of argumentation errors in a story-based designs, i.e., the erroneous examples are embedded in a story featuring the argumentation between two persons in an authentic setting. In this contribution, we report results of two studies. In a pilot study, we compared an experimental condition receiving a story-based learning intervention with a control condition without a learning intervention. W found that learning from advocatory errors in a story-based design indeed fosters students’ argumentation competence. In a main study, we compared two forms of instructional support (elaboration vs. testing prompts) against a control condition without instructional support. There was a significant increase of argumentation competence in both conditions with instructional support but not in the control condition. The results also support the cautious conclusion that elaboration prompts seem to be more effective than testing prompts. Overall, the results from both studies indicate that the story-based design is apt to foster students’ argumentation competence. We also considered the impact of prior argumentation competence and found in both studies that the present level of argumentation competence is factor determining the argumentation competence after learning.

Models of word reading that simultaneously take into account item-level and person-level fixed and random effects are broadly known as explanatory item response models (EIRM). Although many variants of the EIRM are available, the field has generally focused on the doubly explanatory model for modeling individual differences on item responses. Moreover, the historical application of the EIRM has been a Rasch version of the model where the item discrimination values are fixed at 1.0 and the random or fixed item effects only pertain to the item difficulties. The statistical literature has advanced to allow for more robust testing of observed or latent outcomes, as well as more flexible parameterizations of the EIRM. The purpose of the present study was to compare four types of Rasch-based EIRMs (i.e., doubly descriptive, person explanatory, item explanatory, doubly explanatory) and more broadly compare Rasch and 2PL EIRM when including person-level and item-level predictors. Results showed that not only was the error variance smaller in the unconditional 2PL EIRM compared to the Rasch EIRM due to including the item discrimination random effect, but that patterns of unique item-level explanatory variables differ between the two approaches. Results are interpreted within the context of what each statistical model affords to the opportunity for describing and explaining differences in word-level performance.

Over the last two decades there has been a growing interest in promoting a smooth transition to the first grade of primary school, given the potential long-term change this can have in preschool children at an academic and personal level. Research shows that psycho-educational interventions help improve children’s academic and personal skills, lessening the effects of this challenging period. The effectiveness of transition-related interventions has been mainly focused on developed economies, such as Australia, the US, the UK, Italy, Hong Kong, etc. However, there is limited evidence regarding how this type of intervention could support stakeholders in developing economies, such as Latin America. The Latin American region displays some of the lowest rates of academic performance and highest rates of social inequality in the world, making this region a priority in the international research agenda. This study sought to explore the efficacy of an intervention programme to facilitate this transition in Mexico City. Findings provide evidence of the positive impact of the preschool transition-intervention programme on children’s cognitive, social and fine motor skills, as well as in the frequency with which preschool teachers (PT) and the teaching assistants (TA) use transition practices that promote literacy in preparation for the first grade of primary school. Parents reported that the quality and closeness of the primary school were the main factors to consider when choosing the primary school that their child will attend. Parents reported that promoting academic skills in their child is essential to prepare them for this transition. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Multiword units play an important role in language learning and use. It was proposed that learning from such units can facilitate mastery of certain grammatical relations, and that children and adults differ in their use of multiword units during learning, contributing to their varying language-learning trajectories. Accordingly, adults learn gender agreement better when encouraged to learn from multiword units. Previous work has not examined two core predictions of this proposal: (1) that children also benefit from initial exposure to multiword units, and (2) that their learning patterns reflect a greater reliance on multiword units compared to adults. We test both predictions using an artificial-language. As predicted, both children and adults benefit from early exposure to multiword units. In addition, when exposed to unsegmented input – adults show better learning of nouns compared to article-noun pairings, but children do not, a pattern consistent with adults’ predicted tendency to focus less on multiword units.

