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Research exploring feedback in the form of workplace performance appraisals or in educational contexts, is common. However, there is a dearth of research to inform evidence-based practice in every-day positive feedback. In the current study, 289 employed adults reported on their managers' positive feedback, the feedback-seeking culture, and rated their own task performance. Findings suggest that managerial positive feedback, but not feedback-seeking culture, meaningfully predicts task performance. Furthermore, the relationship between positive feedback and task performance is partially moderated by the feedback-seeking culture. The current study further contextualises our understanding of workplace positive feedback and draws recommendations for managerial practice surrounding congruency between culture and practice., Author(s): Thomas Rhys Evans [sup.1] , Agata Dobrosielska [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.8096.7, 0000000106754565, School of Psychological, Social and Behavioural Sciences, Coventry University, , CV1 5FB, Coventry, UK Introduction Positive [...]

On the basis of the connectionist model of leadership, we examined perceptions of leadership as a function of the contextual factors of race (Asian American, Caucasian American) and occupation (engineering, sales) in 3 experiments (1 student sample and 2 industry samples). Race and occupation exhibited differential effects for within- and between-race comparisons. With regard to within-race comparisons, leadership perceptions of Asian Americans were higher when race--occupation was a good fit (engineer position) than when race--occupation was a poor fit (sales position) for the two industry samples. With regard to between-race comparisons, leadership perceptions of Asian Americans were low relative to those of Caucasian Americans. Additionally, when race--occupation was a good fit for Asian Americans, such individuals were evaluated higher on perceptions of technical competence than were Caucasian Americans, whereas they were evaluated lower when race--occupation was a poor fit. Furthermore, our results demonstrated that race affects leadership perceptions through the activation of prototypic leadership attributes (i.e., implicit leadership theories). Implications for the findings are discussed in terms of the connectionist model of leadership and leadership opportunities for Asian Americans. Keywords: implicit leadership theory, perceptions, prototypes, leadership, Asian American DOI: 10.1037/a0019501

The goal-directed perspective of performance appraisal suggests that raters with different goals will give different ratings. Considering the performance level as an important contextual factor, we conducted 2 studies in a peer rating context and in a nonpeer rating context and found that raters do use different rating tactics to achieve specific goals. Raters inflated their peer ratings under the harmony, fairness, and motivating goal conditions (Study l, N = 103). More important, raters inflated their ratings more for low performers than for high and medium performers. In a nonpeer rating context, raters deflated ratings for high performers to achieve the fairness goal and they inflated ratings for low performers to motivate them (Study 2, N = 120). Keywords: performance evaluation, performance appraisal, rater goals, leniency, performance level DOI: 10.1037/a0018866

The present two studies integrate and extend the literatures on dynamic performance, performance attributions, and rating purpose, making several important contributions. First, examining attributions of dynamic performance, Study 1 predicted that performance mean and trend would affect judged ratee ability and effort and that performance variation would affect locus of causality; both predictions were supported by the results. Second, investigating the interaction between dynamic performance and rating purpose, Study 2 predicted that performance mean would have a stronger impact on administrative than on developmental ratings, whereas performance trend and variation would have a stronger impact on developmental than on administrative ratings; again, both predictions were borne out by the results. Third, both studies found that performance trend interacted with performance mean and variability to predict overall ratings. Fourth, both studies replicated main effects of dynamic performance characteristics on ratings in a different culture and, in Study 2, a sample of more experienced managers. Keywords: dynamic performance, performance attributions, performance evaluation, performance ratings, rating purpose DOI: 10.1037/a0017237

The effect of managers' perceptions on fairness of performance evaluation methods on employees' atttitudes, along with the behavioral processes involved, is surveyed. The responses of 165 managers from manufacturing and financial services sector in Europe and Africa are backed by 24 interviews. The outcome variable is supplemented to include manager performance.

