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The southern inner ring road in Ljubljana, Slovenia was equipped with low-cost sensors supported by the Telraam integrated platform. The sensors were built with open-source components (Raspberry PI). The software is running, and the counting data is collected and analysed via an internet portal (www.telraam.com). The Telraam sensor counts pedestrians, cyclists, cars and freight/heavy vehicles using the images provided by the device sensor and the analysis performed by the “Raspberry Pi” (a small computer on which the device is based). The sensor software uses the size and speed of the passing object to determine and classify the different vehicles. The classification is based on the average observed full value and the axis ratio of each observed object (which meets a set of criteria that helps filter out any movement in the field of view that should be associated with road users). The five traffic sensors camera is mounted directly on the inside of the window glass facing the street at varying distances from the road (from 3 to 15 meters), where they count traffic only during daylight hours, update their count every hour and separate car traffic by direction.

Z zaključno seminarsko nalogo smo želeli preučiti stanje cestne infrastrukture za pešce in kolesarje v Kobaridu in bližnji okolici. Prikazali smo območja kjer je promet najbolj zgoščen in tako predstavlja šibko točko v pretočnosti omrežja. Največ podatkov smo zbrali s terenskim delom in prepoznavanjem območja, pa tudi z intervjuji in anketami med občani. V veliko pomoč pri predlaganju vzpostavitve varnejše infrastrukture pa je bila literatura iz različnih držav Evropske unije. Ugotovili smo, da so razmere za nemotoriziran promet v Kobaridu zelo neugodne, saj primanjkuje prostora za širitev oziroma volje za spremembo prometnih režimov. With the final seminar paper we wanted to study the condition of the road infrastructure for pedestrians and cyclers in Kobarid and in the nearby area. We represented the areas where traffic was congested and thus represents a weak point in traffic network. We collected the most data through field work in identifying areas, as well as through interviews and surveys among citizens. Literature from different EU member states has been a helpful tool in the implementation of different infrastructual possibilities to be used in Kobarid area. We found out that the conditions for non-motorized traffic in Kobarid are very undernourished, there is a lack the space to expand and lack of will to change traffic regimes among the people.

V magistrskem delu je obravnavano načrtovanje varnejših površin za pešce, kot se pojavlja v raznih tujih priročnikih in pravilnikih, saj tega v Sloveniji še nimamo. Poudarek je na treh področjih: določitev širine hodnika za pešce, izvedba varnejših prehodov za pešce in izvedba peš con. Pri hodniku za pešce je obravnavan prosti profil pešca, sestavljanje potrebne širine hodnika glede na profil pešca in glede na varnostne dodatke, potrebna širina hodnika pri veliki zgostitvi pešcev, določitev širine hodnika po severnoameriški metodi, tj. z razdelitvijo pločnika na cone, ter možni koraki, kadar je premalo prostora. V drugem delu so predstavljene različne vrste in variante prehodov za pešce, tudi nekatere novejše in inovativne, ki se jih lahko poslužujemo pri izvedbi varnejših prehodov. Ti so v veliki meri povezani z ukrepi za umirjanje prometa, zato tudi obravnavane metode in izvedbe prehodov delno sovpadajo z njimi. Zadnje področje obsega različne vrste peš con ter zahteve, kdaj in kje jih izvesti. Podani so tudi napotki za bolj privlačno načrtovanje peš con. Na konkretnem primeru je predstavljena rekonstrukcija izbranega območja z upoštevanjem tujih pravilnikov za načrtovanje. V zaključku so podana priporočila, kateri postopki in metode bi bili najboljši in najprimernejši za uporabo v našem okolju. The master’s thesis deals with the design of safer pedestrian facilities, which are mostly taken from foreign manuals and regulations, as we still do not have any pedestrian design guide in Slovenia. The focus is on three fields: the determination of the sidewalk width, the implementation of safer pedestrian crossings and the implementation of pedestrian zones. Regarding the sidewalks, a pedestrian profile, a composition of necessary sidewalk width based on the pedestrian profile and safety additions, a sidewalk width in areas with high density of pedestrians, a determination of sidewalk width considering the North American method, i.e. dividing the sidewalk into zones, and possible steps to take, where there is insufficient space, are examined. The second part presents various types and variations of pedestrian crossings, some of which are newer and more innovative and can be used to design safer pedestrian crossings. These are, to a large extent, related to traffic calming measures, which is why the discussed methods and the implementation of pedestrian crossings partly coincide with them. The last part comprises different types of pedestrian zones and the requirements of when and where to use them. Moreover, some guidelines to design more attractive pedestrian zones are given. The practical case in the end presents a reconstruction of a selected area, taking into account the foreign design manuals. In conclusion, recommendations on which procedures and methods would be best and most suitable for the use in our environment are given.

V magistrskem delu smo se osredotočili na zasnovo objekta in njegovo umestitev v okolico, kjer bi zraven svoje funkcionalnosti objekt hkrati deloval kot del nove podobe mesta Maribor, kjer bi se intuitivno zlil s samo okolico ter tako doprinesel k lepšemu izgledu mesta. Osredotočili smo se na analizo in dimenzioniranje konstrukcijskih jeklenih in betonskih elementov jeklenega nadhoda v skladu s predpisi Evrokod standarda. Kot smernice pri zasnovi in zahtevanih izračunih nam je služila literatura priznanih avtorjev tovrstnih del. In this thesis, we focused on the design of the structure and its placement in surroundinga area where next to its functionality, the structure also acts as a new image of the city Maribor, where the intuitive fused with only the surroundings and thus contribute to a better appearance of the city. Next we focused on the analysis and design steel and concrete structural elements made of the steel overpass in accordance with the regulations of Eurocode standard. As a guideline for the design and the required calculations, we used the literature of recognized authors of such works.