BACKGROUND: The Coronavirus disease has quickly spread to all corners across Latin-American countries. Its exponential capacity has overwhelmed even the most resilient health systems (1). The already significant impact of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) on the global scale is worsened by psychological responses that may aggravate the health crisis. OBJECTIVE: This study is aimed at collecting demographic information, prevalence of psychological morbidities and associated coping styles during the COVID-19 pandemic on Peruvian population. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted through online survey using snowball sampling techniques after the state of emergency was declared in Perú. The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ -28) identify somatic symptom, anxiety/ insomnia, social misfunctioning and depression prevalence and the Coping Strategy Questionnaire (COPE-28) maps strategies addressing recent stress. RESULTS: We collected data from 434 self-selected participants within 18-68 years old (ME =33.87), by analysing the socio-economic information in which the majority of the respondents were women (61.3%), aged between 18 and 28 (41.7%), from well-educated groups (>=85.0 %), Peruvian (94.2%), working citizen (57.4%) and single (71.20 %). Nearly 40.8% rated psychological problems, expressing fear of being infected by coronavirus (71.43%). Regression analysis shows that female gender is associated to higher somatic (p

Berdasarkan perspektif bahwa motivasi adalah elemen penting untuk pembelajaran dan prestasi akademik maupun tantangan bahwa komponen motivasi bukan variabel yang dapat diamati secara langsung, kami secara empiris memeriksa instrumen melalui data survei yang cermat. Instrumen yang digunakan adalah Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQ-II) yang diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Sebanyak 4 pakar menilai SMQ-II versi terjemahan bahasa Indonesia kami dan 206 siswa menanggapi versi ini. Instrumen ini menilai lima komponen motivasi: motivasi intrinsik, determinasi diri, efikasi diri, motivasi karier, dan motivasi nilai. Temuan dari riset ini menunjukkan bahwa instrumen tersebut valid dan dapat diandalkan serta seluruh kuesioner dapat diselesaikan dalam waktu sekitar 15 menit.

Background The underrepresentation of women in STEM fields is a pervasive global issue. Despite evidence casting doubt on the preconceived notions that males outperform females in these domains, gender stereotype beliefs persist and have been highlighted as potential cultural barriers limiting females opportunities. Gender stereotype and ability beliefs emerge in early childhood and recent evidence has highlighted early childhood education as a promising period for the cultivation of positive STEM dispositions. Aims This study investigated gender stereotype beliefs, mathematical self-beliefs and STEM attitudes among a sample of pre-service early childhood teachers to assess the existence of stereotype endorsements and predictive relationships with STEM interests. Sample Participants were pre-service early childhood teacher (N=74), mean age 21.17 years, 4 males and 70 females Methods Electronic surveys utilising a series of pre-established scales, measuring gender stereotype bias from ability and cultural perspectives, mathematical self-belief variables (self-efficacy, self-concept, anxiety), and interest in STEM, were distributed. Results Regression analysis reveal previous level of mathematical study at secondary school, social persuasions as a sources of self-efficacy and gender stereotype endorsements as significant predictors of overall attitude to STEM Conclusions Findings suggest the importance of previous school experience and social influences as well as participants’ gender stereotype endorsements in influencing interest in STEM. These data are discussed in light of implications for teachers; future practice and teacher education

The COVID-19 outbreak has simultaneously increased the need for mental health services and decreased their availability. Brief online self-help interventions that can be completed in a single session could be especially helpful in improving access to care during the crisis. However, little is known about the uptake, acceptability, and perceived utility of these interventions outside of clinical trials in which participants are compensated. Here, we describe the development, deployment, acceptability ratings, and pre-post effects of a single-session intervention, the Common Elements Toolbox (COMET), adapted for the COVID-19 crisis to support graduate and professional students. Participants (n = 263), who were not compensated, were randomly assigned to two of three modules: behavioral activation, cognitive restructuring, and gratitude. Over one week, 263 individuals began and 189 individuals (72%) completed the intervention. Participants reported that the intervention modules were acceptable (93% endorsing), helpful (88%), engaging (86%), applicable to their lives (87%), and could help them manage COVID-related challenges (88%). Participants reported pre- to post-program improvements in secondary control (i.e., the belief that one can control their reactions to objective events; dav=0.36, dz=0.50, p