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01132.x Byline: BRADLEY J. BRUMMEL (1), DEBORAH E. RUPP (1), SETH M. SPAIN (1) Abstract: Assessment centers rely on multiple, carefully constructed behavioral simulation exercises to measure individuals on multiple performance dimensions. Although methods for establishing parallelism among alternate forms of paper-and-pencil tests have been well researched (i.e., to equate tests on difficulty such that the scores can be compared), little research has considered the why and how of parallel simulation exercises. This paper extends established procedures for constructing parallel test forms to dimension-based behavioral simulations. We discuss reasons for establishing comparable, alternate simulation forms and discuss the issues raised when applying traditional procedures to simulation exercises. After proposing a set of guidelines for establishing alternate forms among simulations, we apply these guidelines to simulations used in an operational assessment center. Author Affiliation: (1)University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Article note: Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Deborah E. Rupp, Department of Psychology, 603 E. Daniel St., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820; derupp@uiuc.edu.

The article reports the findings from a Monte Carlo investigation examining the impact of faking on the criterion-related validity of Conscientiousness for predicting supervisory ratings of job performance. Based on a review of faking literature, 6 parameters were manipulated in order to model 4,500 distinct faking conditions (5 [magnitude] X 5 [proportion] X 4 [variability] X 3 [faking-Conscientiousness relationship] X 3 [faking--performance relationship] X 5 [selection ratio]). Overall, the results indicated that validity change is significantly affected by all 6 faking parameters, with the relationship between faking and performance, the proportion of fakers in the sample, and the magnitude of faking having the strongest effect on validity change. Additionally, the association between several of the parameters and changes in criterion-related validity was conditional on the faking-performance relationship. The results are discussed in terms of their practical and theoretical implications for using personality testing for employee selection. Keywords: faking, simulation, validity, personality, selection

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00090.x Byline: COLIN M. GILL (1), GERARD P. HODGKINSON (2) Abstract: Despite a proliferation in the number of instruments for assessing the Big 5 traits, extant measures are beset with limitations that render their use problematic in the workplace; that is, they contain generic as opposed to occupationally relevant items, couched in idiosyncratic, culturally specific language, demanding high reading ability levels, and are overly cumbersome. The 5 Factor Model Questionnaire (FFMQ) was devised to address these concerns. Five studies, spanning multiple samples and organizational contexts, demonstrate that the FFMQ is suitable for use with individuals drawn from the widest possible range of ability levels and cultural and socioeconomic groupings. The findings of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses are in line with the hypothesized factor structure, and the resulting new scales exhibit acceptable reliability (internal consistency and temporal stability) and convergent and discriminant validity in respect of Costa and McCrae's (1992) NEO-PI-R scales. Furthermore, the new FFMQ scales are differentially correlated with independent ratings of overall job proficiency across three occupationally distinct samples. Author Affiliation: (1)Psychological Solutions Ltd. (2)University of Leeds Article note: Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Professor Gerard P. Hodgkinson, Leeds University Business School, The University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK; gph@lubs.leeds.ac.uk.

The impact of performance-based feedback and incentives, on the perception of empowerment and motivation of lower-level employees in organizations, is examined.

This longitudinal study used D. R. Ilgen, C. D. Fisher, and M. S. Taylor's (1979) feedback process model as a theoretical framework to determine whether a sequential chain of cognitive variables mediates an individual's response to performance feedback. One hundred two employees were surveyed 2 weeks after their performance appraisal, and performance was assessed 11 months later at the end of the review cycle. Covariance structure analysis supported the convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs underlying the model and the constellation of structural relationships. A set of cognitive variables was found to completely mediate the relationship between an individual's receipt and response to feedback. Implications for the feedback process and future research are discussed.

In a Chinese-Dutch scenario study (N = 433 students), the authors investigated subordinates' covert reactions to supervisory feedback. The study consisted of a 2 (personal orientation: collectivist vs. individualist) x 2 (performance perspective: collective vs. individual) x 2 (feedback favorability: positive vs. negative) completely crossed factorial design. The dependent variables were feedback quality, relational quality, emotional responses, and behavioral intentions. The authors found that feedback quality and relational quality tend to be higher for matched collectivist--collective and individualist--individual situations than for mismatched situations. They also found that collective situations enhance constructive behavioral intentions more than do individual situations and that positive feedback produces better information, better relationships, more pleasant emotions, and more constructive behavioral intentions than does equivalent negative feedback. Keywords: performance feedback; collectivism; individualism; relational quality; emotional reaction; behavioral intention