Il saggio ripercorre il lancio sul mercato del Giobbe di Marco Balossardi, eteronimo di Olindo Guerrini, e la seguente polemica scoppiata sui giornali di tutta Italia. Guerrini, in accordo con diverse testate, mette in piedi un’attenta strategia pubblicitaria, alla quale partecipa in prima persona, che punta all’inasprimento graduale della polemica, tanto da richiedere l’intervento diretto della vittima stessa della beffa, Mario Rapisardi. Te essay retraces the launch of Giobbe by Marco Balossardi, an Olindo Guerrini’s heteronym, and the following journalistic debate on Italian newspapers. Guerrini, in agreement with several publishers and journalists, orchestrates a precise advertising strategy, which aims to a gradual increase of the polemic. Such a debate will see the involvement of the victim himself, Mario Rapisardi.

Klasično križišče se nahaja v mestu Ptuj, v mestni četrti »Ljudski vrt«, sredi spalnega naselja. Križišče je problematično zaradi slabe preglednosti, saj so v neposredni bližini neprimerno umeščena parkirišča ter zabojniki za odpadke, ki ovirajo preglednost. To še dodatno poslabšujejo nepravilno parkirana vozila na pločniku v neposredni bližini križišča. V križišču prav tako ni ustrezne infrastrukture za kolesarje. Na podlagi opravljene analize stanja, prometnovarnostne analize ter kapacitetnih preveritev se predlaga umestitev mini krožnega križišča z ustrezno infrastrukturo za vse udeležence v prometu ter rešitev parkirne stiske z možnostjo izgradnje parkirišč v bližini. The problematic intersection is located in the town of Ptuj, in the Ljudski Vrt district, in the middle of the residental area. This intersection is problematic due to poor visibility, because improperly placed parking spots and trash bins are blocking the view. The situation is made even worse by improperly parked vehicles on the sidewalk, in the immediate vicinity of the intersection. The intersection also lacks proper infrastructure for cyclists. Based on the performed analysis, including analysis of traffic safety and capacity figures, a mini-roundabout is being recommended to be placed on the location, complete with proper infrastructure for all traffic users and a solution to the parking crisis with an option of building sufficient parking spaces nearby.

L’esame parassitologico a fresco viene generalmente condotto effettuando raschiati a livello cutaneo e delle branchie o inserendo direttamente sul vetrino portaoggetto una porzione di branchia. L’esame microscopico permette di evidenziare eventuali forme parassitarie presenti nei campioni prelevati. La loro determinazione tassonomica può rappresentare un ostacolo al personale poco formato che si accinge alla visone di preparati. Questo breve manuale può rappresentare un aiuto nel riconoscimento dei principali parassiti cutaneo-branchiali presenti nei Salmonidi e nei Ciprinidi del nostro comparto geografico. Di seguito vengono evidenziati i principali parassiti che si possono riscontrare in esami parassitologici condotti sulla fauna ittica di riferimento.

L’esame anatomopatologico generalmente viene condotto su un numero relativamente elevato di soggetti sintomatici, in quanto si rende necessario osservare un quadro completo delle possibili alterazioni che si possono verificare in diversi soggetti nella popolazione in oggetto (gruppo di pesci o individui presenti in una vasca). Generalmente l’esame viene condotto dapprima osservando la superficie esterna del pesce, evidenziando tutte le anomalie presenti (eventuali abrasioni, emorragie, ulcere, sfrangia mento delle pinne, ecc.). L’apertura della cavità addominale è indispensabile per poter mettere in evidenza i visceri e poter osservare eventuali alterazioni; per avere un quadro ben visibile degli organi interni è necessario posizionare il pesce da analizzare con la testa verso sinistra; in questo modo si avrà una corretta visione della maggior parte degli organi interni nella maggioranza degli individui. Una volta posizionato il pesce si effettua una incisione con le forbici o con il bisturi partendo dalla cavità anale e procedendo cranialmente verso la camera opercolare con un taglio longitudinale. Successivamente si procede con un taglio verso la linea laterale, avendo cura di seguire la sagoma della cavità addominale; una volta raggiunto lo spazio sottostante qualche millimetro la linea laterale si curva procedendo nuovamente longitudinalmente verso la cavità opercolare, in modo da staccare il lembo laterale della muscolatura che ricopre la cavità viscerale, senza intaccare possibilmente la vescica natatoria. In questo modo si ottiene un’apertura della cavità con esposizione degli organi interni. Questo rappresenta il metodo più semplice di effettuare un esame anatomopatologico anche in condizioni disagiate come quelle che si possono riscontrare in campo. Non sempre però risulta possibile avere del materiale disponibile, come in questi casi; allora tramite le immagini riprodotte è possibile effettuare una valutazione, anche se sommaria e non sempre esaustiva del quadro osservabile. Con questa esercitazione si vuole fornire dei piccoli rudimenti nella complessità della diagnosi di malattia nel comparto ittico, dove la maggior parte dei quadri rilevabili non sono patognomici di una determinata malattia, ma che osservandoli bene e correlandoli con il grado di gravità e altre informazioni possono essere utili per esprimere un sospetto diagnostico.

V diplomski nalogi obravnavam analizo in rekonstrukcijo cestnega odseka Šmartinska cesta – Grablovičeva ulica. Opišem problematiko ranljivih udeležencev prometa ter določim kritične točke odseka s pomočjo inšpekcijskega pregleda cest. Po analizi s pomočjo tehničnih specifikacij in standardov predlagam rešitve posameznih kritičnih točk in jih implementiram na grafični podlagi. In the diploma thesis I discuss the analysis and reconstruction of the road section Šmartinska cesta – Grablovičeva ulica. I describe the problematic of vulnerable traffic participants and pinpoint the critical areas with help of guidelines for road safety inspection. After the analysis, I recommend reconstruction measures of critical areas with help of technical specifications and implement those measures graphically.

