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Sri Lanka is an amphibian hotspot of global significance. Its anuran fauna is dominated by the shrub frogs of the genusPseudophilautus. Except for one small clade of four species in Peninsular India, these cool-wet adapted frogs, numbering some 59 extant species, are distributed mainly across the montane and lowland rain forests of the island. With species described primarily by morphological means, the diversification has never yet been subjected to a molecular species delimitation analysis, a procedure now routinely applied in taxonomy. Here we test the species boundaries ofPseudophilautusin the context of the phylogenetic species concept (PSC). We use all the putative species for which credible molecular data are available (nDNA–Rag-1; mt-DNA– 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA) to build a well resolved phylogeny, which is subjected to species delimitation analyses. The ABGD, bPTP, mPTP and bGMYC species delimitation methods applied to the 16S rRNA frog barcoding gene (for all species), 12S rRNA and Rag-1 nDNA groupedP.procaxandP.abundus;P.hallidayiandP.fergusonianus;P.reticulatusandP.pappilosus;P.pleurotaeniaandP.hoipolloi;P.hoffmaniandP.asankai;P.silvaticusandP.limbus;P.dilmahandP.hankeni;P.fulvusandP.silus.. Surprisingly, all analyses recovered 14 unidentified potential new species as well. The geophylogeny affirms a distribution across the island’s aseasonal ‘wet zone’ and its three principal hill ranges, suggestive of allopatric speciation playing a dominant role, especially between mountain masses. Among the species that are merged by the delimitation analyses, a pattern leading towards a model of parapatric speciation emerges–ongoing speciation in the presence of gene flow. This delimitation analysis reinforces the species hypotheses, paving the way to a reasonable understanding of Sri LankanPseudophilautus, enabling both deeper analyses and conservation efforts of this remarkable diversification.http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:DA869B6B-870A-4ED3-BF5D-5AA3F69DDD27.

Many poikilotherms have the ability to change body color for homeostatic regulation, conspecific communication or predator deterrence. Physiological color change is a rapid, reversible mode of color change regulated by neuromuscular or neuroendocrine system and has been observed in several anuran species. Here we report the occurrence of physiological color change in the tree frog Rhacophorussmaragdinus (Blyth, 1852) (Amphibia, Anura, Rhacophoridae) for the first time from Namdapha Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Probable proximate causes of the behavior are discussed along with an overview of physiological color change in species of the family Rhacophoridae and nature of color change observed.

Pseudophilautus comprises an endemic diversification predominantly associated with the wet tropical regions of Sri Lanka that provides an opportunity to examine the effects of geography and historical climate change on diversification. Using a time-calibrated multi-gene phylogeny, we analyze the tempo of diversification in the context of past climate and geography to identify historical drivers of current patterns of diversity and distribution. Molecular dating suggests that the diversification was seeded by migration across a land-bridge connection from India during a period of climatic cooling and drying, the Oi-1 glacial maximum around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. Lineage-through-time plots suggest a gradual and constant rate of diversification, beginning in the Oligocene and extending through the late Miocene and early Pliocene with a slight burst in the Pleistocene. There is no indication of an early-burst phase of diversification characteristic of many adaptive radiations, nor were there bursts of diversification associated with favorable climate shifts such as the intensification of monsoons. However, a late Miocene (8.8 MYA) back-migration to India occurred following the establishment of the monsoon. The back migration did not trigger a diversification in India similar to that manifest in Sri Lanka, likely due to occupation of available habitat, and consequent lack of ecological opportunity, by the earlier radiation of a sister lineage of frogs (Raorchestes) with similar ecology. Phylogenetic area reconstructions show a pattern of sister species distributed across adjacent mountain ranges or from different parts of large montane regions, highlighting the importance of isolation and allopatric speciation. Hence, local species communities are composed of species from disparate clades that, in most cases, have been assembled through migration rather than in situ speciation. Lowland lineages are derived from montane lineages. Thus, the hills of Sri Lanka acted as species pumps as well as refuges throughout the 31 million years of evolution, highlighting the importance of tropical montane regions for both the generation and maintenance of biodiversity.

We describe a new Pseudophilautus species, P. conniffae sp. nov. from southern Sri Lanka. It was previously confused with Pseudophilautus rus (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda). The new species differs from the latter by the combination of the following characters: fourth toe webbing to penultimate subarticular tubercle on inner and outer sides (vs. fourth toe webbing in between penultimate and anetpenultimate subarticular tubercles on inner and outer sides), presence of conical median lingual process (vs. absent), and black patches on the posterior flank, anterior and posterior edges of the thigh (vs. black patches on the anterior surface of the thigh). Pseudophilautus conniffae sp. nov. may be sympatric with P. limbus (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda), which shares certain characters with the new species. The new species is, however, distinguished from P. limbus by the following characters: having supernumerary tubercles on manus (vs. lacking), absence of frontoparietal ridges (vs. presence), fourth toe webbing to penultimate subarticular tubercle on both sides (vs. fourth toe webbing between penultimate and anetpenultimate subarticular tubercle on both sides), third toe webbing to distal subarticular tubercle on both sides (vs. distal subarticular tubercle on outer side and below penultimate subarticular tubercle on inner side), and having the dorsum light brown with dark brown patches (vs. black and yellow variegated pattern on dorsum). The new species may be restricted to the southwestern wet zone of Sri Lanka. It is compared with all known Pseudophilautus species and also provided with a field key to identify it from those species that are sympatric with it or inhabit the southwestern wet zone.