This study examined the effects of demographic similarity and dissimilarity on perceptions of performance appraisals and reactions to negative feedback. We surveyed a sample of 180 non-supervisory employees from an organization whose members represent over 120 nationalities. Consistent with predictions based on status characteristics theory, employees reacted more favorably to feedback from White managers. An asymmetrical dissimilarity effect was observed in which men reacted more unfavorably to feedback from women. Contrary to predictions based on the similarity-attraction hypothesis, employees reacted more unfavorably to negative feedback from same-race managers. Implications with regard to self-identity threat are discussed as a possible explanation for this phenomenon. KEYWORDS affect * diversity * negative feedback * performance appraisal * relational demography * social identity

We investigated sex differences in response to evaluative feedback among bank employees who were going through the annual performance evaluation process. Questionnaires were mailed to employees before and after they had their face-to-face evaluation with their supervisor. Women and men received similar evaluation scores. Men's self-esteem was relatively unaffected by the nature of the feedback, whereas women's self-esteem slightly improved after positive feedback and substantially dropped after negative feedback. After the evaluations, women reported greater intentions to change their behavior based on the evaluation. However, this finding was accounted for by men's higher job status relative to women. The findings for self-esteem were partly explained by women's greater agreement with the feedback compared to men. Future research should explore how the nature of the supervisee-supervisor relationship influences how women and men respond to feedback.

Two studies investigated the mediating effects of liking and attributions of motives on the relationship between a ratee's reputation and helpful behaviors and raters' reward decisions. During managerial simulations, raters evaluated individuals after watching videotapes in which the individual's reputation and helpful behaviors were manipulated. Results indicated an interaction effect between reputation and helpful behaviors such that a helpful person with a good reputation received more rewards than did a helpful person with a bad reputation. In contrast, an unhelpful person with a good reputation did not receive better rewards than an unhelpful person with a bad reputation. Moreover, raters' liking of ratees and the motives raters attributed to ratees' helpful behaviors mediated the relationship between the manipulations and raters' reward decisions.

The authors used longitudinal multisource field data to examine core aspects of the adaptive self-regulation model (A. S. Tsui & S. J. Asliford, 1994) in terms of linkages between self-monitoring, discrepancy in manager match-to-position, 5 measures of leadership, and manager performance. At Time 1, 64 superiors of focal managers rated the managers' matches to their positions within the organization; at Time 3, they rated the managers' performance. At Time 2, the 64 focal managers completed a measure of self-monitoring, and 192 subordinates rated the focal managers' leadership behaviors. Results of partial least squares analysis revealed that discrepancy in manager match-to-position was associated with reductions in laissez faire and passive management-by-exception behaviors and increases in transformational leadership behavior. Self-monitoring was positively associated with all 5 leadership behaviors. Performance was related positively to transformational leadership behavior and negatively to passi ve management-by-exception and contingent-reward behaviors Key words: adaptive self-regulation, discrepancy detection, discrepancy reduction, leadership behaviors, managers, match-to-position, performance appraisal, self-monitoring, subordinates, superiors, SEVERAL THEORIES OF SELF-REGULATION suggest that managers who readily adapt to a variety of organizational requirements and contexts can maximize their effectiveness (Atwater & Yammarino, 1997; Carver & Scheier, 1985; [...]

In a series of studies, the authors established empirical support for a general decision-making bias that they termed a person sensitivity bias. Specifically, a person sensitivity bias consists of a person positivity bias (D. O. Sears, 1983) under positive performance conditions and a person negativity bias under negative performance conditions. The authors conducted the first empirical studies of a direct comparison between individuals and objects performing the same task under both positive and negative performance conditions. Two additional studies tested the boundaries of the sensitivity bias within negatively framed decision dilemmas. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance toward a more comprehensive theory of person-object evaluation differences.