Načrtovanje mestnih prometnih površin po NACTO sledi viziji umirjanja prometa z vizualnimi elementi. Predstavljeno bo postopno prenavljanje mestnih prometnih površin po ameriških smernicah združenja NACTO, ki je leta 2013 izdal knjigo Urban Street Design Guide. Posamezen tip obstoječih cest v urbanem okolju ( glavna mestna cesta, cesta v soseski, stanovanjska ulica v skupni rabi) lahko po korakih s posameznimi konstrukcijskimi elementi preuredimo tako, da zagotovimo večjo varnost pešcev in kolesarjev, gospodarsko smotrnost ceste ter poživimo mestno okolje za dobrobit ljudi in lokalnih gospodarskih dejavnosti. S spremembo širine prometnega pasu, pločnikov, polmera zavoja robnika, zamikov osi vozišča in uporabo vertikalnih elementov za nadzor hitrosti ( hitrostne grbine, ploščadi, blazine, pasu za potniški promet) vplivamo na večjo preglednost v križišču in zmanjšanjem vozne hitrosti. Za zaključek je predstavljena preureditev križišča na Premrlovi ulici v Ljubljani v krožno križišče in Gerbičeve ulice v Ljubljani v enosmerno ulico z elementi umirjanja prometa. Urban road design according to NACTO follows the vision of traffic calming with visual elements. Gradual restoration of urban traffic areas will be presented according to american guidelines of NACTO Association, which published a book in 2013 called Urban Street Design Guide. Each type of existing roads in the urban area (the main street, the road in the neighborhood, residential shared street) can be, step by step, reconstructed with individual structural elements to ensure greater safety for pedestrians and cyclists, the economic efficiency of the road and creates vibrant community spaces for the welfare of people and local economic activities. By changing the width of the travel lane, sidewalks, curb radius turn, chicanes and the use of vertical speed control elements (speed humps, speed tables, speed cushions, dedicated bus lanes) we influence on greater visibility in the intersection and reducing the driving speed. In conclusion I present reconstruction of intersection on Premrl street in Ljubljana into a roundabout and Gerbičeva street in Ljubljana into a one way street with traffic calming elements.

Pešci in kolesarji spadajo med najbolj ranljive udeležence v cestnem prometu, zato je ravno njim potrebno nameniti več pozornosti pri vključevanju v promet. Kolo postaja zaradi ekonomskega in okoljevarstvenega vidika vedno bolj priljubljeno prevozno sredstvo v večjih mestih. Hiter tempo življenja, stresne situacije in slabi vremenski pogoji nas privedejo do nezbranosti med udeležbo v prometu, kar lahko vodi do usodnih posledic. Diplomsko delo govori o varnosti pešcev in kolesarjev v Sloveniji oz. na Ptuju, za kar je bila med leti 2009 in 2014 opravljena podrobna analiza. Opravili smo ogled črnih odsekov ter na osnovi tega predlagali nekaj izboljšav za povečanje varnosti pešcev in kolesarjev. Glede na opravljeno analizo je jasno razvidno, da povzročitelji nesreč niso vedno vozniki motornih vozil. Vedno več je pešcev in kolesarjev, ki povzročijo nesrečo. Ob tem pa se postavlja vprašanje, kako dobro je poznavanje cestno-prometnih predpisov in o primernosti obnašanja najranljivejših udeležencev v prometu. Pedestrians and cyclists are amongst the most vulnerable road users. Therefore, it is necessary to pay more attention to their integration in traffic. Bicycle has become more popular in bigger cities due to economic and environmental aspects. The tempo of modern life, stressful situations and bad weather conditions can lead to not being collected during driving. The latter can lead to fatal consequences. The main focus of this thesis is the safety of pedestrians and cyclists in Slovenia and in particular the Ptujs area. To get more information on this issue a detailed survey was carried out between 2009 and 2014. An inspection of black spots was done as well. Based on the findings of the inspection several improvements for enhancement of the safety of pedestrians and cyclists were suggested. The analysis showed that in some cases the one responsible for car accident were pedestrians or cyclists and not drivers of motor vehicles, which happens to be the most common opinion. More and more pedestrians and cyclist are responsible for causing accidents. This sets the question of how well they know road traffic rules and of their behaviour as road users.

V projektni nalogi smo najprej analizirali trenutno stanje površin namenjenih pešcem in kolesarjem v Občini Žalec. Nato smo na kratko povzeli vrste kolesarskih površin in površin za pešce, njihovo ureditev in dimenzije. Predstavili smo tudi nekaj predlogov, ki bi pešcem in kolesarjem izboljšali pogoje in varnost pri udeleževanju v prometu. In this project work we first analysed the current situation of the surfaces for pedestrians ans cyclists in the municipality of Žalec. Then we summarized the types of areas for cyclists and areas for pedestrians, their design and dimensions. We also presented some suggestions to improve safety and conditions for pedestrians and cyclists in traffic.