Global change imperils a large swath of the planet’s biodiversity, portending a future with decreasing species richness and functioning of natural ecosystems (1). However, the effects of global change are highly variable across scales (2). For example, while the data are contentious, patterns of local stability or increases in species richness have been reported globally in plants and animals (3). However, richness alone may not be the best indicator of global change (4), as the species composition of sites and the broader pool may vary significantly in response to anthropogenic pressures. In PNAS, Nowakowski et al. (5) tackle part of this conundrum empirically, surveying worldwide the impact that habitat conversion has on abundance and community assembly in amphibians. Interestingly, habitat conversion also creates not only the expected class of “losers,” species quickly reduced in abundance or driven extinct by human activities, but also a sizeable class of “winners,” species experiencing drastic ecological gains and increasing abundance in modified landscapes. Correspondingly, winners are overrepresented in modified communities, and drive communities overall to be more similar to each other than they were in the past. Across all sites, Nowakowski et al. (5) find that 81% of species declined in abundance in converted habitats, while 19% increased. The authors find that species’ responses to habitat conversion are phylogenetically conserved, likely related to traits that affect microhabitat use. Closely related species exhibit similar responses to disturbance, even in different sites in different areas. This results in nonrandom shifts in phylogenetic community structure, homogenizing communities and decreasing overall species-richness in the global pool of biodiversity. Species with specialized life histories or narrow microhabitat requirements related to vegetation and climate decreased drastically, such as Neotropical plethodontid salamanders like Bolitoglossa (4× decrease), Old World rhacophorid treefrogs like Pseudophilautus (28×), and New World direct-developing frogs like Pristimantis (6×). … [↵][1]1Email: rpyron{at}colubroid.org. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Amphibians are the most threatened group of vertebrates in the world. In Sri Lanka, 67% of the amphibians are threatened with extinction largely due to anthropogenic activities. Fundamental to the conservation of amphibians is an understanding of habitat preferences and fine scale distribution of species. Pseudophilautus zorro is an endangered, endemic frog species restricted to Kandy district, Sri Lanka. Thus, a study was initiated to assess the (a) habitat preferences (type of vegetation, leaf litter thickness (LLT), percentage of canopy cover (PCC)), (b) model the fundamental ecological niche to unravel potential areas of occupancy using Ecological niche modeling (ENM) and then to (c) estimate the extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of P. zorro with new locality data and predicted data. Fieldwork was conducted in Gannoruwa Forest Reserve, Udawattakele Forest Reserve and Hanthana Conservation Area from December 2016 to August 2017. Habitat preferences were determined by randomly placing quadrats in different habitats and assessing the number of individuals in each quadrat. Occurrence localities of P. zorro from published records and localities from this study were used for ENM in Maxent. At α=0.05level, the results indicate that there is a positive relationship (r=0.427, p≤0.013) between LLT and number of individuals of P. zorro in quadrats. However, there was no significant relationship (r=0.078, p≥0.666) between PCC and number of individuals of P. zorroin quadrats and no significant variation (p≥0.404) in the occurrences of P. zorro among the three habitat types (forest, mahogany and pine plantations) suggesting that vegetation type is not a major determinant of P. zorro distribution. ENM predicted highly suitable areas (suitability >75%) in the central province in the Kandy and Matale districts. The EOO and AOO of P. zorro with new occurrence data was 22 km2 and 4 km2respectively, and with predicted data, 1,229.34 km2 and 117 km2, indicating an increase in EOO and AOO. However, the increase in EOO and AOO should be interpreted with caution as the presence of P. zorro is yet to be physically confirmed in the predicted areas. The data on habitat preferences and predicted habitats will be useful in formulating in-situ and ex-situ conservation measures, and serves as a useful starting point for future studies on niche modeling of endangered amphibians and similar taxa in Sri Lanka. Keywords: Maxent, Fundamental ecological niche, Leaf litter thickness, Extent of occurrence, Area of occupancy

A new species of shrub frog Pseudophilautus dilmah is described from the Central Hills of Sri Lanka. This unique species is distinguished from all the other congeners from a combination of characters; snout rounded in lateral aspect, bluntly pointed in dorsal and ventral aspect, canthus rostralis rounded, vomerine teeth, lingual papilla and nuptial pads absent, dermal fringe distinct on inside of fingers III and IV, small blunt tubercles on metacarpal and ulnar folds, toes basally webbed, interorbital area smooth, upper eyelid prominent tubercles present, anterior and posterior dorsum without horny spinules but tubercles present, upper part of flank weakly granular, supratympanic fold distinct, prominent small calcar present at the distal end of the tibia, throat granular, chest and belly coarsely granular. Based on comparison of 16s rRNA gene we also show that the species is genetically distinct from other members of Pseudophilautus for which gene sequences are available. The high rate of deforestation and anthropogenic activities threaten this population in its natural habitat.

Rhacophoridae, a family of morphologically cryptic frogs, with many genetically distinct evolutionary lineages, is understudied with respect to skeletal morphology, life history traits and skeletal ontogeny. Here we analyze two species each from two sister lineages, Taruga and Polypedates, and compare their postembryonic skeletal ontogeny, larval chondrocrania and adult osteology in the context of a well-resolved phylogeny. We further compare these ontogenetic traits with the direct-developing Pseudophilautus silus. For each species, we differentially stained a nearly complete developmental series of tadpoles from early postembryonic stages through metamorphosis to determine the intraspecific and interspecific differences of cranial and postcranial bones. Chondrocrania of the four species differ in 1) size; 2) presence/absence of anterolateral and posterior process; and 3) shape of the suprarostral cartilages. Interspecific variation of ossification sequences is limited during early stages, but conspicuous during later development. Early cranial ossification is typical of other anuran larvae, where the frontoparietal, exoccipital and parasphenoid ossify first. The ossification sequences of the cranial bones vary considerably within the four species. Both species of Taruga show a faster cranial ossification rate than Polypedates. Seven cranial bones form when larvae near metamorphic climax. Ossification of all 18 cranial bones is initiated by larval Gosner stage 46 in T. eques. However, some cranial bone formation is not initiated until after metamorphosis in the other three species. Postcranial sequence does not vary significantly. The comparison of adult osteology highlights two characters, which have not been previously recorded: presence/absence of the parieto-squamosal plates and bifurcated base of the omosternum. This study will provide a starting point for comparative analyses of rhacophorid skeletal ontogeny and facilitate the study of the evolution of ontogenetic repatterning associated with the life history variation in the family.