Two studies examined (a) the pervasiveness of stigmas of incompetence, (b) the possible moderating effects of qualifications and type of affirmative-action plan, and (c) the influence of an individual's attitudes toward affirmative action on stigmatization of a beneficiary. Results for Study 1 showed that participants evaluated the affirmative-action hiree as less competent and unlikely to have been hired because of qualifications, regardless of the hiree's actual qualifications. Study 2 demonstrated that, while affirmative-action plan had no effect on participants' evaluations, association with affirmative action produced negative evaluations on competence, career progress, and hiring because of qualifications. Attitudes toward affirmative action had a stronger effect on evaluations of the hiree than the qualifications of the hiree. Implications for alleviating stigmatization are discussed.

An analysis of the effect of procedural fairness on outcome favorability. The specific example used is employee self-evaluations.

The purpose of this study was to examine the possibility that feedback regarding team performance may influence team members' reports of organizational citizenship behaviors. Ninety-five teams of business students (N = 412) participated in a labor-scheduling simulation over a local area network. Teams were provided with false negative, false positive, or neutral feedback regarding their performance. Results support the hypothesis that the perception of 2 forms of organizational citizenship behavior (helping behavior and civic virtue) in work groups may, in part, be a function of the nature of the performance feedback that group members receive. However, negative feedback appears to play a more critical role than positive feedback in this attributional process. Possible reasons for these findings, as well as their implications, are discussed.

The effectiveness of an eight-week self-management training program presented to thirty-five employees of a mid-sized organization was analyzed. It was predicted that employees would be able to improve self-selected work related problems through self-management training. Thirty-three subjects implemented individual self-management projects that consisted of identifying, monitoring, implementing an intervention, and planning for maintenance on a work related target issue. Of these 33 subjects, 31 reported successful self-management programs. Additionally, the experimental subjects were compared to nine subjects in a control group on measures of attendance and self-efficacy. Results on these measures were mixed. Implications of the research findings for the design, implementation, and evaluation of in-service training programs in business organizations are discussed. Keywords: OBM, HRM, training, self-management, attendance, self-efficacy, social validity

Words used to describe behavior at work have strong emotional and behavioral implications for those being judged by them. Words used to describe work behavior in assessment of work activities express measurement of performance on appraisal forms as objective or subjective. Work descriptors taken from performance appraisal forms from 47 of 100 hospitals, 35 of 480 management textbooks, and 22 of 150 journal articles were placed in three levels of objective to subjective for frequency of use. More work descriptors were subjective than objective. Work descriptors from journals presented many subjective traits but used more objective than subjective traits while textbooks included many subjective traits as objective descriptors. Use of subjective work descriptors in the journals and textbooks encourages subjective assessment of workers. To be objective performance appraisals must use objective words to describe and assess work in graphic rating forms.

Byline: Aharon Tziner (1), Kevin R. Murphy (2), Jeanette N. Cleveland (2), Guy Beaudin (1), Sylvie Marchand (1) Abstract: The relationship between attitudes and beliefs regarding performance appraisal and its organizational context and three measures of rating quality (i.e., rating level, discrimination among ratees, discrimination among rating dimensions) were examined. Eighteen of twenty-four directional predictions about the correlations between attitudinal measures and rating behavior measures were supported. However, because of the expected weak to moderate relationships between predictors and criteria and the use of small samples, statistical power was generally low, and many of the individual observed correlations failed to reach significance. Nevertheless, the consistent pattern of support for the directional predictions suggests that the attitudes and beliefs studied here provide a useful basis for understanding performance appraisal behaviors. Author Affiliation: (1) Department de Psychologie, Universite de Montreal, Case postale 6128, succursale A, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3C 3J7 (2) Colorado State University, USA Article History: Registration Date: 08/09/2004

Study 1 demonstrated that as individuals' promotion-related ideal strength increases, performance on an anagram task is greater for a monetary task incentive framed in terms of gains and nongains (i.e., promotion framed) than one framed in terms of losses and nonlosses (i.e., prevention framed), whereas the reverse is true as individuals' prevention-related ought strength increases. Study 2 further demonstrated that with promotion-framed task incentives, individuals' ideal strength increases motivation for promotion-related goal attainment means (gaining points), whereas with prevention-framed task incentives, individuals' ought strength increases motivation for prevention-related means (avoiding losing points). These results suggest that motivation and performance are greater when the regulatory focus of task incentives and means match (vs. mismatch) the chronic regulatory focus of the performers.

