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We present a study of the evolution of the inner few astronomical units of protoplanetary disks around low-mass stars. We consider nearby stellar groups with ages spanning from 1 to 11 Myr, distributed into four age bins. Combining PANSTARSS photometry with spectral types, we derive the reddening consistently for each star, which we use (1) to measure the excess emission above the photosphere with a new indicator of IR excess and (2) to estimate the mass accretion rate ($\dot{M}$) from the equivalent width of the H$\alpha$ line. Using the observed decay of $\dot{M}$ as a constrain to fix the initial conditions and the viscosity parameter of viscous evolutionary models, we use approximate Bayesian modeling to infer the dust properties that produce the observed decrease of the IR excess with age, in the range between 4.5 and $24\,\mu$m. We calculate an extensive grid of irradiated disk models with a two-layered wall to emulate a curved dust inner edge and obtain the vertical structure consistent with the surface density predicted by viscous evolution. We find that the median dust depletion in the disk upper layers is $\epsilon \sim 3 \times 10^{-3}$ at 1.5 Myr, consistent with previous studies, and it decreases to $\epsilon \sim 3 \times 10^{-4}$ by 7.5 Myr. We include photoevaporation in a simple model of the disk evolution and find that a photoevaporative wind mass-loss rate of $\sim 1 -3 \times 10 ^{-9} \, M_{\odot}yr^{-1}$ agrees with the decrease of the disk fraction with age reasonably well. The models show the inward evolution of the H$_2$O and CO snowlines., Comment: Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal

We present a detailed study of the disk around the intermediate mass star SO 411, aiming to explain the spectral energy distribution of this star. We show that this is a transitional disk truncated at $\sim$11 au, with $\sim$0.03 lunar masses of optically thin dust inside the cavity. Gas also flows through the cavity, since we find that the disk is still accreting mass onto the star, at a rate of $\sim 5x10^{-9}$ Msun/yr. Until now, SO 411 has been thought to belong to the $\sim$3 Myr old {$\sigma$} Orionis cluster. However, we analyzed the second Gaia Data Release in combination with kinematic data previously reported, and found that SO 411 can be associated with an sparse stellar population located in front of the {$\sigma$} Orionis cluster. If this is the case, then SO 411 is older and even more peculiar, since primordial disks in this stellar mass range are scarce for ages $>$5 Myr. Analysis of the silicate 10$\mu$m feature of SO 411 indicates that the observed feature arises at the edge of the outer disk, and displays a very high crystallinity ratio of $\sim$0.5, with forsterite the most abundant silicate crystal. The high forsterite abundance points to crystal formation in non-equilibrium conditions. The PAH spectrum of SO 411 is consistent with this intermediate state between the hot and luminous Herbig Ae and the less massive and cooler T Tauri stars. Analysis of the 7.7$\mu$m PAH feature indicates that small PAHs still remain in the SO 411 disk., Comment: Accepted in the Astrophysical Journal (17 pages, 9 Figures)

We present \emph{Herschel} PACS observations of 8 Classical T Tauri Stars in the $\sim 7-10$ Myr old OB1a and the $\sim 4-5$ Myr old OB1b Orion sub-asscociations. Detailed modeling of the broadband spectral energy distributions, particularly the strong silicate emission at 10 $\mu$m, shows that these objects are (pre)transitional disks with some amount of small optically thin dust inside their cavities, ranging from $\sim 4$ AU to $\sim 90$ AU in size. We analyzed \emph{Spitzer} IRS spectra for two objects in the sample: CVSO-107 and CVSO-109. The IRS spectrum of CVSO-107 indicates the presence of crystalline material inside its gap while the silicate feature of CVSO-109 is characterized by a pristine profile produced by amorphous silicates; the mechanisms creating the optically thin dust seem to depend on disk local conditions. Using millimeter photometry we estimated dust disk masses for CVSO-107 and CVSO-109 lower than the minimum mass of solids needed to form the planets in our Solar System, which suggests that giant planet formation should be over in these disks. We speculate that the presence and maintenance of optically thick material in the inner regions of these pre-transitional disks might point to low-mass planet formation., Comment: 20 pages, 10 figures, 8 tables