Eight new species of Pseudophilautus (Pseudophilautus bambaradeniyai, P. dayawansai, P. jagathgunawardanai, P. karunarathnai, P. newtonjayawardanei, P. puranappu, P. samarakoon, and P. sirilwijesundarai) were discovered as a result of a survey carried out to study the herpetofaunal diversity with the changes in elevation in the Sripada World Heritage Site (Peak Wilderness), Central Hills of Sri Lanka. Detailed descriptions of new species along with colour photographs and line drawings for each species are provided herein. The new species possess unique morphological characters and are well distinguishable from one another that could be easily identified in the field. The conservation status of all species described here, have been considered Critically Endangered, except for P. newtonjayawardanei, as all the new species are recorded from single locations, and their habitats are under severe threat.

Pseudophilautus stellatus (Kelaart 1853) has been rediscovered from the Peak Wilderness, Central Hills of Sri Lanka. The species, till now known only from its lost holotype, was the first shrub frog described from Sri Lanka, and had not been reported since then. It was thought to have become extinct for nearly 157 years, being the amphibian species "lost" for the longest amount of time. Here we designate a neotype from the material collected at what we consider its type locality, having considered characters of the lost holotype and provide a complete description. We have conducted a molecular phy-logenetic analysis, on which basis the species is well differentiated from all other Pseudophilautus sequenced so far, and placed in a clade together with P. femoralis, P. frankenbergi, P. mooreorum, and P. poppiae.

A study on the rhacophorids of Parambikulam Tiger Reserve was conducted from April to July 2011. Eleven species of rhacophorids in four genera—Rhacophorus (three species), Polypedates (one species), Pseudophilautus (one species) and Raorchestes (six species)—were recorded. Distribution, natural history and biological information is provided including some recommendations for changes in the IUCN conservation status of the rhacophorids of Western Ghats have been proposed in the paper.

Despite renewed interest in the biogeography and evolutionary history of Old World tree frogs (Rhacophoridae), this family still includes enigmatic frogs with ambiguous phylogenetic placement. During fieldwork in four northeastern states of India, we discovered several populations of tree hole breeding frogs with oophagous tadpoles. We used molecular data, consisting of two nuclear and three mitochondrial gene fragments for all known rhacophorid genera, to investigate the phylogenetic position of these new frogs. Our analyses identify a previously overlooked, yet distinct evolutionary lineage of frogs that warrants recognition as a new genus and is here described as Frankixalus gen. nov. This genus, which contains the enigmatic 'Polypedates' jerdonii described by Gunther in 1876, forms the sister group of a clade containing Kurixalus, Pseudophilautus, Raorchestes, Mercurana and Beddomixalus. The distinctiveness of this evolutionary lineage is also corroborated by the external morphology of adults and tadpoles, adult osteology, breeding ecology, and life history features.

The Hotel Tree of Life is situated in a 26 ha land area at Barigama (7°31‟84”N 80°57‟74”E) in Kandy district, central Province of Sri Lanka. This hotel was established in an old tea estate premises that was present about 100 years ago. During the last 100 years, upon abandoned, the tea estate had overgrown into a private owned secondary forest. The area now consists of a 25 ha forest that is owned and managed by the hotel. The study was conducted from August 2014 to July 2015 in the hotel and the adjacent forest area. Visual encounter (assisted by the calls) sampling method was used during day and night sampling. Four species from the Critically Endangered (CR) Red Data category were again patch sampled for micro-habitat, by using quadrat (1×1 m2). Minimal disturbance to habitat was considered a priority at all sampling locations. Different micro-habitats were sampled to obtain an overall diversity reading to find out the observable diversity of amphibians in the hotel. All sampled species were handled, using capture and released at the same location. After having the quadrate sampling, it was found that one location had a diverse population of Pseudophilautus zorro known to be CR. One of the rare findings was the Pseudophilautus cf semiruber that was found in the hotel executive staff quarters. The species was rediscovered after 99 years in 2012 and known to be Data Deficient (DD). 19 species of amphibians from six families were found during the study (one species Lankanectus corrugatus is an endemic genus to Sri Lanka). From those identified, 14 species (74%) are endemic and five are non-endemic (26%). Family Bufonidae (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), Ranidae (Hylarana gracilis), Dicroglossidae (Ramanella obscura), Microhylidae (Zakerana keertisinghei, Z. syhadrensis, Hoplobatrachus crassus, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, E. hexadactylus), Nyctibatrachidae (Lankanectes corrugatus), Rhacophoridae (Polypedates cruciger, Pseudophilautus pleurotaenia, P. fergusonianus, P. cavirostris, P. zorro, P. semiruber, P. rus, P. popularis, P. hallidayi, P. schneideri) were found during the study. By considering these findings, the hotel can be considered as a potential amphibian hotspot. A general habitat enrichment program and awareness notices (biodiversity protected area) were placed in the area as a conservation measurement. Numerous waterholes were created in the location with up-cycled material, to enhance habitat diversity. Keywords: Diversity, Amphibia, Anura, Conservation, Critically Endangered, Biodiversity protected area, Pseudophilautus