This paper provides a comparative analysis of behavioral observations made on 152 service providers in a business advisory and professional services firm from 5 distinctly different ratings sources (self, direct reports, peers, supervisor, and clients). Results focused on differences in ratings level and degree of congruence with self-assessments by observer type. The data suggested that service providers and their clients may have a different perceptual frame of reference than do internal observers (e.g., direct reports, peers, and supervisors). Moreover, congruence in self-others' ratings was found to be a significant predictor of performance assessments from the same observer source. Implications of these results for the use of multirater appraisal systems are discussed.

Students took part in two experiments in which simulated performance appraisal reviews were conducted to test whether such reviews could be made participative when the evaluation was negative; and, if so, whether the effects would be constructive. 56 advanced undergraduate business students participated in the first study, in which the manager's and the employee's perceptions of feedback were manipulated as was the amount of the employee's job experience. The resulting participation and reaction to the review were measured. In the second experiment (N=33) students' perceptions of performance were again manipulated, but a training intervention was used to increase participation in half the reviews. Less participation occurred when the subordinate had prior negative feedback from the job and where the manager's evaluation was inconsistent with previous feedback. Experience was a strong moderator of these effects. In both experiments participation had a positive effect. The results are interpreted in terms of the subordinate's needs in the appraisal review.

This paper extends previous work on the psychological impact on candidates of selection and assessment processes, presenting results from a study of 32 participants in an assessment center (AC) program of a major U.K financial services organization. Both quantitative and qualitative methodologies are used to investigate: (a) the impact of the assessment outcome on cognitive and affective reactions to the assessment process and candidates' post-assessment psychological states, job-related attitudes, and intentions, and (b) the role of factors such as quality of feedback from the assessor, managerial support, and career line position on the impact process. Results show that the assessment outcome decision does have an effect on post-assessment psychological states and work-related attitudes but this effect works through a person's perception of the impact the assessment process will have on their career. This perception of impact is well predicted by the candidate's perceived quality of feedback and current career position. Good feedback helps careers more than poor feedback and the nearer the person's current role is to the position for which they are being assessed the more likely they are to benefit from the process.

Effects of raters' self-consciousness and appraisal purpose on leniency and accuracy were examined in a factorially designed experiment. Following administration of the self-consciousness scale to 105 undergraduates, 46 subjects who scored as high-private and 59 subjects who scored as high-public evaluated subordinates for merit raise or training purpose from scenarios. When the appraisal purpose was merit raise, publicly self-conscious raters were more lenient and inaccurate than privately self-conscious raters, but ratings of the two groups did not differ when those ratings were obtained for training purposes.

Managers' reactions to utility analysis were investigated as a function of how the standard deviation of performance ([SD.sub.y]) in dollars was estimated, how the ultimate utility estimate was framed, and what human resource (HR) program was being analyzed. Managers (N = 179) read a scripted dialogue between an HR manager and a company president describing a utility analysis of a trial HR program. The dialogues differed between subjects by [SD.sub.y] method (40% salary vs. global vs. the Cascio-Ramos estimate), information frame (cost vs. gain), and HR intervention (selection vs. training). Results showed that managers were most favorable toward utility analysis when the 40% salary method was used to calculate [SD.sub.y]. Also, an interaction was found between framing condition and manager comprehension of the utility material. Those managers having a stronger comprehension of the utility information presented were not affected by information frame. However, managers with less comprehension of the utility information were more favorable toward utility analysis when it was presented as an opportunity cost rather than as a monetary gain.

In 3 prior meta-analyses, the relationship between the Big Five factors of personality and job criteria was investigated. However, these meta-analyses showed different findings. Furthermore, these reviews included studies carried out only in the United States and Canada. This study reports meta-analytic research on the same topic but with studies conducted in the European Community, which were not included in the prior reviews. The results indicate that Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability are valid predictors across job criteria and occupational groups. The remaining factors are valid only for some criteria and for some occupational groups. Extraversion was a predictor for 2 occupations, and Openness and Agreeableness were valid predictors of training proficiency. These findings are consistent with M. R. Barrick and M. K. Mount (1991) and L.M. Hough, N.K. Eaton, M. D. Dunnette, J. D. Kamp, and R. A. McCloy (1990). Implications of the results for future research and the practice of personnel selection are suggested.

