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This paper presents a new system model to evaluate the capacity and power consumption of multi-layer 6G networks utilising the upper mid-band (FR3). The model captures heterogeneous 4G, 5G, and 6G deployments, analyzing their performance under different deployment strategies. Our results show that strategic 6G deployments, non-co-located with existing 5G sites, significantly enhance throughput, with median and peak user rates of 300 Mbps and exceeding 1 Gbps, respectively. We also emphasize the importance of priority-based cell reselection and beam configuration to fully leverage 6G capabilities. While 6G implementation increases power consumption by 33%, non-colocated deployments strike a balance between performance and power consumption.

The drive toward automating cellular network operations has grown with the increasing complexity of these systems. Despite advancements, full autonomy currently remains out of reach due to reliance on human intervention for modeling network behaviors and defining policies to meet target requirements. Network Digital Twins (NDTs) have shown promise in enhancing network intelligence, but the successful implementation of this technology is constrained by use case-specific architectures, limiting its role in advancing network autonomy. A more capable network intelligence, or "telecommunications brain", is needed to enable seamless, autonomous management of cellular network. Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as potential enablers for this vision but face challenges in network modeling, especially in reasoning and handling diverse data types. To address these gaps, we introduce Hermes, a chain of LLM agents that uses "blueprints" for constructing NDT instances through structured and explainable logical steps. Hermes allows automatic, reliable, and accurate network modeling of diverse use cases and configurations, thus marking progress toward fully autonomous network operations.

In this article, we introduce a method to optimize 5G massive multiple-input multiple-output (mMIMO) connectivity for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) on aerial highways through strategic cell association. UAVs operating in 3D space encounter distinct channel conditions compared to traditional ground user equipment (gUE); under the typical line of sight (LoS) condition, UAVs perceive strong reference signal received power (RSRP) from multiple cells within the network, resulting in a large set of suitable serving cell candidates and in low signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) due to high interference levels. Additionally, a downside of aerial highways is to pack possibly many UAVs along a small portion of space which, when taking into account typical LoS propagation conditions, results in high channel correlation and severely limits spatial multiplexing capabilities. In this paper, we propose a solution to both problems based on the suitable selection of serving cells based on a new metric which differs from the classical terrestrial approaches based on maximum RSRP. We then introduce an algorithm for optimal planning of synchronization signal block (SSB) beams for this set of cells, ensuring maximum coverage and effective management of UAVs cell associations. Simulation results demonstrate that our approach significantly improves the rates of UAVs on aerial highways, up to four times in achievable data rates, without impacting ground user performance.

Supervised machine learning (ML) is used extensively in biology and deserves closer scrutiny. The DOME recommendations aim to enhance the validation and reproducibility of ML research by establishing standards for key aspects such as data handling and processing, optimization, evaluation, and model interpretability. The recommendations help to ensure that key details are reported transparently by providing a structured set of questions. Here, we introduce the DOME Registry (URL: registry.dome-ml.org), a database that allows scientists to manage and access comprehensive DOME-related information on published ML studies. The registry uses external resources like ORCID, APICURON and the Data Stewardship Wizard to streamline the annotation process and ensure comprehensive documentation. By assigning unique identifiers and DOME scores to publications, the registry fosters a standardized evaluation of ML methods. Future plans include continuing to grow the registry through community curation, improving the DOME score definition and encouraging publishers to adopt DOME standards, promoting transparency and reproducibility of ML in the life sciences.