The problem of minor vehicles crossing or merging into the major stream at unsignalized priority-controlled intersections is well-known. Numerous solutions involve various assumptions concerning the major headway distributions, number of major lanes, critical gap distributions, etc. Such cases can be divided into two main groups: intersections with two streams (one major and one minor stream) and intersections with more than two streams (more than one major stream and one minor stream). At roundabouts, also at single-lane roundabouts, there are similar problems like the ones at other unsignalized priority-controlled intersections. A vehicle at the roundabout approach can only cross the pedestrian crossing when a sufficient time-gap between two pedestrians (or cyclists) is provided. A vehicle at the roundabout entries can only merge into the major stream when a sufficient gap between the two vehicles in the major stream is provided. Because of that, single-lane round-abouts can also be treated as unsignalized intersections with two major lanes: the first one in its circulatory roadway and the second one on the pedestrian crossing. Problematika križanja ali vključevanja stranskega prometnega toka v nivojskih križiščih, kjer je prometni režim urejen z glavno in stransko prometno smerjo, je znan. Številni pristopi vsebujejo različne predpostavke, ki zadevajo porazdelitev glavnega prometnega toka, število prometnih pasov na glavni prometni smeri, kritično časovno praznino ... Take sisteme lahko razdelimo v dve glavni skupini: križišča z dvema tokoma (enim glavnim in enim stranskim) in križišča z več kot dvema tokoma (več kot dva glavna prometna toka in en stranski prometni tok). V krožnih križiščih, tudi v enopasovnih, obstajajo enaki problemi, kot pri drugih nivojskih križiščih, urejenih s prometnim režimom glavne in stranske prometne smeri. Vozilo na uvozu v krožno križišče se lahko priključi v glavni prometni tok le v primeru, ko je časovni presledek med dvema pešcema (ali kolesarjema) zadosti velika. Vsled tega lahko tudi enopasovna krožna križišča obravnavamo kot nesemaforizirana križišča z dvema glavnima prometnima tokoma: prvim v krožnem vozišču in drugem na prehodu za pešce.

Magistrsko delo obravnava analizo prometnih površin z vidika prometne varnosti. Območje analize je zajemalo center mesta Ormož, posebej za motorizirane in posebej za nemotorizirane udeležence v prometu. Na podlagi opisa obstoječega stanja prometnih površin na obravnavanem območju so bili zaznani problemi in težave le-teh. Izvedla se je analiza prometnih nesreč za center mesta Ormož. Ugotavljala se je raven prometne varnosti prometnih površin v skladu s tehničnimi elementi ceste in njene okolice, postavitve vertikalne in označene horizontalne prometne signalizacije. Na koncu so na osnovi ugotovitev posamezne problematike podane idejne rešitve, ki eliminirajo nevarnost in omogočijo uporabnikom prometnega sistema varno vključevanje v prometu. Master's thesis presents an analysis of traffic areas in terms of traffic safety. The area of analysis is center of city Ormož. The analys is made for motorized and for no-motorized road users. On the basis of the existing description traffic areas on the analyzed area were detected problems and difficulties. It was made the analys of traffic accidents for Center Ormož. We analyzed the level of road safety traffic areas in accordance with the elements of the road, and vertical and horizontal traffic signals. In the end, based on the findings of the individual problems given conceptual solutions that eliminate the risk and allow users to safely involvement in traffic system.

V magistrskem delu je predstavljena problematika varnosti pešcev v prometu v Republiki Sloveniji (RS) in v Mestni občini Maribor (MOM). Varnost pešcev v prometu na prehodih za pešce je prikazana z analizo prometne varnosti, izdelane posebej za RS in MOM. V analizi so prometne nesreče, v katerih so bili udeleženi pešci, razdeljene glede na merila, ki kažejo stanje varnosti pešcev v prometu. Na osnovi analize prometne varnosti pešcev so izdelani predlogi rešitev. Predlagana je uvedba ukrepov in naprav za umirjanja prometa, saj ti pripomorejo k povečanju prometne varnosti. V delu je opisano in predstavljeno trenutno stanje na treh prehodih za pešce v MOM ter analizirana je prometna varnost na teh prehodih. Nato so predstavljeni predlogi rešitev izboljšanja prometne varnosti na teh prehodih. The thesis presents an issue of the safety of pedestrian traffic in the Republic of Slovenia (RS) and in the city of Maribor (MOM). The safety of pedestrians on pedestrian crossings is shown by the analysis of traffic safety, which is specifically designed for the RS and the MOM. The analysis of traffic accidents in which pedestrians are involved is divided according to the criteria that indicate the safety of pedestrian traffic. Based on analysis of traffic safety of pedestrian traffic some proposals for solutions are made. The solution proposals to improve road safety on pedestrian crossings are made by using measures and traffic calming devices. Devices and traffic calming measures help to increase traffic safety. In the thesis the current status of three pedestrian crossings in the MOM is described and presented and the traffic safety at these crossings is analyzed. In the end of thesis are given solutions that could improve pedestrian safety on these pedestrian crossings.