There is growing interest to teach computer science and programming skills at schools. Here we investigate the efficacy of peer-tutoring which is known to be a useful educational resource in other domains, but never before examined in such a core aspect of applied logical thinking in children. We compared (1) how children learn computer programming from an adult vs learning from a peer, and (2) the effect of teaching a peer vs simply revising what has been learned. Our results indicate that children taught by a peer showed comparable performance to their classmates taught by an adult. However, learning from a peer promoted a more exploratory behavior, resulting in a less conservative speed-accuracy trade-off, with shorter response times, at the expense of lower accuracy. By contrast, no effects of teaching were found. Our results thus provide empirical evidence in support of peer tutoring as a way to help teaching computer programming to children. This could contribute to the promotion of a widespread understanding of how computers operate and how to shape them, essential to our values of democracy, plurality and freedom.

This paper provides a review of research on online education, with a focus on the methods used to promote academic integrity. Broader issues about how and why academic dishonesty occurs, and the mixed findings in relation to whether or not academic dishonesty may be more or less prevalent in online classes are discussed. Understanding the varied nature of academic dishonesty can improve the implementation of methods used to promote academic integrity, and more importantly, provide students, faculty, and staff with an ethical framework that can extend beyond academia

Data analysis is a risky endeavor, particularly among those unaware of its dangers. In the words of Cook and Campbell (1976; see also Cook, Campbell, and Shadish 2002), “Statistical Conclusions Validity” threatens all experiments that subject themselves to the dark arts of statistical magic. Although traditional statistics classes may advise against certain practices (e.g., multiple comparisons, small sample sizes, violating normality), they may fail to cover others (e.g., outlier detection and violating linearity). More common, perhaps, is that researchers may fail to remember them. In this paper, rather than rehashing old warnings and diatribes against this practice or that, I instead advocate a general statistical analysis strategy. This graphically-based eight step strategy promises to resolve the majority of statistical traps researchers may fall in without having to remember large lists of problematic statistical practices. These steps will assist in preventing both Type I and Type II errors and yield critical insights about the data that would have otherwise been missed. I conclude with an applied example that shows how the eight steps highlight data problems that would not be detected with standard statistical practices.

The present study aimed to investigate the predictors of work stress in elementary and upper-secondary school teachers and school counsellors in the initial period of online education in schools during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 964 school professionals (90.7% teachers; 9.3% school counsellors) participated in the study. The results indicated that school professionals who reported higher ICT self-efficacy, had more positive attitudes toward distance education and perceived higher level of supervisor support experienced less stress. In addition, the participants that reported taking care of their own preschool or younger school children during the schools' closure reported higher levels of stress.

In this study we report the development and testing of a scenario-based learning (SBL) activity delivered to 191 preservice teachers in the UK and Australia before the start of a school-based teaching placement. SBL uses interactive, realistic classroom scenarios, coupled with self-reflection and feedback from experienced teachers to enhance the self-efficacy and classroom readiness of preservice teachers. Two studies are presented. Findings from Study 1 (40 preservice teachers from the UK) indicated that participants found the activity engaging and useful, and reported a high level of agreement that the activity increased self-efficacy and preparedness for teaching placements. Findings from Study 2 (151 preservice teachers from Australia) revealed that most participants reported higher levels of placement self-efficacy and preparedness. A quasi-experimental design in Study 2 revealed statistically significant increases in emotional classroom readiness, but not in teaching self-efficacy, motivational classroom readiness, or cognitive classroom readiness. We conclude that an SBL activity can play an important role in preparing preservice teachers for school-based teaching placements.

