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Salt iodisation is considered a key public health measure for assuring adequate iodine intake in iodine-deficient countries. In Slovenia, the iodisation of all salt was made mandatory in 1953. A considerable regulatory change came in 2003 with the mandatory iodisation of rock and evaporated salt only. In addition, joining the European Union's free single market in 2004 enabled the import of non-iodised salt. The objective of this study was to investigate the extent of salt iodising in the food supply. We examined both the availability and sale of (non-)iodised salt. Average sales-weighted iodine levels in salt were calculated using the results of a national monitoring of salt quality. Data on the availability and sales of salts were collected in major food retailers in 2014. Iodised salt represented 59.2% of the salt samples, and 95.9% of salt sales, with an average (sales-weighted) level of 24.2 mg KI/kg of salt. The average sales-weighted KI level in non-iodised salts was 3.5 mg KI/kg. We may conclude that the sales-weighted average iodine levels in iodised salt are in line with the regulatory requirements. However, the regulatory changes and the EU single market have considerably affected the availability of non-iodised salt. While sales of non-iodised salt are still low, non-iodised salt represented 33.7% of the salts in our sample. This indicates the existence of a niche market which could pose a risk of inadequate iodine intake in those who deliberately decide to consume non-iodised salt only. Policymakers need to provide efficient salt iodisation intervention to assure sufficient iodine supply in the future. The reported sales-weighting approach enables cost-efficient monitoring of the iodisation of salt in the food supply.

Background: Iodine is a crucial component of thyroid hormones, and several reports have shown that iodine per se is implicated in the physiopathology of other organs., Methods: Innovative ion chromatography detection following a four-step temperature ramp microwave digestion in 25-50 mM nitric acid was developed to measure total iodine in biological fluids and tissue samples from female Sprague-Dawley rats supplemented with 0.05% molecular iodine (I2) or 0.05% potassium iodide (I(-)) in drinking water., Results: The reported method allows the measurement of total iodine with a limit of quantification of 13.7 μg L(-1), recoveries of 96.3-100.3%, and intra- and inter-assay variations, of 3.5% and 7.4% respectively. Analysis of biological fluids showed that after 48 hours, iodine-supplemented animals exhibited significantly higher levels of total iodine in both serum and urine compared with those supplemented with iodide. The half-life of iodine in serum and urine measured over the first 48 h showed similar patterns for both the I2 (7.89 and 7.76 hours) and I(-) (8.27 and 8.90 hours) supplements. Differential uptake patterns were observed in tissues after 6 days of supplements, with I(-) preferentially retained by thyroid, lactating mammary gland, and milk, and a slightly but significantly higher capture of I2 in pituitary, ovary, and virgin mammary gland., Conclusions: We developed a rapid, selective, and accurate digestion method to process fluid and tissue samples that permits reproducible measurements of total iodine by ion chromatography; iodine or iodide supplement show a similar serum and urine half-life, but organ-specific uptake depends on the chemical form of the iodine supplement.

Landfills are usually located in unsaturated zones. Contaminant leaking can easily infiltrate groundwater through these porous media and contribute to groundwater pollution. The main objective of this work is to study the leachate migration in unsaturated porous media using X-ray computerized tomography (CT) and image-processing software. Silica sand and Yamazuna sand (collected from Japan) with different particle sizes are considered. Potassium iodide (KI) solution is used as a contaminant and injected into sand specimens at appropriate rates. The specimens are scanned at each cross section before and after contaminant injection by X-ray CT. Subsequently, all CT images are transformed into mean CT values by Image J software. VGStudio software is then used to reconstruct the subtracted images into three-dimensional images. The results indicate that vertical migration is dominant in uniform sand and horizontal migration is the main behavior in well-graded sand. Meanwhile, it is also confirmed that CT scanning is an effective technology to study contaminant migration in unsaturated porous media with different grain sizes.