Although only our species has achieved high level of mathematical reasoning, numerical abilities are not a human prerogative and in last decades comparative research showed that several animal species display rudimentary numerical capacities (Agrillo & Beran, 2013). The ability to discriminate between quantities provide multiple benefits in different ecological contexts. For instance, numerical abilities can be useful to select the larger amount of food (Hunt et al., 2008), to reduce the probability of being spotted by predators by getting protection within the largest group of social companions (Cresswell, 1994) and to decide whether attack another group based on the assessment of the relative number of intruders (Benson-Amram et al., 2011). In particular, the discovery in recent years that even simple organisms, such as fish, possess numerical abilities similar to primates has made possible the use of fish as an animal model to study numerical cognition in the absence of language. To date, different studies have shown that fish are able to select the larger shoal of conspecifics (Agrillo et al., 2008) and can be trained to discriminate between groups of figures differing in numerosity both when allowed to use number and continuous quantities and when only number was available (Agrillo et al., 2009, 2010). Fish can also make a spontaneous use of numerical information with apparently the same effort required to discriminate continuous quantities (Dadda et al., 2009). These abilities seem to be partially inborn as one-day old fish are already able to discriminate between small groups of peers (Bisazza et al., 2010). Nonetheless several questions about numerical abilities in fish are still unanswered. For instance, it is unclear whether numerical systems are the same among different species, whether numerical acuity may be affected by different factors, such as cooperation among individuals and the presence of items in motion or whether newborn fish could be trained to discriminate between sets of items. The aim of the present study was to fill this gap. In particular, the first part of the thesis deals with some of the open questions about numerical cognition in adult fish; the second part is focused on the ontogeny of numerical competence. In the first study (Section 4.1) we set up a novel procedure for training fish to discriminate between sets of stimuli (groups of geometrical figures) differing in numerosity as the previous methodology used to train fish was time-consuming, suitable only for social species and potentially stressful for fish. To validate the method, we replicated two published experiments that used operant conditioning to investigate mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) abilities to discriminate between small sets of items and the influence of numerical ratio and total number of figures on large number discrimination (Agrillo et al., 2009, 2010). In the new procedure a pair of stimuli differing in numerosity was introduced at the opposite ends of the experimental tank and a food reward was released in correspondence of the stimulus to be reinforced. Fish were initially trained on an easy numerical ratio (0.5) and were then tested in non-reinforced probe trials for their ability to generalize to new numerosities. The new procedure designed replicated previous results: fish proved able to discriminate up to 2 vs. 3 figures and their performance in the large number range decreased while increasing the numerical ratio though their numerical acuity seemed to have no upper limit. In addition, the new method proved to be rapid, applicable to different fish species and efficient to study discrimination learning in fish in tasks requiring visual stimuli. As a consequence, the novel protocol was adopted in all the training experiments presented in this thesis. The second study (Section 4.2) focused on a potential limit in numerical cognition research: the lack of cross-species studies using the same methodology. The question of whether all vertebrates share the same numerical systems or rather numerical abilities have appeared multiple times during evolution in response to specific selective pressures imposed by the environment, represents one of the main issues of animal cognition. Despite the large number of published data, results are inconsistent because the methodologies adopted vary across studies, making difficult any inter-specific comparison. To date no study has investigated if different fish species have the same numerical systems. This experiment represents the first inter-specific study using the same methodology in fish. Five fish species as diverse as guppies (Poecilia reticulata), zebrafish (Danio rerio), angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare), redtail splitfin (Xenotoca eiseni) and Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) were trained on an easy numerical ratio (0.50) and then were compared in their ability to generalize to more difficult ratios (0.67 and 0.75), or to a larger (25 vs. 50) or a smaller (2 vs. 4) total set size. Results showed interesting similarities among the species, opening the possibility of shared numerical systems among phylogenetically distantly related species, more in accord with the existence of ancient quantification systems inherited from a common ancestor than with an independent evolution of numerical abilities in different species. Another important question in the study of numerical cognition concerns the influence of contextual factors on the numerical capacities of a species. It is possible that the performance observed in a numerical task is limited to the specific context in which such abilities are observed rather than reflecting the full numerical competence of a species. To this purpose, the third (Section 5.1) and fourth (Section 5.2) studies investigated the potential influence on fish numerical acuity of factors that normally occur in nature, namely, the cooperative behavior within group and the perception of figures in motion. In natural environment grouping animals interact with each other and these repeated interactions among individuals can affect adaptive response. Recent studies have provided evidence that, in some contexts, collective actions allow to bypass the cognitive limits of a species and to solve problems that go beyond the capacity of a single individual (Krause et al., 2010, Couzin, 2009). To date, all numerical studies in non-human animals have tested subjects individually and it is not known whether collective behavior can enhance the capacity to solve numerical tasks. The third study (Section 5.1) aimed to verify whether fish in dyads were more accurate than single individuals in two different numerical discrimination tasks. In the first task, guppies were required to join the larger group of conspecifics (4 vs. 6); in the second one fish were trained to discriminate between sets of figures (0.5 ratio) and hence were tested in discriminations of increasing difficulty (0.67 and 0.75 ratios). Results showed that dyads performed better than singletons in selecting the larger group of social companions and also made better numerical discriminations of arrays of dots, showing that collective behavior may yield benefits that go beyond the single ecological context. In addition, in both conditions, the better individual of the dyad spontaneously emerged as the leader. Interestingly, the results here obtained aligned with data collected in adult humans where dyadic performance was superior than individual in a collective enumeration task (Bahrami et al., 2013), thus suggesting that cooperation similarly increases numerical acuity in two distantly related species, such as humans and fish. The motion of items is another factor that might potentially affect numerical abilities. Animals are naturally exposed to moving items (e.g., prey, predators) and hence the movement represents a relevant cue in their life. It is known that fish ability to discriminate between small and large groups of conspecifics is differently affected by the quantity of movement of social companions (Agrillo et al., 2008). However it is still unexplored whether fish can discriminate between two-dimensional figures in motion and whether their accuracy is the same in the small and large number range. For example, it has been reported that adult humans are faster and more accurate in estimating small numerosities (≤ 4) of dynamic items than large numerosities (≥ 4), supporting the hypothesis of two distinct numerical systems (Trick et al., 2003, Alston & Humphreys, 2004). To this aim, in the fourth study (Section 5.2) guppies were trained (0.5 ratio) and tested (0.75 ratio) with either static or moving stimuli. We observed a similar effect of items in motion in fish: while a 0.75 ratio was not discriminated with static stimuli in either numerical range (3 vs. 4 and 9 vs. 12), guppies were able to discriminate this ratio with items in motion but only in the small number range (3 vs. 4). To date, comparative psychologists disagree as to whether in non-human species a single system accounts for discriminations over the whole numerical range (called “Approximate number system”), or a distinct system operates over the small number range (≤4) (called “Object tracking system”). Although the results do not represent a direct evidence for the existence of a separate system in the range 1-4, the differential effect of motion reported in guppies reinforces the idea of separate cognitive systems for small and large numbers, in line with data collected in humans. Despite no direct comparisons have been made between fish and humans in this thesis, the similarities between the two species are worth noting as they raise the intriguing possibility that the foundation of our numerical abilities might be evolutionarily more ancient than previously thought, dating back at least as far as the divergence between fish and land vertebrates. The second part of the thesis focused on the development of numerical abilities using newborn guppies as a model species. Developmental studies can provide useful insights with respect to the existence of a single or multiple systems of numerical representation. For instance, exploring developmental trajectories of numerical skills in different contexts can help us to assess whether the same or distinct numerical systems are used in different tasks. Since an adequate method to study discrimination learning in newborn guppies was not available, in the fifth study (Section 6.1) we designed a procedure by taking into account the social needs of young individuals in order to minimize potential stress due to social deprivation, without interfering with the normal development of their behavioral repertoire. We investigated the development of social behavior in the first two weeks of life by using a spontaneous choice task where newborn guppies could choose between social companions and an empty compartment. Then, newborns were given the choice between their own mirror image and a group of peers to assess whether mirrors could be used as a substitute for social companions during experiments. Based on the findings of these experiments, the protocol for discrimination learning in adult fish was adapted to study shape discrimination in newborn fish. Newborn guppies proved capable to learn a simple shape discrimination after few trials and the training method was then used in the last study (Section 6.2) to investigate their numerical competence using sets of two-dimensional objects, as commonly done with adult fish. At present only Bisazza and colleagues (2010) investigated the ontogeny of numerical abilities in fish. The authors found that, at birth, the capacity of guppies to discriminate between shoals differing by one individual included all numerical contrasts in the range 1-4; young guppies proved also be able to discriminate small numerosities by using numerical information only. In Section 6.2 we investigated whether newborns could be trained to discriminate between small sets of figures. To this purpose, we set up three different experimental conditions to study the influence of continuous quantities that co-vary with numbers (cumulative surface area, density, etc.). In the first one number and continuous quantities were simultaneously available, in the second condition only numerical information was available and in the last one, numerical information was made irrelevant (3 vs. 3) and only continuous quantities were available. The result that fish discriminated only very easy numerical contrasts in the range 1-4 when both number and continuous variables were available was in contrast with the results of shoal discrimination experiments (Bisazza et al., 2010) thus suggesting that newborns’ capacity to use number is specific to social stimuli. On the whole data on guppies, both adult fish and newborns, are suggestive of the existence of multiple quantification mechanisms in fish which are domain-specific and serve to solve a limited set of problems in accordance with the hypothesis proposed by different authors (Feigenson et al., 2004; Spelke, 2000). In sum, the data collected in this thesis indicate that even fish, which are provided with a much smaller brain than warm-blooded vertebrates, can discriminate between quantities and solve complex numerical tasks, in line with evidence in other research fields which suggest that processing numerical information might not require complex neural circuits (Hope et al., 2010). This goes together with recent discovery that bony fish possess several other cognitive abilities that were previously believed to be uniquely present in species provided with large, complex brains (i.e. mammalian and avian species) (Bshary et al., 2002). For all these reasons, fish may become a proper model to study cognitive abilities and in particular numerical competence.