The introduction of fifth-generation (5G) radio technology has revolutionized communications, bringing unprecedented automation, capacity, connectivity, and ultra-fast, reliable communications. However, this technological leap comes with a substantial increase in energy consumption, presenting a significant challenge. To improve the energy efficiency of 5G networks, it is imperative to develop sophisticated models that accurately reflect the influence of base station (BS) attributes and operational conditions on energy usage.Importantly, addressing the complexity and interdependencies of these diverse features is particularly challenging, both in terms of data processing and model architecture design. This paper proposes a novel 5G base stations energy consumption modelling method by learning from a real-world dataset used in the ITU 5G Base Station Energy Consumption Modelling Challenge in which our model ranked second. Unlike existing methods that omit the Base Station Identifier (BSID) information and thus fail to capture the unique energy fingerprint in different base stations, we incorporate the BSID into the input features and encoding it with an embedding layer for precise representation. Additionally, we introduce a novel masked training method alongside an attention mechanism to further boost the model's generalization capabilities and accuracy. After evaluation, our method demonstrates significant improvements over existing models, reducing Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) from 12.75% to 4.98%, leading to a performance gain of more than 60%.

This paper introduces Waste Factor (W), also denoted as Waste Figure (WF) in dB, a promising new metric for quantifying energy efficiency in a wide range of circuits and systems applications, including data centers and RANs. Also, the networks used to connect data centers and AI computing engines with users for ML applications must become more power efficient. This paper illustrates the limitations of existing energy efficiency metrics that inadequately capture the intricate energy dynamics of RAN components. We delineate the methodology for applying W across various network configurations, including MISO, SIMO, and MIMO systems, and demonstrate the effectiveness of W in identifying energy optimization opportunities. Our findings reveal that W not only offers nuanced insights into the energy performance of RANs but also facilitates informed decision-making for network design and operational efficiency. Furthermore, we show how W can be integrated with other KPIs to guide the development of optimal strategies for enhancing network energy efficiency under different operational conditions. Additionally, we present simulation results for a distributed multi-user MIMO system at 3.5, 17, and 28 GHz, demonstrating overall network power efficiency on a per square kilometer basis, and show how overall W decreases with an increasing number of base stations and increasing carrier frequency. This paper shows that adopting W as a figure of merit can significantly contribute to the sustainability and energy optimization of next-generation wireless communication networks, paving the way for greener and more sustainable, energy-efficient 5G and 6G technologies., Comment: 28 pages, 21 figures, 5 tables

The application of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) systems in the telecommunication domain presents unique challenges, primarily due to the complex nature of telecom standard documents and the rapid evolution of the field. The paper introduces Telco-RAG, an open-source RAG framework designed to handle the specific needs of telecommunications standards, particularly 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) documents. Telco-RAG addresses the critical challenges of implementing a RAG pipeline on highly technical content, paving the way for applying LLMs in telecommunications and offering guidelines for RAG implementation in other technical domains., Comment: 6 pages, 5 Figure, 4 Tables, accepted to IEEE Globecom 2024 (see https://github.com/netop-team/telco-rag)

The increasing interest in Large Language Models (LLMs) within the telecommunications sector underscores their potential to revolutionize operational efficiency. However, the deployment of these sophisticated models is often hampered by their substantial size and computational demands, raising concerns about their viability in resource-constrained environments. Addressing this challenge, recent advancements have seen the emergence of small language models that surprisingly exhibit performance comparable to their larger counterparts in many tasks, such as coding and common-sense reasoning. Phi-2, a compact yet powerful model, exemplifies this new wave of efficient small language models. This paper conducts a comprehensive evaluation of Phi-2's intrinsic understanding of the telecommunications domain. Recognizing the scale-related limitations, we enhance Phi-2's capabilities through a Retrieval-Augmented Generation approach, meticulously integrating an extensive knowledge base specifically curated with telecom standard specifications. The enhanced Phi-2 model demonstrates a profound improvement in accuracy, answering questions about telecom standards with a precision that closely rivals the more resource-intensive GPT-3.5. The paper further explores the refined capabilities of Phi-2 in addressing problem-solving scenarios within the telecom sector, highlighting its potential and limitations.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as a significant advancement in the field of Natural Language Processing (NLP), demonstrating remarkable capabilities in language generation and other language-centric tasks. Despite their evaluation across a multitude of analytical and reasoning tasks in various scientific domains, a comprehensive exploration of their knowledge and understanding within the realm of natural language tasks in the telecommunications domain is still needed. This study, therefore, seeks to evaluate the knowledge and understanding capabilities of LLMs within this domain. To achieve this, we conduct an exhaustive zero-shot evaluation of four prominent LLMs-Llama-2, Falcon, Mistral, and Zephyr. These models require fewer resources than ChatGPT, making them suitable for resource-constrained environments. Their performance is compared with state-of-the-art, fine-tuned models. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to extensively evaluate and compare the understanding of LLMs across multiple language-centric tasks in this domain. Our evaluation reveals that zero-shot LLMs can achieve performance levels comparable to the current state-of-the-art fine-tuned models. This indicates that pretraining on extensive text corpora equips LLMs with a degree of specialization, even within the telecommunications domain. We also observe that no single LLM consistently outperforms others, and the performance of different LLMs can fluctuate. Although their performance lags behind fine-tuned models, our findings underscore the potential of LLMs as a valuable resource for understanding various aspects of this field that lack large annotated data.