The generic allocation of Indian and Sri Lankan Philautus needs further examination. In this study, a comprehensive understanding of the phylogeny of Indian and Sri Lankan Philautus is obtained based on 125 and 16S rRNA genes. All phylogenetic analyses indicate that Indian-Sri Lankan Philautus, Philautus menglaensis, Philautus longchuanensis, and Philautus gryllus form a well supported clade, separate from Philautus of Sunda Islands that form another well supported clade representing true Philautus. This result supports the designation of the genus Pseudophilautus to accommodate the Indian and Sri Lankan species. Pseudophilautus consists of two major lineages, one comprises the majority of Indian species, Chinese species, and Southeast Asian species, and one comprises all Sri Lankan species and a few Indian species. Pseudophilautus may have originated in South Asia and dispersed into Southeast Asia and China. Based on the results, we further suggest that Philautus cf. gryllus (MNHN1997.5460) belongs to the genus Kurixalus. (C) 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Amphibian diversity in the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot is extremely high, especially for such a geo-graphically restricted area. Frogs in particular dominate these assemblages, and the family Rhacophoridae is chief among these, with hundreds of endemic species. These taxa continue to be described at a rapid pace, and several groups have recently been found to represent unique evolutionary clades at the genus level. Here, we report DNA sequences, larval and breeding data for two species of rhacophorid treefrog (Polypedates bijui and a new, hitherto undescribed species). Re-markably, they represent unique, independent clades which form successive sister groups to the Pseudophilautus (Sri Lan-ka) + Raorchestes (India, China & Indochina) clades. We place these species into two new genera (Beddomixalus gen. nov. and Mercurana gen. nov.). Both of these genera exhibit a distinct reproductive mode among Rhacophoridae of pen-insular India and Sri Lanka, with explosive breeding and semiterrestrial, unprotected, non-pigmented eggs oviposited in seasonal swamp pools, which hatch into exotrophic, free-living aquatic tadpoles. Relationships and representation of re-productive modes in sister taxa within the larger clade into which these novel genera are placed, is also discussed. These results suggest that more undescribed taxa may remain to be discovered in South Asia, and the crucial importance of con-serving remaining viable habitats.

Cave biodiversity studies are scarce in Sri Lanka though caves support large number ofspecies. Formation of a cave takes thousands or millions of years. Mandaramnuwara cavewhich is a crystalline limestone cave comprised of beautiful formations of Stalactites. Thecave is located in the wet zone of Sri Lanka where the annual rainfall is between 2000-2500mm. Field studies were carried outfrom September 2012 to September 2013 to assess thediversity of bats, birds, herpatofauna and macroinvertebrates. Acave biodiversity databaseincluding species richness and description on cave fauna was developed to carry out anecological survey that will lead to identify the factors which contribute to cave fauna and toimprove cave fauna conservation. Throughout the study period transect walks were carried out inside the cave chambers andfauna were recorded in relation to their habitat occupation by direct observation. Randomsamples were taken for identification purposes. Cave environmental conditions such as lightintensity, temperature, humidity and pH of dripping waterwere recorded. The inner space ofthe cave has been separated into three large chambers. The entrance zone was mainlyoccupied by Pseudophilautus macropus. Breeding colony consisting of 34 nests ofAerodramus unicolor was observed in the twilight zone. Endemic snail Ravana politissimacolony was observed inside the dark zone. Cave crickets were the most abundant arthropod.Most abundant vertebrate species were Rhinolopus rouxii and Miniopterus schreibersii. Microchiropterans and the Indian swiftlet species prey upon insects contributing to the forestinsect population control. The recorded pH of the water inside the cave was 4.6. Humiditywas 84.3%. The average temperature was 19.6 °C. The information provided by the cavebiodiversity data base can be used as baseline information for cave fauna conservation andmanagement, cave eco-tourism and further investigations of cave habitats.