Nell'ambito del Piano "Indagine preliminare sullo stato di contaminazione organica ed inorganica di sedimenti marini nell'area prospiciente la condotta di scarico delle acque del depuratore di Acqua dei Corsari", il comune di Palermo ha affidato all'Istituto per l'Ambiente Marino Costiero (IAMC) del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) di Capo Granitola, il campionamento e le analisi dei sedimenti, delle acque, della comunità mesobentonica e dei foraminiferi dello specchio di mare della zona sopracitata. I risultati delle suddette analisi consentiranno di valutare lo stato ecologico, chimico e fisico di tale ambiente marino-costiero in riferimento alle normative Italiane attualmente in vigore. Il presente rapporto tecnico descrive tutte le fasi di lavoro svolte: 1. Scelta del transetto dei siti di campionamento e analisi dello stato dell'arte sulla zona da investigare; 2. prelievo di 6 campioni di acque superficiali; 3. prelievo di 4 carote di sedimento marino per ciascuna delle 6 stazioni di campionamento (totale 24 carote) mediante carotiere manuale; 4. estrusione e stoccaggio dei campioni in contenitori di vetro e/o polietilene ad alta densità e conservazione dei suddetti; 5. acquisizione di documentazione fotografica dei campioni e descrizione macroscopica del sedimento prelevato; 6. colorazione della componente biologica vivente all'interno del sedimento tramite soluzione di Rosa Bengala; 7. analisi chimico-fisica e biologica dei campioni prelevati; 8. creazione di una relazione a carattere scientifico finale sui risultati ottenuti.

The effects of cement consolidated phosphogypsum (PG) on marine organisms was investigated under natural conditions in four 1000 m2 estuarine ponds. Two ponds were seeded with 160 kg of PG arranged in aggregations of blocks and two ponds received similar mass of sand/cement blocks. Meiofauna were sampled quarterly and PG did not affect total meiofauna or major taxa (nematodes and copepods) density. Abundant species of copepods either were slightly increased in ponds with PG or were inconsistently affected. All ponds were drained after one year. Three species of macroinvertebrates and 15 species of fishes were collected. Diversity indices showed modest but inconsistent variation among ponds. Only Pond 1 (control) and Pond 4 (experimental) had similar species abundances and all ponds showed unique distributions of biomasses among species. Thus, no differences in community structure attributable to the presence of PG could be detected among benthic invertebrates, natant invertebrates, or fishes.