The energy consumption of mobile networks poses a critical challenge. Mitigating this concern necessitates the deployment and optimization of network energy-saving solutions, such as carrier shutdown, to dynamically manage network resources. Traditional optimization approaches encounter complexity due to factors like the large number of cells, stochastic traffic, channel variations, and intricate trade-offs. This paper introduces the simulated reality of communication networks (SRCON) framework, a novel, data-driven modeling paradigm that harnesses live network data and employs a blend of machine learning (ML)- and expert-based models. These mix of models accurately characterizes the functioning of network components, and predicts network energy efficiency and user equipment (UE) quality of service for any energy carrier shutdown configuration in a specific network. Distinguishing itself from existing methods, SRCON eliminates the reliance on expensive expert knowledge, drive testing, or incomplete maps for predicting network performance. This paper details the pipeline employed by SRCON to decompose the large network energy efficiency modeling problem into ML and expert-based submodels. It demonstrates how, by embracing stochasticity, and carefully crafting the relationship between such submodels, the overall computational complexity can be reduced and prediction accuracy enhanced. Results derived from real network data underscore the paradigm shift introduced by SRCON, showcasing significant gains over a state-of-the art method used by a operator for network energy efficiency modeling. The reliability of this local, data-driven modeling of the network proves to be a key asset for network energy-saving optimization., Comment: 24 pages, 13 figures, submitted to IEEE Transactions on Machine Learning in Communications and Networking

As deep learning models become increasingly large, they pose significant challenges in heterogeneous devices environments. The size of deep learning models makes it difficult to deploy them on low-power or resource-constrained devices, leading to long inference times and high energy consumption. To address these challenges, we propose FlexTrain, a framework that accommodates the diverse storage and computational resources available on different devices during the training phase. FlexTrain enables efficient deployment of deep learning models, while respecting device constraints, minimizing communication costs, and ensuring seamless integration with diverse devices. We demonstrate the effectiveness of FlexTrain on the CIFAR-100 dataset, where a single global model trained with FlexTrain can be easily deployed on heterogeneous devices, saving training time and energy consumption. We also extend FlexTrain to the federated learning setting, showing that our approach outperforms standard federated learning benchmarks on both CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 datasets., Comment: Workshop on Advancing Neural Network Training (WANT) at NeurIPS 2023