The use of ovalbumin (OVA)-immobilized layer-by-layer-assembled chitosan/polystyrene sulfonate membranes for the detection of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at subpicomolar levels is reported. The detection of mercuric chloride (HgCl2) and potassium iodide (KI) was also investigated. While the detection limits of HgCl2 and KI remained in the micromolar concentration range, H2O2 could be sensed to a remarkably lower range (subpicomolar). Analysis of fluorescence quenching data of OVA by H2O2 using Stern-Volmer plots revealed a static quenching mechanism with high Stern-Volmer quenching constant (9.10×10(12) L mol(-1)) and k (5.82×10(21) L mol(-1) s(-1)). The possibility of the conformational transition of OVA in the immobilized state is discussed using steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopic techniques. The resulting increased accessibility of tryptophan residues together with the reversibility of the bilayer for the sensing of H2O2 is also illustrated., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) techniques for measuring the three-dimensional (3-D) distributions of diffusion-accessible porosity (φ(d)) and temporal tracer-concentrations (C(t)) within a dolostone sample subjected to solute diffusion are developed and tested in this work. The φ(d) and C(t) measurements are based on spatially resolved changes in X-ray attenuation coefficients in sequentially acquired 3-D micro-CT datasets using two (calibration and relative) analytical approaches. The measured changes in X-ray attenuation coefficient values are a function of the mass of X-ray absorbing potassium-iodide tracer present in voxels. Mean φ(d) values of 3.8% and 6.5% were obtained with the calibration and the relative approaches, respectively. The detection limits for φ(d) measurements at individual voxel locations are 20% and 36% with the calibration and the relative methods, respectively. The detection limit for C(t) are 0.12 M and 0.22 M with the calibration and the relative approaches, respectively. Results from the calibration method are affected by a beam-hardening artifact and although results from the relative approach are not affected by the artifact, they are subject to high detection limits. This work presents a quantitative assessment of micro-CT data for studies of solute transport. Despite limitations in precision and accuracy, the method provides quantitative 3-D distributions of φ(d) and C(t) that reflect solute diffusion in heterogeneous porous geologic media., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In this work, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) nanoarrays in anodized aluminum oxide (AAO-CNTs) nanopore is integrated on a microfluidic flow injection system for in-channel electrochemical detection of iodide. The device was fabricated from PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) microchannel bonded on glass substrates that contains three-electrode electrochemical system, including AAO-CNTs as a working electrode, silver as a reference electrode and platinum as an auxiliary electrode. Aluminum, stainless steel catalyst, silver and platinum layers were sputtered on the glass substrate through shadow masks. Aluminum layer was then anodized by two-step anodization process to form nanopore template. CNTs were then grown in AAO template by thermal chemical vapor deposition. The amperometric detection of iodide was performed in 500-μm-wide and 100-μm-deep microchannels on the microfluidic chip. The influences of flow rate, injection volume and detection potential on the current response were optimized. From experimental results, AAO-CNTs electrode on chip offers higher sensitivity and wider dynamic range than CNTs electrode with no AAO template., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The side reactions of triclosan (2,4,4'-trichloro-2'-hydroxydiphenyl ether, TC) and chlorine in the presence of sodium chloride were investigated. In the absence of sodium chloride, three chloro-derivatives of TC, 2',3,4,4'-tetrachloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3-Cl-TC), 2',4,4',5-tetrachloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (5-Cl-TC), and 2',3,4,4',5-pentachloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3,5-Cl(2)-TC) were formed, whereas in the presence of sodium chloride, 3-bromo-2',4,4'-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3-Br-TC), 5-bromo-2',4,4'-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (5-Br-TC), (3 or 5)-bromo-2',4,4',(5 or 3)-chloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether ((3,5)-(BrCl)-TC), and 3,5-dibromo-2',4,4'-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3,5-Br(2)-TC) were additionally formed. Radiochemical neutron activation analysis indicated that 1g of commercially available sodium chloride contained 73 microg of bromide and the bromide ion was determined to be the source of the side reactions. The rate of decrease of TC due to reaction with chlorine was greatly accelerated by the presence of bromide ion in the system: the rate with only 1 x 10(-5) M bromide ion was three times the rate in the absence of bromide.