The multidimensional, hierarchical model of self-concept by Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976) is a cornerstone of modern self-concept research. Given the comprehensive research interest in it, it is surprising that one core aspect of this model has yet to be clarified: What is the best way to operationalize the elusive construct of global self-concept as the apex of the hierarchy? Previous research implemented global self-concept with reflective modeling procedures (e.g., second-order factor models). Reflective models follow a top-down logic, which assumes that global self-concept affects lower order self-concepts. However, theoretical considerations often emphasize bottom-up processes, in which lower order self-concepts form a global self-concept. Yet, a bottom-up approach has not garnered much empirical interest, most likely because the requisite statistical models have not been available. The recently proposed model-based latent composite score can fill this gap. Therefore, we contrast top-down and bottom-up representations of global self-concept by comparing conventional second-order factors and model-based latent composite scores. Across three independent large-scale studies (Study 1: N = 8,068; Study 2: N = 3,876; Study 3: N = 2,095), our results indicate that composite scores have higher variances and a more plausible pattern of stabilities and correlations with external criteria (i.e., self-esteem, enjoyment of school, academic outcomes) than conventional second-order factors. In fact, the second-order factor model yielded smaller variances that boosted the correlations to theoretically and partially empirically implausible levels. We discuss the consequences of the two approaches and propose a latent composite score as the apex of the Shavelson model.

Women’s underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields is well established; however, there is much variation in women’s among STEM fields. Women received 60% of bachelor’s degrees in biology but only 18% of computer science degrees in 2009. One explanation for this difference may be social stereotypes of the fields. Male-dominated STEM fields are stereotyped as asocial, which may lead women to think that these fields will not give them opportunities to work with and help others. Three studies examined how communal goals, goals related to creating and maintaining interpersonal relationships, relate to interest in STEM fields. Study 1 (N = 120) found that women were more likely than men to endorse communal goals. Additionally, women were more interested in STEM classes they thought would fulfill their communal goals. Participants’ communal goal endorsement was negatively correlated with their interest in male-dominated STEM fields, like computer science. Study 2 (N = 296) examined group work as a potential factor that could affect perceptions of communal fulfillment in science classes. Classes with group work were perceived to be higher in communal goal fulfillment. Male-dominated STEM fields were perceived to have less group work than female-dominated STEM fields. Additionally, preference for group work was positively correlated with communal goals. Study 3 (N = 91) experimentally manipulated the collaboration policy of a computer science class syllabus, testing for changes in communal goal fulfillment and interest. The class with a pro-collaboration policy was perceived as having the most communal goal fulfillment, but these perceptions did not carry over to perceptions of the field of computer science as a whole. These studies suggest that increasing opportunities for communal experiences in computer science may help women to feel that computer science would fulfill their goals, increasing their interest in the field.

First aid atau pertolongan pertama merupakan salah satu bantuan yang diberikan kepada korban kecelakaan baik kecelakaan lalu lintas maupun bencana alam. Kita ketahui bersama bahwa indonesia termasuk negara yang tidak terlepas dari musibah dan bencana alam setiap tahun. Kecelakaan merupakan tindakan tidak direncanakan dan tidak dapat dikendalikan oleh siapa pun. Oleh karena itu, pentingnya memberi pemahaman kepada masyarakat tentang teknik first aid supaya mereka dapat memberi bantuan kepada orang yang mengalami musibah dan kecelakaan lalu lintas tanpa menunggu tenaga medis. Menyelamatkan jiwa sesama merupakan perilaku yang mulia dan bantuan sekecil apapun yang kita berikan kepada sesama yang sangat membutuhkan itu kita lakukan bagi Tuhan sendiri. Setiap orang yang mengalami kecelakaan lalu lintas atau bencana alam pasti memberikan dampak bagi korban baik dampak secara fisik maupun secara psikologi. Dampak secara fisik misalnya luka pada tubuh, tulang patah, rasa sakit pada badan, dan bekas luka. Dampak secara psikologi misalnya stres, depresi, kecemasan, trauma, dan ketakutan yang berlebihan. Artikel ini menyajikan bagaimana cara mengatasi kecemasan dan ketakuatan yang berlebihan secara fisik, psikologi, dan spiritualitas.