La crescente richiesta di energia elettrica per il funzionamento delle apparecchiature elettroniche di uso quotidiano, sia in ambito civile che industriale, ha provocato negli ultimi decenni il proliferare di centrali termoelettriche, con conseguente aumento della potenza di produzione e delle dimensioni delle singole unità produttive. La necessità di raffreddare i condensatori e, quindi, l'esigenza di disporre di ingenti quantitativi d’acqua atti allo scopo, ha reso sempre più pressante il problema di reperire siti idonei per l’istallazione delle centrali, motivo per cui la maggior parte di esse sono state collocate presso la costa, con evidenti vantaggi di presa di acqua e smaltimento del calore residuo direttamente a mare. Spesso non si è tenuto in debito conto che, l’utilizzo di notevoli masse di acqua, potesse provocare problemi ambientali, non solo come impatto sulle biocenosi nel bacino ricevente il refluo termico, ma anche con una serie di effetti nocivi sugli organismi associati al volume d’acqua prelevata, quasi sempre con conseguenze mortali. Studi sugli impatti degli scarichi di reflui caldi sulle biocenosi, hanno dimostrato che gli organismi viventi sottoposti all’effetto del “pennacchio caldo” possono subire shock termici dovuti a repentini cambiamenti di temperatura in un tempo così breve da non consentirne l’acclimatazione. Questi impatti, sono in grado di provocare cambiamenti sulle risorse trofiche dei pesci, anticipazione nel raggiungimento della maturità sessuale, aggregazione massiva di individui nelle aree di scarico, riduzione della ricchezza specifica della comunità. Per quanto riguarda i volumi di acqua prelevati dall’ambiente per i processi di raffreddamento delle centrali termoelettriche, l’impossibilità di resistere alla forza con cui l’acqua viene pompata nell’impianto, fa sì che un certo numero di organismi (pesci, molluschi e organismi planctonici) associati alla massa in ingresso, vengano trascinati verso l’interno della struttura. Gli organismi di taglia maggiore si arrestano contro le grate metalliche dei filtri, dove subiscono effetti dannosi dipendenti dall’esaurimento fisico, dal soffocamento e dall’impatto meccanico contro le barriere, tale fenomeno viene definito “impingement”. Gli organismi di piccole dimensioni (fra cui larve e uova di pesci), vengono trascinati all’interno delle strutture di raffreddamento, fenomeno di “entrainment”, dove subiscono abrasioni meccaniche, intossicazione per la presenza di biocidi e stress legati all’aumento di temperatura ed a cambiamenti di pressione. L’impatto delle centrali elettriche sulle comunità ittiche ha riscosso particolare attenzione nel Nord America ed in Canada, dove l’industria idroelettrica ha una lunga tradizione e l’entità delle ricadute economiche per il depauperamento di specie commerciali sono notevoli. In Italia la presa e restituzione di acqua per usi industriali è regolamentata dal Decreto Legislativo n.152 del 3 Aprile 2006 (Gazzetta Ufficiale n.88) anche se, nel detto decreto, non si fa cenno agli organismi viventi associati alla massa d’acqua utilizzata. Inoltre nonostante la maggior parte delle centrali Italiane siano collocate lungo la costa, non risultano studi sperimentali volti all’individuazione di un impatto sulle biocenosi, conseguente la presa di acqua marina. E’ in tale ambito che è nata l’idea progettuale, indirizzata alla verifica di eventuali impatti sulla fauna ittica relativi alla presa e restituzione di acqua marina per il raffreddamento dei condensatori della centrale termoelettrica A. Volta nel Tirreno centrale. L’idea, seppur innovativa e mai sperimentata in Italia, non teneva in considerazione il sopraggiungere della crisi economica che ha, di fatto, dal 2008 ad oggi provocato la riduzione del quantitativo annuale di produzione elettrica della centrale, in conseguenza della chiusura in tutto il territorio nazionale di numerosi esercizi commerciali e fabbriche, con successiva minor richiesta energetica. L’altalenante funzionamento della centrale e quindi il ridotto prelievo di acqua marina, ha aumentato enormemente i livelli di variabilità del sistema, diminuendo al contempo la disponibilità programmatica per i campionamenti e la presenza costante di un refluo termico a mare consistente. Si è quindi deciso di concentrare le attività di ricerca nella valutazione del fenomeno dell’entrainment sugli stadi precoci dei teleostei, ricerca che presenta il maggior indice di innovazione, non essendo mai stata sperimentata in nessuna centrale Italiana e di cui non ci risulta esistano lavori analoghi in tutto il Mediterraneo. L’analisi ha riguardato la messa a punto di un sistema di campionamento particolare, dovendo operare all’interno delle strutture artificiali dell’impianto, con la scelta degli attrezzi da pesca più idonei, l’individuazione dell’area di prelievo, il lume della maglia più adatto ed i tempi di cala più redditizi, cioè in grado di armonizzare abbondanza di catture e rigurgito dovuto ad intasamento delle maglie. I campionamenti con reti da plancton per la componente ittioplanctonica e le uova sono state eseguite nei canali interni alla centrale nell’area antecedente i filtri. Le attività a mare invece, hanno riguardato il campionamento con sciabica da terra nell’area interessata dal refluo termico ed in due aree controllo a nord e sud dello stesso, per la cattura dei giovanili in fase d’insediamento. Le attività di campionamento interne alla centrale sono state condotte dal 2009 al 2011, con cadenza stagionale nei primi due anni. Durante le 384 ore di lavoro sono stati filtrati un totale di 235.574,5 m3 di acqua marina, suddiviso in 236 cale, la maggior parte delle quali nel 2009. Alcune cale sono state effettuate preliminarmente nel 2008, al fine di definire il disegno di campionamento per gli anni successivi ed individuare l’area di prelievo, la tipologia di rete adatta e standardizzare i tempi di cala più idonei. Le attività di smistamento e determinazione tassonomica hanno portato complessivamente alla raccolta di 668 individui suddivisi in 24 taxa e 2.459 uova di teleostei. Lo studio ha dimostrato, per il sistema di raffreddamento della centrale A. Volta, l’esistenza di un impatto sugli stadi precoci dei teleostei, in conseguenza del fenomeno di entrainment, con un prelievo stimato per l’anno 2009 di circa 12 x 106 larve e 24,5 x 106 uova, le sardine e le alici sono risultate le specie maggiormente impattate dalla centrale. Il peso stimato, circa 300 Kg, delle larve di sardina prelevate dalla centrale nel corso del 2009, è stato relazionato con i dati di cattura del bianchetto in Liguria. Il dato corrisponde a 50 giorni barca per il compartimento di Genova e 31 giorni barca per il compartimento di Savona, con una perdita economica che va dai 9.000,00 euro (vendita all’ingrosso) ai 15.000,00 euro (vendita al dettaglio). L’analisi statistica mediante PERMANOVA ha inoltre constatato differenze significative fra le comunità ittioplanctoniche nelle varie stagioni per i valori di abbondanza, mentre non sono risultati significativamente differenti i dati stagionali per numero di uova. L’estate si è confermata come il periodo con i valori di diversità, ricchezza specifica ed equitabilità più elevati, mentre l’inverno ha registrato il maggior numero di esemplari campionati. La relazione fra il numero di esemplari catturati e le fasi lunari ha mostrato una maggiore abbondanza di larve durante il I quarto lunare, fase in cui la differenza di marea manifesta un’escursione minore rispetto alla fase di luna piena o luna nuova. L’identificazione delle principali specie registrate nei diversi periodi, è stata confermata da dati di letteratura in aree limitrofe del Mediterraneo. Le catture con sciabica da terra non hanno mostrato differenze significative nelle comunità ittiche soggette al refluo caldo rispetto alle aree di controllo. Due to the large amount of natural water used in the cooling intake of electric power plants, resulting impact on marine organisms have been studied in different part of the world. Cooling water intake usually affect marine organisms in three different way: entrainment (where small aquatic organisms are carried by the cooling water into the power plant), impingement (where the cooling water intake traps larger organisms against the intake screens) and thermal outfall (hot water discharged on living organisms in the receiving water body). In this study (the first one carried out in Italy), the impact of the cooling water intake of the electric power plant of Montalto di Castro (VT) (Central Tyrrhenian Sea) on fish was determined by evaluating the effect of entrainment on eggs and larvae and that of thermal outfall on juveniles. A specific sampling design has been create to operate inside the artificial intake, with new methodology, different plankton nets and right time of haul. Sampling campaign have been conduct at sea, using a handed trawling net, to the catch of juveniles fish during settlement stage, in the thermal outfall area and in two control areas. Overall 668 fish larvae of 24 taxa and 2500 fish eggs were collected after filtering 235.574 m3 of marine water inside the intake. Impact of entrainment on early stage of fish was estimated to be of 12 x 106 larvae and 24,5 x 106 eggs per year. Sardina pilchardus was the most impacted species, with an estimated economic damage to the traditional fisheries, ranging between 9.000 and 15.000 euro per year. The highest values of diversity index, richness and evenness were recorded in summer, whereas the largest number of larvae were caught during winter. Dottorato di ricerca in Ecologia e gestione delle risorse biologiche