It is still controversial whether all girls with central precocious puberty (CPP) should undergo brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for unveiling intracranial pathology.The objectives of the study were to determine the prevalence and type of intracranial lesions in otherwise normal girls with central precocious puberty (idiopathic CPP) and to identify the clinical and biochemical predictors of brain abnormalities.This was a retrospective study conducted at the Endocrine Unit of "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital (Rome, Italy) from 1990 to 2012.One hundred eighty-two girls were consecutively diagnosed with CPP. All girls underwent a thorough endocrine assessment and brain MRI with a detailed examination of the hypothalamic-pituitary area. None of them had a history of neurological diseases, endocrine disorders, neurofibromatosis or other genetic syndromes, or previous hormonal therapies.Prevalence of brain abnormalities at MRI scan was measured.Brain MRI showed no alteration in 157 (86%), incidentalomas of the hypothalamic-pituitary area unrelated to CPP in 19 (11%), and hamartomas in six girls (3%). Girls with hamartomas were younger than 6 years and had significantly higher mean baseline and stimulated LH values (P.001), LH to FSH ratio (P.001), serum 17β-estradiol levels (P.001), and uterine length (P.05). However, all the parameters overlapped extensively in girls with or without cerebral alterations.Our data cast doubt on the need of routine screening by brain MRI in girls with idiopathic CPP older than 6 years. Evidence-based criteria to drive clinical decision making about the use of MRI are lacking.

We carried out 7 mm VLA observations at very high angular resolution that reveal substructure and evidence of planet formation in the disk of HD 169142. Our observations, along with near-infrared polarimetric imaging, show that this disk has a ring of enhanced, asymmetric emission at a radius of ~25 AU from the central star. This ring, whose inner region appears devoid of emission, is surrounded by an annular gap in surface density in the ~30-70 AU range of radii. Several mechanisms have been invoked in the literature to explain this kind of gaps and cavities. Among them, one of the most interesting is the possibility that one or more planets in formation are creating these cavities. Since our 7 mm observations show a compact source lying in the 30-70 AU gap, we speculate that this compact source could be tracing dust emission associated with a possible protoplanet. We model the broad-band spectral energy distribution of the disk and we infer its physical structure. From this modeling we infer the presence of a small (r ~ 0.7 AU) disk inside the central cavity, suggesting that the HD 169142 disk is in the pre-transitional disk phase.

I contatti fra retorica e poesia in età tardo-antica e proto-bizantina, in particolare nell'opera di Imerio e di Coricio di Gaza.

We present the Coordinated Synoptic Investigation of NGC 2264, a continuous 30-day multi-wavelength photometric monitoring campaign on more than 1000 young cluster members using 16 telescopes. The unprecedented combination of multi-wavelength, high-precision, high-cadence, and long-duration data opens a new window into the time domain behavior of young stellar objects. Here we provide an overview of the observations, focusing on results from Spitzer and CoRoT. The highlight of this work is detailed analysis of 162 classical T Tauri stars for which we can probe optical and mid-infrared flux variations to 1% amplitudes and sub-hour timescales. We present a morphological variability census and then use metrics of periodicity, stochasticity, and symmetry to statistically separate the light curves into seven distinct classes, which we suggest represent different physical processes and geometric effects. We provide distributions of the characteristic timescales and amplitudes, and assess the fractional representation within each class. The largest category (>20%) are optical "dippers" having discrete fading events lasting ~1-5 days. The degree of correlation between the optical and infrared light curves is positive but weak; notably, the independently assigned optical and infrared morphology classes tend to be different for the same object. Assessment of flux variation behavior with respect to (circum)stellar properties reveals correlations of variability parameters with H$\alpha$ emission and with effective temperature. Overall, our results point to multiple origins of young star variability, including circumstellar obscuration events, hot spots on the star and/or disk, accretion bursts, and rapid structural changes in the inner disk., Comment: Published in AJ. 59 pages; 4 tables; 49 figures, most of which are highly degraded to fit size limits. Author name typo corrected. For a better resolution version, please visit http://web.ipac.caltech.edu/staff/amc/codyetal2014.pdf