Sleep is crucial for college students’ well-being. Although recommended sleep duration is between 7-9 hours per day, many students do not sleep that much. Scholar demands are among the causes of observed sleep deprivation in youth. We explored the influence of having a school test on previous night sleep in first-year students and the association of sleep duration and test performance. We ran two surveys in freshman students of the Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay: 1) 97 students of the School of Sciences who took the test at the same time; and 2) 252 School of Psychology students who took the test in four successive shifts. More than 1/2 of the participants (survey #1) and almost 1/3 (survey #2) reported short regular sleep duration (< 7h). In both samples, the sleep duration of the night before the test was reduced with respect to regular nights (survey #1: 2.1 ± 0.2 h, p < 0.001; survey #2: between 1.7 ± 0.4 h and 3.6 ± 0.3 h, all p < 0.001), with more than 10% of the students who did not sleep at all. In survey 2, sleep duration increased in later shifts (F (3,248) = 4.6, p = 0.004). Using logarithmic regressions, we confirmed that sleep duration was positively related to test scores in both samples (survey #1: exp B = 1.05, p < 0.001; pseudo-R2 = 0.15; survey #2: exp B = 1.01, p < 0.001; pseudo-R2 = 0.05). Delaying test start time may prevent the reduction in sleep duration, which may also improve school performance. In addition, educational policies should include information for students about the impact of sleep on learning and of the consequences of reduced sleep duration.

In the wake of the current COVID-19 health crisis, there is uncertainty and concern about the impact this pandemic will have on children’s health and educational outcomes. Play is a fundamental part of childhood and can be integral to children’s health in moments of crisis. Due to severe lockdown regulations around the world, typical play experiences have needed to adapt to school and playground closures, changes to peer interactions, and social distancing. We undertook a rapid literature review of the impact of quarantine, isolation, or other restrictive environments on children’s play and whether play may mitigate the adverse effects of such restrictions. Fifteen peer-reviewed studies were identified, spanning various environments in which children faced restriction, including hospitalisation, juvenile and immigration detention, and displacement to a refugee camp. We found that the literature provided evidence of changes in children’s access to play under restrictive circumstances, but less conclusive inferences regarding changes in frequency of play behaviours. These studies also indicated ways in which play might support children going through periods of isolation or quarantine, via promoting coping, expression, sociability, and skill development, but critically lacked robust investigations of play as a mechanism or intervention target in mitigating the negative impacts of restriction during childhood. Studies pertaining to children in isolation due to infectious disease outbreaks were notably absent from the literature reviewed in this search. We present these findings from the literature followed by recommendations for further research that may better support children in this and future moments of crisis.

We have introduced a common wisdom model to establish a shared language, clarify underlying theoretical assumptions, advance assessment tools, and foster evidence-based interventions for stimulating wisdom during challenging societal times. The common wisdom model synthesizes the views of numerous contemporary scientists working on wisdom and includes two components: perspectival meta-cognition and moral aspirations. Having received insightful commentaries on our model, here we consider the overall motivation for the model, address remaining jingle-jangle fallacies, clarify the meaning of morality for wisdom, and expand upon the relationship between moral and meta-cognitive components within the common wisdom model. We reflect on how the common wisdom model provides a nexus for integrating insights across multiple areas of research, affording plentiful opportunities for future research into wisdom’s development, function, and underlying processes. We situate our reflections in the context of present-day pandemic-related uncertainties and unfolding societal shifts.

Problematika dalam pendidikan, dengan semakin canggihnya dunia digital mengubah cara mengajar. Website merupakan salah satu media yang dapat diakses oleh semua orang dan menggunakan teknologi apa saja. Website ini menjadi salah satu solusi bagi guru untuk mengembangkan kreativitasnya dalam mengembangkan metode dan materi pembelajaran. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui efektivitas dalam memberikan inspirasi penggunaan website game board kepada calon guru BK yang akan digunakan pada proses belajar di sekolah. Sedangkan tujuan dari media yang kami buat adalah memberikan fasilitas pada guru BK dalam media pembelajaran kreativitas guru. Subjek yang diambil berdasarkan calon guru BK. Metode yang digunakan adalah research and development, dalam penelitian ini, peneliti langsung terjun ke lapangan untuk melakukan observasi, wawancara dan mendokumentasikan kegiatan serta memberikan kuesioner lewat g-form. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada (1) peningkatan ketertarikan guru menggunakan media pembelajaran sebagai sarana metode penyampaian materi yang efektif, (2) Penerapan website mudah dilakukan dan praktis, (3) Diakui mudah dalam pelaksanaan program BK. Selain itu juga ada faktor penghambat dalam mengembangkan kreativitas guru yaitu: membutuhkan biaya lebih dalam penerapannya dan membutuhkan waktu untuk membuat media.