Acoustic cavitation plays an important role in enhancing the reaction rate of chemical processes in sonochemical systems. However, quantification of cavitation intensity in sonochemical systems is generally limited to low frequency systems. In this study, an empirical determination of cavitation yield in high frequency ultrasound systems was performed by measuring the amount of iodine liberated from the oxidation of potassium iodide (KI) solution at 1.7 and 2.4 MHz. Experiments for determining cavitation were carried out at various solute (KI) concentrations under constant temperature, obtained by direct cooling of the solution and variable temperature conditions, in the absence of external cooling. Cavitation yield measurements, reported in this work, extend previously reported results and lend credence to the two step reaction pathway in high frequency systems. Additionally, the concentration of KI and temperature affect the cavitation yield of a system such that the iodine production is proportional to both conditions. It is proposed that direct cooling of sonicated KI solution may be advantageous for optimization of cavitation intensity in high frequency sonochemical reactors.

The stability of table salt double-fortified with iron as ferrous fumarate, and with iodine as potassium iodide or potassium iodate, has been investigated under actual field conditions of storage and distribution in the coastal and highland regions of Kenya. Seven 200-g sample packets of double-fortified salt in sealed polyethylene bags and a similar packet containing a datalogger for monitoring temperature and humidity were packaged with 21 sample bags of salt from another study into a bundle, which then entered the distribution network from a salt manufacturer's facility to the consumer. Iodine retention values of up to 90% or more were obtained during the three-month study. Double-fortified salt was prepared using ferrous fumarate microencapsulated with a combination of binders and coloring agents and coated with soy stearine, in combination with either iodated salt or salt iodized with potassium iodide microencapsulated with dextrin and coated with soy stearine. Most of the ferrous iron was retained, with less than 17% being oxidized to the ferric state. The polyethylene film overwrap of salt packs in the bundles provided significant protection from ambient humidity. Salt double-fortified with iodine and microencapsulated iron ferrous fumarate premix was generally quite stable, because both iodine and ferrous iron were protected during distribution and retail in typical tropical conditions in Kenya's highlands and humid lowlands.

The fluorescence spectral characteristics and interaction of bis(ethylene)tin(bis(salicylidene)ethylenediamine) [Et2Sn(salen)] with DNA are described. The polarity of the solvent has a strong effect on the fluorescence characteristics of Et2Sn(salen). Et2Sn(salen) bound to DNA showed a marked decrease in the fluorescence intensity with a bathochromic shift of the excitation and emission peaks. A hypochromism in the UV absorption spectra was also observed. KI quenching and competitive binding to DNA between Et2Sn(salen) and ethidium bromide (EB) were studied in connection with other experimental observations to show that the interactive model between Et2Sn(salen) and DNA is an intercalative one. The pH and salt effect on the fluorescence properties was also investigated. The intrinsic binding constant was estimated to be 1.071 x 10(5) mol L(-1) in base pairs and the binding site number is 1.98, respectively. A linear relationship between F/F0 and the concentration of calf thymus DNA covers 5.1 x 10(-6) - 2.41 x 10(-4) mol L(-1), which can be utilized for determining traces of calf thymus DNA with a detection limit of 1.1 x 10(-7) mol L(-1) in base pairs.

A new, rapid methodology for trace analysis using solid-phase extraction is described. The two-step methodology is based on the concentration of an analyte onto a membrane disk and on the determination by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy of the amount of analyte extracted on the disk surface. This method, which is adaptable to a wide range of analytes, has been used for monitoring ppm levels of iodine and iodide in spacecraft water. Iodine is used as a biocide in spacecraft water. For these determinations, a water sample is passed through a membrane disk by means of a 10-mL syringe that is attached to a disk holder assembly. The disk, which is a polystyrene-divinylbenzene composite, is impregnated with poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), which exhaustively concentrates iodine as a yellow iodine-PVP complex. The amount of concentrated iodine is then determined in only 2 s by using a hand-held diffuse reflectance spectrometer by comparing the result with a calibration curve based on the Kubelka-Munk function. The same general procedure can be used to determine iodide levels after its facile and exhaustive oxidation to iodine by peroxymonosulfate (i.e., Oxone reagent). For samples containing both analytes, a two-step procedure can be used in which the iodide concentration is calculated from the difference in iodine levels before and after treatment of the sample with peroxymonosulfate. With this methodology, iodine and iodide levels in the 0.1-5.0 ppm range can be determined with a total workup time of approximately 60 s with a RSD of approximately 6%.