Pseudophilautus stellatus Polypedates stellata Kelaart, 1853 Philautus variabilis (G��nther 1859; Kirtisinghe 1957) Philautus stellatus (Bossuyt & Dubois 2001; Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda 2005, 2006) Pseudophilautus stellatus (Yu et al. 2010) Neotype. NMSL 2013.09.0 1 NH Adult male 55.3 mm SVL (Figure 2 & 3). Sripada World Heritage Site, (Peak Wilderness), Ratnapura District, Sabaragamuwa Province, Sri Lanka (06�� 48 ' 30.89 " N 080�� 29 ' 19.18 " E). Alt. 1679 m (Figure 1). Collected by L. J. Mendis Wickramasinghe, Dulan Ranga Vidanapathirana & Sameera Ariyarathne on November 22, 2009. Others. DWC 2013.01. 14, adult female, 48.9 mm SVL; DWC 3013.01. 15, adult male, 39.6 mm SVL. Date, locality and collectors same as neotype. Diagnosis. Pseudophilautus stellatus is assigned to the genus Pseudophilautus as it was well nested within this taxon in our molecular phylogenetic tree (Figure 4). Pseudophilautus stellatus can be distinguished from known congeners by the following combination of characters: Body large size (SVL 55.3); snout rounded in lateral, dorsal and ventral aspects; lingual papilla absent; vomerine teeth present; 3 rd and 4 th fingers with bifid distal subarticular tubercles; tympanum indistinct; supratympanic fold absent. Description of neotype. Body large size (SVL 55.3 mm); head large (HL/SVL 0.4), about as wide as long (HW/HL 1.1), concave above; snout rounded in lateral, dorsal and ventral aspects (ES/DFE 0.8, SN/IN 0.7), its length longer than horizontal diameter of eye (ES/ED 1.5); internasal space concave; canthus rostralis rounded, loreal region concave; interorbital space concave, upper eyelid smaller than interorbital distance (IO/UEW 1.7); internasal distance equal to upper eyelid width (IN/UEW 1.1); distance between front of eyes 2 / 3 the distance between back of eyes (DBE/DFE 1.5); nostrils vertically elliptical without flap of skin laterally, closer to tip of snout; pupil horizontally elliptical; tympanum indistinct; pineal ocellus and vomerine teeth present, small (Left= 4, Right= 6), odontophores oblique and widely separated, between choanae with an angle of 50 0 relative to body axis; tongue large, lanceolate, lingual papilla absent, and conical tubercles absent on tongue. Arm short, robust and strong (LAL/FEL 0.5, UAL/FEL 0.4); forearm shorter than hand length (LAL/HNL 0.7), longer than upper arm (LAL/UAL 1.3); fore arm distinctly enlarged; fingers robust and strong, relative length of fingers I Colour in life. Body colour is bright green with intermittent pinkish white spots; dorsal part of head and dorsum prominent pinkish white spots outlined in dark brown on bright green, intermittent with smaller blurred dark brown blotches (Figure 2���3 & 6 B); flank with transverse dark brown bands on white (Figure 6 C); loreal and tympanic regions and tympanum small brown blotching on bright green; forelimb prominent pinkish white spots outlined in dark brown on bright green, as in dorsum, absent on upper arm; hind limb prominent pinkish white spots outlined in dark brown on bright green (Figure 6 D), posterior part of femur barred brown; throat, vocal sacs, chest and belly all pinkish white. Colour in alcohol. Colour of spots and strips faded a little from above, but the white spots remain, and the overall green colour changes to a purplish brown. The following combination of characters does not match any known Pseudophilautus species described from the island to date. A fully grown female has the described size of 57 mm (= 2 �����), but an adult male is comparatively smaller with an SVL of 51 mm (= 2 ���), very broad fingers, large discs, body colours and patterns. Molecular analysis. The aligned nucleotide sequences span a total of 938 base positions (bp). The analysed dataset consists of parts of the 12 S (380 bp) and 16 S (558 bp) ribosomal RNA genes. Pseudophilautus stellatus could not be sequenced for the last 32 bp of the aligned 12 S fragment. The new mtDNA sequences generated for P. stellatus have been deposited in GenBank (Accession Nos. JN 862535 for 12 S and JN 862536 for 16 S). The aligned sequences yielded 490 constant and 379 parsimony-informative characters. The alignment included a total of 69 indels (37 for 12 S and 32 for 16 S). However, gaps were treated as missing data in MP and NJ analyses. The maximum parsimony (MP) heuristic search with all characters weighted equally resulted in six trees, 1784 steps in length with consistency indices of 0.373 and retention indices of 0.660. The distance matrices constructed using Kimura 2 -parameter corrections, and subsequently analysed by neighbor-joining methods, reconstructed the tree shown in. In maximum parsimony and neighbor-joining (NJ) analyses, phylogenetic relationships among clades and their bootstrap (BP) supports are very similar. Arrangements among the 3 clades are strongly supported by BP analyses (100 %) using either MP or NJ searches. Clades containing individuals of one species have 93-100 % BP support (Figure 4). In MP and NJ analyses, P. stellatus groups within the genus Pseudophilautus. The three species P. f e m o r a l i s, P. poppiae and P. m oo re or u m form a subclade with strong BP support (99 % NJ/ 98 % MP). Another well-supported (98 %/ 94 %) subclade includes P. frankenbergi and an unknown species. P. stellatus is falling between those two subclades (Figure 4). The sister-group relationship of P. stellatus with the femoralis - poppiae - mooreorum subclade is only weakly supported with BP values of 50 and 55 %. However, the grouping of all 6 Pseudophilautus species gets 91 % BP support in NJ and 68 % in MP analyses. Regardless of the branching order, P. stellatus is clearly different from the other five Pseudophilautus species in this clade, as the long branch in the phylogram nicely illustrates (Figure 4). Natural history. Typical habitat: These, unusually striking, nocturnal and slow moving amphibians were observed in an area of about 2 km 2 in the Peak Wilderness of the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka (Figure 1). They were commonly found in the canopy of the cloud forest, 1-10 m above the forest floor, perched on large sized leaves well camouflaged. The species was observed on misty/foggy days, and were found to be highly seasonal, and very rare. On subsequent visits, 78 individuals were observed within an area which extends to the Ratnapura District at elevations of 1540 m asl by the team within a period of four months, with no overlapping transects. Threats. Amongst the most important threats noted in this region, is the forest dieback phenomena (Figure 7 A&B), possibly due to pollution and/or climate change, which has never been documented in this region before. With decrease in the canopy cover, alien invasive species, such as Clusia rosea, and Pteribium revolutum, are widely distributed in lower areas and is slowly spreading to higher elevations, which can potentially become a threat in the future. The Peak Wilderness is now under severe anthropogenic pressure, because of its religious importance, and is visited every year by a large number of pilgrims who pollute the environment there, especially the streams. As a result, a large amount of garbage gets collected, and the natural forest gets overexploited. Illegal gem mining on either sides of the riverbank within the forest has become another potential threat to the amphibian diversity. Tea plantations in the surrounding areas are slowly expanding and illegal tree felling to cultivate tea, has become a major threat in the area., Published as part of Mendis Wickramasinghe, L. J., Vidanapathirana, Dulan Ranga, Airyarathne, Sameera, Rajeev, Gehan, Chanaka, Amila, Pastorini, Jennifer, Chathuranga, Gayan & Wickramasinghe, Nethu, 2013, Lost and found: One of the world's most elusive amphibians, Pseudophilautus stellatus (Kelaart 1853) rediscovered, pp. 112-128 in Zootaxa 3620 (1) on pages 115-122, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3620.1.5, http://zenodo.org/record/221844