On the basis of a distinction between test content and method of testing, the present study examined several conceptually and practically important effects relating race, reading comprehension, method of assessment, face validity perceptions, and performance on a situational judgment test using a sample of 241 psychology undergraduates (113 Blacks and 128 Whites). Results showed that the Black-White differences in situational judgment test performance and face validity reactions to the test were substantially smaller in the video-based method of testing than in the paper-and-pencil method. The Race x Method interaction effect on test performance was attributable to differences in reading comprehension and face validity reactions associated with race and method of testing. Implications of the findings were discussed in the context of research on adverse impact and examinee test reactions.

A longitudinal laboratory experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of leadership style (transactional vs. transformational) and anonymity level (identified vs. anonymous) on group potency and effectiveness of 36 undergraduate student work groups performing a creativity task using a Group Decision Support System (GDSS). GDSS are interactive networks of computers for generating solutions to unstructured problems. Results indicated that GDSS anonymity amplified the positive effect of transformational leadership on group potency relative to transactional leadership in the group writing session of the task. GDSS anonymity also increased the effect of transformational leadership relative to transactional leadership on group effectiveness. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Using the five factor model with an emphasis on extraversion and conscientiousness, the authors investigated how personality is related to small group processes and outcomes. Graduate students (N = 289) assigned to 4- and 5-person teams in 61 groups engaged in a series of creative problem-solving tasks over a period of several weeks. Extraversion was associated with group processes and outcomes at both individual and group levels of analysis. At the individual level, extraverts were perceived by others as having greater effect than introverts on group outcomes. Covariance structure modeling suggested that extraverts induce these perceptions through the provision of both socioemotional and task-related inputs. At the group level, the proportion of relatively extraverted members was related curvilinearly to task focus and group performance. Contrary to expectations, Conscientiousness was unrelated to processes and outcomes at either the individual or group level.

The relationship between job performance and voluntary employee turnover was investigated for 5,143 exempt employees in a single firm. As hypothesized, support was found for E. F. Jackofsky's (1984) curvilinear hypothesis, as turnover was higher for low and high performers than it was for average performers. Two potential moderators of the curvilinearity were examined in an attempt to explain conflicting results in the performance-turnover literature. As predicted, low salary growth and high promotions each produced a more pronounced curvilinear performance-turnover relationship. Most notably, salary growth effects on turnover were greatest for high performers, with high salary growth predicting rather low turnover for these employees, whereas low salary growth predicted extremely high turnover. Additionally, once salary growth was controlled, promotions positively predicted turnover, with poor performer turnover most strongly affected.

Rating scales are most frequently used to assess the criterion in studies of validity in personnel selection. However, only a few articles report the interrater reliability for these scales. This paper presents four meta-analyses in which the interrater reliability was estimated for Civil Composite Criterion, Military Composite Criterion, Total Composite Criterion, and Single Civil Criterion. Mean reliabilities were .64, .53, .62, and .40, respectively. The implications of these findings for single and meta-analytic studies are discussed.

Undergraduate students (N = 207) completed 3 individual difference measures and then evaluated 3 instructors based on scripts depicting interactions between the instructors and students. The first 2 scripts established a context and the third script served as the target stimulus. Comparison ratings were provided by a random context control condition. Contrast effects occurred in ratings of the average target stimulus, and the negative context had a larger impact than did the positive context. Both of these context effects were moderated by the rater's belief in the variability of human nature, but not by the rater's cognitive ability or field independence. Contrast effects also occurred in ratings of the positive target stimulus but not in ratings of the negative target stimulus, and in neither case was the context effect moderated by any of the individual difference variables.

Prior research suggests that employees who receive unfavourable decision outcomes from their organization will have less negative attitudes towards the organization and organizational officials if they participated in the decision than if they did not participate. Questionnaire data from 220 academic accountants were analysed with regression to test for this proposed interaction between participation and outcome favourability in a performance evaluation context. In support of the proposed interaction, unfavourable outcomes had the least negative relationship with intent to stay with the organization and trust in immediate supervisor when participation was high. This phenomenon may be attributable to a belief on the part of employees that participation afforded them influence in decision making to ensure they received the best possible outcomes under the circumstances., An emphasis of early organizational research was on employee reactions to situations in which they receive unfavourable outcomes (e.g. low pay) from their organization (see Greenberg, 1982, for a review [...]