The DisProt database is a significant resource containing manually curated data on experimentally validated intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and regions (IDRs) from the literature. Developed in 2005, its primary goal was to collect structural and functional information into proteins that lack a fixed three-dimensional (3D) structure. Today, DisProt has evolved into a major repository that not only collects experimental data but also contributes significantly to our understanding of the IDPs/IDRs roles in various biological processes, such as autophagy or the life cycle mechanisms in viruses, or their involvement in diseases (such as cancer and neurodevelopmental disorders). DisProt offers detailed information on the structural states of IDPs/IDRs, including state transitions, interactions, and their functions, all provided as curated annotations. One of the central activities of DisProt is the meticulous curation of experimental data from the literature. For this reason, to ensure that every expert and volunteer curator possesses the requisite knowledge for data evaluation, collection, and integration, training courses and curation materials are available. However, biocuration guidelines concur on the importance of developing robust guidelines that not only provide critical information about data consistency but also ensure data acquisition.This guideline aims to provide both biocurators and external users with best practices for manually curating IDPs and IDRs in DisProt. It describes every step of the literature curation process and provides use cases of IDP curation within DisProt. Database URL: https://disprot.org/

We introduce TeleQnA, the first benchmark dataset designed to evaluate the knowledge of Large Language Models (LLMs) in telecommunications. Comprising 10,000 questions and answers, this dataset draws from diverse sources, including standards and research articles. This paper outlines the automated question generation framework responsible for creating this dataset, along with how human input was integrated at various stages to ensure the quality of the questions. Afterwards, using the provided dataset, an evaluation is conducted to assess the capabilities of LLMs, including GPT-3.5 and GPT-4. The results highlight that these models struggle with complex standards related questions but exhibit proficiency in addressing general telecom-related inquiries. Additionally, our results showcase how incorporating telecom knowledge context significantly enhances their performance, thus shedding light on the need for a specialized telecom foundation model. Finally, the dataset is shared with active telecom professionals, whose performance is subsequently benchmarked against that of the LLMs. The findings illustrate that LLMs can rival the performance of active professionals in telecom knowledge, thanks to their capacity to process vast amounts of information, underscoring the potential of LLMs within this domain. The dataset has been made publicly accessible on GitHub.

We present CAFA-evaluator, a powerful Python program designed to evaluate the performance of prediction methods on targets with hierarchical concept dependencies. It generalizes multi-label evaluation to modern ontologies where the prediction targets are drawn from a directed acyclic graph and achieves high efficiency by leveraging matrix computation and topological sorting. The program requirements include a small number of standard Python libraries, making CAFA-evaluator easy to maintain. The code replicates the Critical Assessment of protein Function Annotation (CAFA) benchmarking, which evaluates predictions of the consistent subgraphs in Gene Ontology. Owing to its reliability and accuracy, the organizers have selected CAFA-evaluator as the official CAFA evaluation software., Comment: 5 pages

Large Language Models (LLMs), AI-driven models that can achieve general-purpose language understanding and generation, have emerged as a transformative force, revolutionizing fields well beyond Natural Language Processing (NLP) and garnering unprecedented attention. As LLM technology continues to progress, the telecom industry is facing the prospect of its impact on its landscape. To elucidate these implications, we delve into the inner workings of LLMs, providing insights into their current capabilities and limitations. We also examine the use cases that can be readily implemented in the telecom industry, streamlining tasks, such as anomalies resolutions and technical specifications comprehension, which currently hinder operational efficiency and demand significant manpower and expertise. Furthermore, we uncover essential research directions that deal with the distinctive challenges of utilizing the LLMs within the telecom domain. Addressing them represents a significant stride towards fully harnessing the potential of LLMs and unlocking their capabilities to the fullest extent within the telecom domain.

The rapidly evolving communication landscape, with the advent of 6G technology, brings new challenges to the design and operation of wireless networks. One of the key concerns is the energy efficiency of the Radio Access Network (RAN), as the exponential growth in wireless traffic demands increasingly higher energy consumption. In this paper, we assess the potential of integrating a High Altitude Platform Station (HAPS) to improve the energy efficiency of a RAN, and quantify the potential energy conservation through meticulously designed simulations. We propose a quantitative framework based on real traffic patterns to estimate the energy consumption of the HAPS integrated RAN and compare it with the conventional terrestrial RAN. Our simulation results elucidate that HAPS can significantly reduce energy consumption by up to almost 30\% by exploiting the unique advantages of HAPS, such as its self-sustainability, high altitude, and wide coverage. We further analyze the impact of different system parameters on performance, and provide insights for the design and optimization of future 6G networks. Our work sheds light on the potential of HAPS integrated RAN to mitigate the energy challenges in the 6G era, and contributes to the sustainable development of wireless communications.