Pseudophilautus semiruber (Annandale, 1913) Figs 2���4 Ixalus semiruber Annandale, 1913: 305. Material examined. Mature female, 13.4 mm SVL, WHT 5831, Agra-Bopath forest, 1750 m a.s.l. (06�� 50 ' 15 "N, 80 �� 40 ��� 50 "E), coll. 01 August 2005, Madhava Meegaskumbura & Mohomed Bahir. Diagnosis. ��� Ixalus ��� semiruber is assigned to the genus Pseudophilautus as it is well nested within the Sri Lankan monophyletic group (Fig. 1) of shrub frogs (Meegaskumbura et al. 2002; Bossuyt et al. 2004; Yu et al. 2010) characterized by terrestrial direct development (Bossuyt and Dubois 2000). Pseudophilautus semiruber is distinguished from all other Sri Lankan congeners by a combination of the following characters: size small, mature individuals [12.0]��� 13.4 mm SVL; canthal edges rounded; tympanum distinct; vomerine ridge absent; supratympanic fold feebly defined; throat, chest, belly and underside of thigh smooth. Description. Body stout. Head laterally convex. Snout oval in dorsal and lateral view. Canthal edges rounded. Loreal region flat. Interorbital space concave. Internarial space flat. Nostrils oval. Pupil oval, horizontal. Tympanum distinct, oval, vertical, its outer rim narrow but clear. Pineal ocellus absent. Vomerine ridge absent. Tongue moderate, elongate, emarginate; no lingual papilla. Supratympanic fold feebly defined. Cephalic ridges absent. Skin on head not co-ossified. Upper arm short, lower arm slender. Fingers slender, relative length of fingers, 1 Coloration. In life, dorsal surface of head ashy brown, inter-orbital region and dorsum gray. Flank ashy brown with a few white patches outlined in red. Inguinal zone dark brown with white patches. Loreal region, tympanic region, tympanum and lips ash. Entire upper arm and proximal half of lower arm dorsally red, a black band extending antero-dorsally from base of the upper arm to proximal half of lower arm. Distal half of lower arm and fingers dorsally reddish brown, vaguely banded with black. Thigh and inner shank dorsally red with ashy-brown crossbars outlined in black. Thigh and shank ventrally light red with white patches; inguinal zone red-orange. Foot dorsally red, ventrally ashy brown. Area around vent ashy brown. Throat and margin of throat ashy brown with whitish patches; chest and belly reddish brown with white patches. Stored in 70 % ethanol, following fixing in 10 % buffered formalin, mid-dorsal area dark brown, mid-dorsal ridge pale brown. Head dorsally dark brown. Both upper and lower flanks pale brown. Inguinal zone pale brown with dark-brown patches. Loreal, typanum, tympanic region, supratympanic fold, upper and lower lips dark brown. Dorsal and lateral areas of limbs dark to pale brown. Anterior and lateral margins of lower arm and upper arm with dark-brown markings. Dorsal area of thigh, shank and foot with wide, dark cross-bars. Knees dark brown. Ventral parts of head, body, both upper and lower arms, fingers, thigh, shank, foot and toes dark brown with yellow spots and patches. Measurements of WHT 5831 (in mm): DBE, 4.0; DFE, 2.5; DL, 0.4; DW, 0.5; ED, 1.7; EN, 1.0; ES, 2.4; FEL, 5.9; FL I, 1.0; FL II, 1.2; FL III, 2.2; FL IV, 1.8; FOL, 8.6; HL, 5.4; HW, 5.5; IML, 0.7; IN, 2.0; IO, 1.8; LAL, 6.5; MBE, 1.8; MFE, 3.2; MN, 4.1; NS, 0.8; PAL, 3.4; SVL, 13.4; TBL, 6.3; TL I, 1.1; TL II, 1.3; TL III, 1.9; TL IV, 3.0; TL V, 1.8; TYD, 0.5; TYE, 0.8; UAW, 3.3; UEW, 0.9. Distribution. Pseudophilautus semiruber was originally described from a single specimen collected at Pattipola (06�� 51 ' 20 "N, 80 �� 49 ��� 40 "E; 1,850 m a.s.l.), about 8 km southeast of Agra-Bopath (06�� 50 ' 15 "N, 80 �� 40 ��� 50 "E). The species is probably restricted to the montane forests of this area (Fig. 5), and is probably under-represented in collections because its diminutive size may have led to it being overlooked as the juvenile of an arboreal Pseudophilautus and because relatively little collection effort has involved searching through leaf litter on the forest floor, which is apparently the habitat of this ���shrub-frog���., Published as part of Meegaskumbura, Madhava, Manamendra-Arachchi, Kelum, Bowatte, Gayan & Meegaskumbura, Suyama, 2012, Rediscovery of Pseudophilautus semiruber, a diminutive shrub frog (Rhacophoridae: Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka, pp. 58-68 in Zootaxa 3229 on pages 60-62, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.280345, {"references":["Annandale, N. (1913) Some new and interesting Batrachia and lizards from India, Ceylon and Borneo. Records of the Indian Museum, 9, 301 - 307.","Meegaskumbura, M., Bossuyt, F., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., Bahir, M., Milinkovitch, M. C. & Schneider, C. J. (2002) Sri Lanka: an amphibian hotspot. Science, 298, 379.","Bossuyt F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D. J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M. M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P. K. L., Schneider, C. J., Oommen, O. V. & Milinkovitch, M. C. (2004) Local endemism within the western Ghats-Sri Lanka Biodiversity hotspot. Science, 306, 479 - 481.","Yu, G., Zhang, M. & Yang, J. (2010) Generic allocation of Indian and Sri Lankan Philautus (Anura: Rhacophoridae) inferred from 12 S and 16 S rRNA genes. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 38, 402 - 409.","Bossuyt, F. & Milinkovitch, M. C. (2000) Convergent adaptive radiation in Madagascan and Asian ranid frogs reveal covariation between larval and adult traits. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 6585 - 6590."]}