The consequences of iodine deficiency occurring still in Poland include serious health disorders in the population, such as psycho- somatic retardation, hypothyroidism, endemic goitre, even cretinism. Administration of iodized edible salt with daily diet is an effective method for prevention of iodine deficiency. The condition of success is the proper level of potassium iodide in this salt and adequate distribution of iodized salt in various regions of the country. Successful iodine prophylaxis should be based on iodination of edible salt in amounts of 30 +/- 10 mg of KJ/kg. The permission given in the period from February to May 1994 by the General Sanitary Inspector for the production and marketing of edible salt iodized in proportions of 30 +/- 10 mg KJ/kg opened the possibility of starting its production in salt mines. The purpose of the presently reported work was to assess, in cooperation with the Province Sanitary Epidemiological Stations, the adequacy of iodination of the Polish edible salt produced in the years 1994-1995. The study was carried out according to the Polish Standard "Salt (Sodium Chloride) /PN-80/C-84081.35. Potassium iodide determination by photo colorimetric method." In 1995 the number of edible salt samples analyzed was 2484, and this number included 2129 samples of iodized salt. Potassium iodide content agreeing with the above permission was found in 122 samples, that is in 57.4% of iodized salt samples. In 603 samples (28.3%) of iodized salt this content was below that given in the permissions. In 1994 this study was carried out taking 2172 samples of edible salt, including 1586 samples of iodized salt. The content of potassium iodide agreeing with the permissions (30 +/- 10 mg/kg) was found in 342 samples (28, 1%), but 272 (22.4%) samples of iodized salt produced by salt mines contained lower amounts of potassium iodide than the amount indicated in the permissions, but still within the limits set down in the Polish Standard (20 +/- 5 mg/kg). The obtained results (57.4%) indicate an improvement of the process of salt iodination as compared with the results obtained in 1992 and 1993 (38.3%) and 1994 (28.1%). However, varying amounts of potassium iodide differing from the accepted values were found in salt declared as iodized.

The purpose of the study was to assess the correctness of salt iodination and its distribution in Poland. The subject of the study was salt for human consumption iodinated or not, according to Polish norm PN-88/C-84081/02 "Sól (chlorek sodowy). Requirements. Salt samples were taken from retail shops or stores in 36 provinces. The study was carried out in the years 1992-1993 according to PN-80/C-84081.35 "Sól (chlorek sodowy) standard. Potassium iodide was determined by photo-colorimetry. The total number of studied salt samples was 3418, including 2440 samples of iodinated salt. The per cent of samples with proper content of potassium iodide was from 30% to 50% depending on the producer. The study demonstrated that in most cases the process of salt iodination is done incorrectly.

A review is presented of KJ content in edible salt in the years 1975-1991. Salt samples were taken for study from shops and mass catering institutions in the Province of Wrocław--a region of endemic struma. The content of KJ in salt was very low--on the average less than 10 mg/kg and very varied--from zero to over 100 mg/kg.

The binding of saccharides to Abrus precatorius agglutinin (APA) was analyzed by fluorescence spectroscopy. Upon binding of specific saccharides, the fluorescence emission maximum of APA (338 nm) shifted to shorter wavelength by 5 nm, owing to the change in the environment of tryptophan. By analyzing the change in the fluorescence intensity at 338 nm as a function of concentration of saccharides, the association constants for binding of saccharides to APA were determined. The results suggest that in the saccharide binding site on each B-chain of APA, there may be a site which interacts with the saccharide residue linked to galactopyranoside at the non-reducing end, in addition to the site which recognizes the galactopyranosyl residue. Fluorescence quenching data indicate that 8 out of 24 tryptophans in APA are located at or near the surface of the protein molecule and are available for quenching with both KI and acrylamide, and 10 tryptophans are involved in the environment to which acrylamide has access but KI does not. Binding of lactose to APA reduced by 4 the number of tryptophan residues accessible to quenchers. Based on the results, it is suggested that the tryptophan residues at the saccharide binding site on each B-chain of APA are present on the surface of the APA molecule, and they are shielded from quenching by KI and acrylamide upon binding with specific saccharides.