This paper proposes the utilization of cell-free massive MIMO (CF-M-MIMO) processing on top of the regular micro/macrocellular deployments typically found in current 5G networks. Towards this end, it contemplates the connection of all base stations to a central processing unit (CPU) through fronthaul links, thus enabling the joint processing of all serviced user equipment (UE), yet avoiding the expensive deployment and maintenance of dozens of randomly scattered access points (APs). Moreover, it allows the implementation of centralized strategies to exploit the sleep mode capabilities of current baseband/RF hardware to (de)activate selected Base Stations (BSs) in order to maximize the network energy efficiency and to react to changes in UE behaviour and/or operator requirements. In line with current cellular network deployments, it considers the use of multiple antennas at the UE side that unavoidably introduces the need to effectively manage the number of streams to be directed to each UE in order to balance multiplexing gains and increased pilot contamination., Comment: 14 pages, 12 figures

In this article, we introduce a new metric for driving the serving cell selection process of a swarm of cellular connected unmanned aerial vehicles (CCUAVs) located on aerial highways when served by a massive multiple input multiple output (mMIMO) terrestrial network. Selecting the optimal serving cell from several suitable candidates is not straightforward. By solely relying on the traditional cell selection metric, based on reference signal received power (RSRP), it is possible to result in a scenario in which the serving cell can not multiplex an appropriate number of CCUAVs due to the high correlation in the line of sight (LoS) channels. To overcome such issue, in this work, we introduce a new cell selection metric to capture not only signal strength, but also spatial multiplexing capabilities. The proposed metric highly depends on the relative position between the aerial highways and the antennas of the base station. The numerical analysis indicates that the integration of the proposed new metric allows to have a better signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR) performance on the aerial highways, resulting in a more reliable cellular connection for CCUAVs., Comment: To be published in IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshop 2023

The fifth generation of the Radio Access Network (RAN) has brought new services, technologies, and paradigms with the corresponding societal benefits. However, the energy consumption of 5G networks is today a concern. In recent years, the design of new methods for decreasing the RAN power consumption has attracted interest from both the research community and standardization bodies, and many energy savings solutions have been proposed. However, there is still a need to understand the power consumption behavior of state-ofthe-art base station architectures, such as multi-carrier active antenna units (AAUs), as well as the impact of different network parameters. In this paper, we present a power consumption model for 5G AAUs based on artificial neural networks. We demonstrate that this model achieves good estimation performance, and it is able to capture the benefits of energy saving when dealing with the complexity of multi-carrier base stations architectures. Importantly, multiple experiments are carried out to show the advantage of designing a general model able to capture the power consumption behaviors of different types of AAUs. Finally, we provide an analysis of the model scalability and the training data requirements.

The energy consumption of the fifth generation(5G) of mobile networks is one of the major concerns of the telecom industry. However, there is not currently an accurate and tractable approach to evaluate 5G base stations (BSs) power consumption. In this article, we propose a novel model for a realistic characterisation of the power consumption of 5G multi-carrier BSs, which builds on a large data collection campaign. At first, we define a machine learning architecture that allows modelling multiple 5G BS products. Then, we exploit the knowledge gathered by this framework to derive a realistic and analytically tractable power consumption model, which can help driving both theoretical analyses as well as feature standardisation, development and optimisation frameworks. Notably, we demonstrate that such model has high precision, and it is able of capturing the benefits of energy saving mechanisms. We believe this analytical model represents a fundamental tool for understanding 5G BSs power consumption, and accurately optimising the network energy efficiency., Comment: Accepted by IEEE Communications Magazine