The tree-frog family Rhacophoridae is a major group contributing to the high pecies richness and reproductive diversity among vertebrates of Sundaland. Nonetheless, rhacophorid evolution, specially on Borneo, has not been studied within a phylogenetic context. In this study, we examine the phylogenetic relationships of 38 (out of 41) Bornean species of Rhacophoridae, in combination with data from previous phylogenetic studies. In the final super matrix of 91 species, we analyse sequence data from two mitochondrial and three nuclear genes. The resulting trees show the genus Rhacophorus as a paraphyletic assemblage. As a consequence, we transfer Rhacophorus appendiculatus and R. kajau to two other genera and propose the new phylogeny-based combinations- Kurixalus appendiculatus and Feihyla kajau, respectively. Furthermore, we use our phylogenetic hypotheses to reconstruct the evolution of reproductive modes in rhacophorid tree frogs. Direct development to the exclusion of a free larval stage evolved twice independently, once in an ancestor of the Pseudophilautus + Raorchestes clade in India and Sri Lanka, and once within Philautus in Southeast Asia. The deposition of egg clutches covered by a layer of jelly in Feihyla is also present in F. kajau and thus confirms our generic reassignment. The remarkably high diversity of rhacophorid tree frogs on Borneo is the outcome of a complex pattern of repeated vicariance and dispersal events caused by past changes in the climatic and geological history of the Sunda shelf. We identified geographic clades of closely related endemic species within Rhacophorus and Philautus, which result from local island radiations on Borneo.

Pseudophilautus hankeni, new species (Figs. 7���10) Material examined. Holotype: mature male, 21.9 mm SVL, WHT 6304, Bambarella, Knuckles, alt. 1490 m (7 �� 26 ���N, 80 �� 46 ���E), M.M., coll. 23 V 1999. Paratypes: mature males, 19.0 mm SVL, WHT 6310; 19.6 mm SVL, WHT 6300; 20.7 mm SVL, WHT 6302; 20.0 mm SVL, WHT 6298; 21.4 mm SVL, WHT 6295; 18.3 mm SVL, WHT 6308; Bambarella, Knuckles, alt. 1600 m (7 �� 25 ���N, 80 �� 47 ���E), coll. 23 V 1999, M.M.. Diagnosis. Philatus hankeni is distinguished from all Sri Lankan congeners by the combination of the following characters: size small, mature individuals 18.3���21.9 mm SVL; tympanum distinct; canthal edges rounded; vomerine ridge absent; outer edge of lower arm and outer edge of foot with a tuberculated dermal fold; throat, chest and belly granular. (For diagnosis from its sister species, P. schmarda, see Remarks, below.) Description. (based on holotype, WHT 6304, and six paratypes, WHT 6310, WHT 6300, WHT 6302, WHT 6298, WHT 6295, WHT 6308). Pseudophilautus hankeni is assigned to the genus Pseudophilautus as they are well nested (Figs. 1 & 2) within the Sri Lankan monophyletic group of frogs (Meegaskumbura et al. 2002; Bossuyt et al. 2004) and are characterized by terrestrial direct development (Bossuyt and Dubois 2000). Body stout. Head convex in lateral view. Snout rounded in dorsal view, pointed in lateral view. Canthal edges rounded. Loreal region concave. Interorbital space convex. Internasal space concave. Nostrils oval. Pupil oval, horizontal. Tympanum distinct, oval, oblique, its outer rim indistinct. Pineal ocellus absent. Vomerine ridge absent. Tongue moderate, emarginate, not bearing a lingual papilla. Supratympanic fold distinct. Cephalic ridges absent. Co-ossified skin on head absent. Upper arm short, lower arm short, strong. Fingers thin. Relative length of fingers, 1 Coloration in life. Dorsal and lateral parts of head brown with symmetrical darker brown patches. Upper areas of eyelids and posterior area of interorbital with distinct black patches. Upper flank grayish brown, lower flank pale yellow-gray. Inguinal zone pale yellow with dark-brown patches. Loreal region brown. Tympanic region and tympanum brown with small darker brown patches. Both upper and lower lips pale brown. Dorsal and lateral parts of limbs brown. Lower arm with 2, thigh with 2, shank with 3 and foot with 4 wide, brown patches. Throat, margins of throat, chest and belly pale yellow or white. Underside of thigh and webbing pale yellow. Fingers and toes dorsally light brown. Coloration in alcohol (based on holotype, WHT 6304). Dorsal and lateral parts of head grayish brown with symmetrical brown patches. Upper areas of eyelids and posterior area of interorbital with distinct black patches. Upper part of flank grayish brown, lower part pale gray. Inguinal zone white with dark-brown patches. Loreal region gray. Tympanic region and tympanum grayish brown. Both upper and lower lips pale gray. Dorsal and lateral parts of limbs gray. Lower arm with 2, thigh with 2, shank with 3 and foot with 4 wide brown patches. Throat, margins of throat, chest and belly pale gray or white. Underside of thigh and webbing pale yellow. Fingers and toes dorsally pale gray. Measurements of holotype (WHT 6304, in mm): DBE, 7.4; DFE, 4.6; DL, 0.8; DW, 1.3; ED, 2.7; EN, 2.2; ES, 3.8; FEL, 9.6; FL I, 1.6; FL II, 2.2; FL III, 4.0; FL IV, 3.0; FOL, 13.1; HL, 8.4; HW, 8.5; IML, 0.9; IN, 2.0; IO, 2.1; LAL, 3.9; MBE, 2.8; MFE, 5.2; MN, 7.3; NS, 1.2; PAL, 6.4; SVL, 21.9; TBL, 10.1; TL I, 1.6; TL II, 2.0; TL III, 3.2; TL IV, 4.8; TL V, 3.3; TYD, 0.6; TYE, 1.1; UAW, 4.2; UEW, 1.8. Etymology. The species name honors the developmental biologist, director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (Harvard University, USA), and Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology, James Hanken. It is Latinized as a noun in the genitive singular case. Remarks. Pseudophilautus hankeni resembles P. schmarda morphologically, but it can be distinguished from the latter species as follows: canthal edges rounded (vs. sharp in P. schmarda); toes with (vs. without) a lateral dermal fringe; rudimentary webbing present (vs. absent) on toes; and presence (vs. absence) of a subdermal nuptial pad. Distribution. Pseudophilautus hankeni shows a very restricted distribution, being known hitherto only from its type locality at Bambarella and Riverston regions in Knuckles. The species seems to be restricted to the highest elevations of the Knuckles mountains (peaks over 1200 m elevation). It was observed on the leaves of shrubs (0.3 ��� 1.0 m above ground) under the cover of the montane cloud forest canopy. Given its restricted, high-elevation habitat, it may be at risk from climate warming, further encroachments into the forest from lower elevations, and agrochemical usage in nearby tea plantations., Published as part of Meegaskumbura, Madhava & Manamendra-Arachchi, Kelum, 2011, Two new species of shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae: Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka, pp. 1-18 in Zootaxa 2747 on pages 13-17, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.204555, {"references":["Meegaskumbura, M., Bossuyt, F., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., Bahir, M., Milinkovitch, M. C. & Schneider, C. J. (2002) Sri Lanka: an amphibian hotspot. Science, 298, 379.","Bossuyt F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D. J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M. M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P. K. L., Schneider, C. J., Oommen, O. V. & Milinkovitch, M. C. (2004) Local endemism within the western Ghats-Sri Lanka Biodiversity hotspot. Science, 306, 479 - 481.","Bossuyt F. & Dubois, A. (2000) A review of the frog genus Philautus Gristel, 1848 (Amphibia, Anura, Ranidae, Rhacophoriane). Zeylanica, 6, 1 - 112."]}