This study examined whether male and female supervisors differed in their delivery of performance feedback to subordinates. Male and female subjects supervised 2 confederate subordinates whose performance was stable and either above or below average. Supervisors regularly checked each subordinate's performance and could deliver one of several feedback messages. A MANOVA was performed on frequency of specific negative, general negative, specific positive, general positive, and neutral feedback messages, followed by stepdown analyses to isolate which dependent variables contributed uniquely. Male and female supervisors were distinguished by their use of specific negative feedback. Males were more likely to provide such messages to poorly performing subordinates, a result consistent with suggestions that males are characterized by a more directive leadership style.

Using multiple feedback sources, the present study investigated the effects of source credibility and performance rating discrepancy on recipients' reactions. Individuals performed an ambiguous group task, rated their own performance on the task, and were later provided bogus feedback ostensibly from their peers and an expert rater. Individuals reacted toward the feedback and the source of the feedback as a function of the rating discrepancy and credibility of the feedback source. Generally, more credible sources and their feedback were evaluated more favorably. However, as predicted, this effect was overcome by performance rating discrepancy in the predicted conditions. The results show the importance of studying the interactive effects of message and source characteristics on individuals' reactions.

To date, cognitive and affective influences on performance evaluations have been addressed separately, although it is likely that affect may influence ratings indirectly through its impact on the cognitive processing involved in the evaluation. Eighty-three management students participated in a study of the influence of affect on the cognitive processing of performance information. The results suggest that an affect-consistency bias influences ratings even though the cognitive processes that require some judgment indicated a bias toward both affect-consistent and affect-inconsistent performance. Additional findings suggest that the practical utility of affect as something distinct from past performance perceptions may be limited in field settingns. Job-related affect, past performance perceptions, and social affect had similar influences on the cognitive process and ratings in performance evaluations. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

This paper examines how the presentation of computer-monitored performance information affects performance judgments. Two factors were examined: the performance pattern and the information format. In a computer simulation, subjects were responsible for evaluating the performance of a computer-monitored typist. They were assigned to one of three format conditions: a periodic, delayed, or summarized format. The pattern of the typist's performance was also varied: It either improved, worsened, or remained about the same during the simulation. Results indicate that performance pattern affected subjects' ratings of overall performance, performance quality, and performance consistency. Both factors influenced ratings of future performance and recall of specific performance information. Implications of these results for performance appraisals and computerized performance monitoring systems are discussed.

The authors examined the validity of observer ratings (supervisor, coworker, and customer) and self-ratings of personality measures. Results based on a sample of 105 sales representatives supported the 2 hypotheses tested. First, supervisor, coworker, and customer ratings of the 2 job-relevant personality dimensions - conscientiousness and extraversion - were valid predictors of performance ratings, and the magnitude of the validities were at least as large as for self-ratings. Second, supervisor, coworker, and customer ratings accounted for significant variance in the criterion measure beyond self-ratings alone for the relevant dimensions. Overall, the results suggest that validities of personality measures based on self-assessments alone may underestimate the true validity of personality constructs. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Research and theory on employee job satisfaction and well-being has increasingly concentrated on both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors. According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), autonomy, relatedness, and competence are three intrinsic psychological needs that, if fulfilled in the workplace, will lead to greater satisfaction, performance, and general well-being. This study examines employee and supervisor perceptions of the employee's autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the workplace, as well as the degree and direction of discrepancies between employee and supervisor reports. Both employee and supervisor ratings of intrinsic motivational factors were significantly related to work satisfaction, psychological health, and self-esteem, after controlling for the extrinsic factors of pay and job status. Results of discrepancy analyses were somewhat supportive of overrating being associated with greater well-being and job satisfaction. Discussion of the results ties this study to relevant research from a self-determination perspective and to the growing literature on discrepancies and self-perception. AUTH-ABST