Predmet diplomskega dela je analiza mestne četrti Koroška vrata v Mariboru z vidika uporabe cestno-prometne infrastrukture. Podan je pregled cestnih križišč, cestnih odsekov, prometnih površin pešcev in kolesarjev ter mirujočega prometa. Na podlagi terenskega ogleda obstoječega stanja na področju infrastrukture za različne udeležence v cestnem prometu (motorni promet, promet pešcev in kolesarjev, mirujoči promet) je opravljena analiza s poudarkom na prometni mobilnosti in varnosti. Izpostavljene so infrastrukturne pomanjkljivosti ter podani kratkoročni oz. dolgoročni predlogi rešitev, ki bi izboljšali varnost in udobje vseh udeležencev v prometu. Subject of this work is analysis of road infrastructure usage in part of Maribor area called “Koroška vrata”. In this work is given comprehensive overview of road intersections, road sections, traffic areas for pedestrians and cyclists and parking areas. Traffic analysis which put emphasis on the traffic mobility and safety based on review of the existing state of the traffic infrastructure for different traffic participants such are motor vehicle traffic, traffic of pedestrians, cyclists and parking is made. Finally are pointed out infrastructural deficiencies. Short and long-term proposals are given. With realization of suggested measures we could improve safety and traffic comfort of all traffic participants in this area.

Nella presente ricerca condotta nel Lago Maggiore, il DDT e i suoi metaboliti od omologhi sono stati ricercati in alcune matrici considerate rappresentative dell'ambiente acquatico: i sedimenti lacustri e quelli del Fiume Toce, il comparto ittico, come anello finale superiore della catena trofica acquatica, e negli oligocheti e chironomidi, le classi più rappresentative del macrobenthos lacustre. La ricerca ha messo in evidenza che a causa sia delle elevate concentrazioni di DDT osservate in alcune aree della Baia di Pallanza sia del F. Toce che delle elevata biodisponibilita di tali contaminanti presente sia nelle rete trofica bentonica che pelagica, il "sistema" Lago Maggiore ed il F. Toce non abbiano ancora raggiunto uno stato di equilibrio tale da considerare completamente e definitivamente superato il problema della contaminazione da DDT.

Gli studi sulla rete trofica pelagica del Lago Maggiore mediante SIA sono stati estesi nel 2009 a cladoceri di piccola taglia e a organismi litorali. La spiccata stagionalità di Daphnia riflette quella della linea di base del pelago, e da essa sembra dipendere la maggior parte degli zooplanctonti analizzati. L’analisi del fingerprint isotopico ha permesso di evidenziare come Diaphanosoma sia vicariante di Daphnia nel periodo autunnale. In primavera-estate Leptodora e Eudiaptomus sembrano svolgere un ruolo trofico confrontabile. Bythotrephes e i ciclopidi sembrano avere a maggio e novembre un ruolo paragonabile a quello dell’agone. In generale, non solamente Rutilus, ma anche Alosa e Coregonus sembrano dipendere in misura non trascurabile da fonti non pelagiche di alimento. Nell’insieme, i risultati ottenuti offrono un elemento importante verso la definizione di quella operational diversity che è alla base di una gestione sostenibile dell’ambiente.