Do students learn better with material that is perceptually hard to process? While evidence is equivocal on the matter, recent claims suggest that placing materials in Sans Forgetica, a perceptually difficult-to-process typeface, has positive impacts on student learning. Given the weak evidence for other similar perceptual disfluency effects, we examined the mnemonic effects of Sans Forgetica more closely in comparison to other learning strategies across three preregistered experiments. In Experiment 1 (N = 233), participants studied weakly related cue-target pairs with targets presented in either Sans Forgetica or with missing letters (e.g., cue: G_RL, the generation effect). Cued recall performance showed a robust effect of generation, but no Sans Forgetica memory benefit. In Experiment 2 (N = 528), participants read an educational passage about ground water with select sentences presented in either Sans Forgetica, yellow pre-highlighting, or unmodified. Cued recall for select words was better for pre-highlighted information than a unmodified pure reading condition. Critically, presenting sentences in Sans Forgetica did not elevate cued recall compared to an unmodified pure reading condition or a pre-highlighted condition. In Experiment 3 (N = 60), individuals did not have better discriminability for Sans Forgetica relative to a fluent condition in an old-new recognition test. Our findings suggest that Sans Forgetica really is forgettable.

Openness, transparency, and reproducibility are widely accepted as fundamental aspects of scientific practice. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that these features are not readily adopted in the daily practice of most scientists. The Centre for Open Science has been championing efforts for systemic change in the scientific process, with newly adopted practices such as preregistration and open sharing of data and experimental materials. In an effort to inculcate these practices early in training, we have integrated several key components of open science practice into an undergraduate research methods course in the cognitive sciences. Students were divided into four research teams, each with the goal of carrying out a replication experiment related to the study of attention; specifically, temporal orienting, alertness, prior entry, and the attentional blink. Teams completed a preregistration exercise, and importantly, were encouraged to consider a priori the criteria for a successful replication. They were also required to collect and analyze data, prepare manuscripts, and disseminate their findings in poster symposia and oral presentations. All project materials can be found at https://osf.io/gxkfq/. Critical appraisal of the goals and implementation of the course are discussed.

To inform instruction, assessments must collect accurate data about the current state of the learner. Unfortunately, students may find assessments unengaging, intimidating, or irrelevant, undermining the quality of their effort and the quality of the data. The application of gaming to assessments may provide a way to boost and sustain test-taker engagement, an integration that has thus far yielded mixed results, at best. Our interdisciplinary team reviewed and evaluated existing gamification research to consolidate a set of guiding principles for effectively merging validated assessment tasks and protocols with a motivating game-like context in ways that specifically foster high levels of test-taker effort. We share our work in this paper to help inform ongoing research and development leading to more efficient and effective assessments of children.

Researchers studying curiosity and interest note a lack of consensus in how these important concepts that motivate learning are defined. One proposal is that curiosity and interest are naïve concepts, intuitively and subjectively constructed by people to express underlying psychological processes to which they lack introspective access. Thus, there may not be definitive a priori definitions but there should still be common subjective definitions held by people. In the current studies, we use machine learning techniques to examine whether people naively distinguish between curiosity and interest as different subjective experiences, as an empirical yardstick for distinguishing the terms. In Study 1 (preregistered), we train a Naïve Bayes classification algorithm to distinguish between free-text definitions of curiosity and interest (n = 396 definitions), using cross-validation to test the classifier on two sets of data (dependent n = 196; independent n = 218). The classifier accurately distinguished curiosity and interest definitions considerably above chance levels, demonstrating that there is a naïve consensus in how they are distinguished. In Study 2, the classifier from Study 1 accurately distinguished definitions provided by experts who study curiosity and research (n = 92) suggesting that experts share the naïve consensus. However, we showed that experts who study curiosity shared the naïve consensus more closely than experts who study interest. These results suggest that there is a shared consensus that curiosity and interest represent different subjective experiences, providing a basis for much-needed conceptual clarity.