Two new species of Sri Lankan shrub frogs of the genus Pseudophilautus are described. These species are diagnosed from their congeners on the basis of morphology, morphometrics and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Pseudophilautus schneideri, new species, is distinguished from all Sri Lankan Pseudophilautus by its small size (< 22.8 mm SVL), distinct tympanum and supratympanic fold, sharp canthal edges, granular throat, chest and belly, and absence or presence of a vomerine ridge. Pseudophilautus hankeni, new species, is distinguished by its diminutive size (< 21.9 mm SVL), distinct tympanum, rounded canthal edges, tuberculated outer edge of lower arm, tuberculated dermal fold on outer edge of foot, granular throat, chest and belly, and the absence of a vomerine ridge. Pseudophilautus schneideri inhabits shrubs in open areas of the low to mid-elevations of the island’s south-western ‘wet zone’ (rainfall > 2,000 mm•yr -1 ), including anthropogenic habitats, while P. hankeni is found on shrubs in the understorey of montane forests of the highest peaks (c. 1,200– 1,600 m elevation) of the Knuckles region. These descriptions bring the total number of valid species of Sri Lankan Pseudophilautus to 67, 48 of which are extant.

The phylogenetic relationships among 12 genera of treefrogs (Family, Rhacophoridae), were investigated based on a large sequence data set, including five nuclear (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, proopiomelanocortin, recombination activating gene 1, tyrosinase, rhodopsin) and three mitochondrial (partial 12S and 16S ribosomal RNA and the complete valine t-RNA) genes. Phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear gene sequences resolved three major clades. The first group included Philautus, Pseudophilautus, Kurixalus, Gracixalus, and Theloderma moloch; Pseudophilautus and Kurixalus were sister taxa. The second group consisted of Nyctixalus and Theloderma. The third group contained Feihyla, Polypedates, Rhacophorus, and Chiromantis vittatus; Polypedates and Feihyla were sister taxa. Analyses of the nuclear and mitochondrial genes supported the following results: (1) Genus Liuixalus formed the sister group of all other rhacophorines. (2) Philautus, Theloderma, and Chiromantis were not resolved as monophyletic genera. Four groups, including Philautus ocellatus and P. hainanus, P. longchuanensis and P. gryllus, P. banaensis, and P. quyeti nested well within the genera Liuixalus, Pseudophilautus, Kurixalus, and Gracixalus, respectively. (3) Theloderma moloch and Chiromantis vittatus did not cluster with other species of Theloderma and Chiromantis, respectively. Foam nesting evolved only once, as did laying eggs in a jelly-like matrix containing some bubbles. Terrestrial direct development evolved twice in the Rhacophoridae.

No abstract available. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/tapro.v4i1.4388 TAPROBANICA . April, 2012. Vol. 04, No. 01: pp. 57-58.

Ixalus semiruber Annandale, a diminutive (12-mm snout-vent length) frog originally described from the highlands of Sri Lankain 1913, has not been recorded in the succeeding century and is treated as Data Deficient for conservation purposes. Here wereport its rediscovery in Agra-Bopath, a sub-montane forest reserve. Pseudophilautus semiruber is distinguished by a combina-tion of the following characters: size 12.0–13.4 mm SVL; canthal edges rounded; tympanum distinct; vomerine ridge absent;supratympanic fold feebly defined; throat, chest, belly and underside of thigh smooth. It is a high-elevation (1,750 m a.s.l.) diurnal species that inhabits heavily-shaded leaf litter.

Herein, we present findings of a preliminary study on amphibian diversity in Kanneliya Forest Reserve in the Galle district, in the lowland wet zone of Southwestern Sri Lanka. We speculate the amphibian species diversity, their habitats and the various threats they face in this area. We recorded 33 species of amphibians, which represent about 30% of the island’s amphibian fauna described today. A few species were recorded for the first time in this forest area including Pseudophilautus auratus, P. nemus and P. tanu. The study included 26 endemic species and three species threatened on the national level. Among the observed, two species are potentially new for science and there is a need for more taxonomic and molecular studies to confirm their status. Kanneliya forest area supports wide amphibian diversity and also nourishes the Gin Ganga, one of the main rivers in the southern province. However, human activities such as burning, tea cultivation and habitat fragmentation are threatening this extremely important forest and more than 95 percent of Sri Lanka’s primary forest is already gone.