Variations in molecular cloud environments have the potential to affect the composition and structure of the circumstellar disks therein. To this end, comparative analyses of nearby star-forming regions are essential to informing theoretical work. In particular, the Ophiuchus molecular clouds are ideal for comparison as they are more compact with much higher extinction than Taurus, the low-mass exemplar, and experience a moderate amount of external radiation. We have carried out a study of a collection of 136 young stellar objects in the

We present and analyze two new high-resolution (approx 0.3 arcsec), high-sensitivity (approx 50 uJy beam-1) Very Large Array 3.6 cm observations of IRAS 16293-2422 obtained in 2007 August and 2008 December. The components A2alpha and A2beta recently detected in this system are still present, and have moved roughly symmetrically away from source A2 at a projected velocity of 30-80 km s-1. This confirms that A2alpha and A2beta were formed as a consequence of a very recent bipolar ejection from A2. Powerful bipolar ejections have long been known to occur in low-mass young stars, but this is -to our knowledge-- the first time that such a dramatic one is observed from its very beginning. Under the reasonable assumption that the flux detected at radio wavelengths is optically thin free-free emission, one can estimate the mass of each ejecta to be of the order of 10^-8 Msun. If the ejecta were created as a consequence of an episode of enhanced mass loss accompanied by an increase in accretion onto the protostar, then the total luminosity of IRAS 16293-2422 ought to have increased by 10-60% over the course of at least several months. Between A2alpha and A2beta, component A2 has reappeared, and the relative position angle between A2 and A1 is found to have increased significantly since 2003-2005. This strongly suggests that A1 is a protostar rather than a shock feature, and that the A1/A2 pair is a tight binary system. Including component B, IRAS 16293-2422 therefore appears to be a very young hierarchical multiple system., Accepted for publication in The Astrophysical Journal

A few years ago, the mid-IR spectrum of a Weak Line T Tauri Star, CoKu Tau/4, was explained as emission from the inner wall of a circumstellar disk, with the inner disk truncated at ~10 AU. Based on the SED shape and the assumption that it was produced by a single star and its disk, CoKu Tau/4 was classified as a prototypical transitional disk, with a clean inner hole possibly carved out by a planet, some other orbiting body, or by photodissociation. However, recently it has been discovered that CoKu Tau/4 is a close binary system. This implies that the observed mid-IR SED is probably produced by the circumbinary disk. The aim of the present paper is to model the SED of CoKu Tau/4 as arising from the inner wall of a circumbinary disk, with parameters constrained by what is known about the central stars and by a dynamical model for the interaction between these stars and their surrounding disk. In order to fit the Spitzer IRS SED, the binary orbit should be almost circular, implying a small mid-IR variability (10%) related to the variable distances of the stars to the inner wall of the circumbinary disk. Our models suggest that the inner wall of CoKu Tau/4 is located at 1.7a, where a is the semi-major axis of the binary system (a~8AU). A small amount of optically thin dust in the hole (0, the model predicts mid-IR variability with periods similar to orbital timescales, assuming that thermal equilibrium is reached instantaneously., 42 pages, 15 Postscript figures

We present multi-epoch Spitzer Space Telescope observations of the transitional disk LRLL 31 in the 2-3 Myr-old star forming region IC 348. Our measurements show remarkable mid-infrared variability on timescales as short as one week. The infrared continuum emission exhibits systematic wavelength-dependent changes that suggest corresponding dynamical changes in the inner disk structure and variable shadowing of outer disk material. We propose several possible sources for the structural changes, including a variable accretion rate or a stellar or planetary companion embedded in the disk. Our results indicate that variability studies in the infrared can provide important new constraints on protoplanetary disk behavior., 15 pages, 4 figures, accepted to ApJ Letters

We analyze samples of Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) spectra of T Tauri stars in the Ophiuchus, Taurus, and Chamaeleon I star-forming regions, whose median ages lie in the, 23 pages, 20 figures; accepted for publication in ApJ

We present 0.3 arcsec resolution observations of the disk around GM Aurigae with the Submillimeter Array (SMA) at a wavelength of 860 um and with the Plateau de Bure Interferometer at a wavelength of 1.3 mm. These observations probe the distribution of disk material on spatial scales commensurate with the size of the inner hole predicted by models of the spectral energy distribution. The data clearly indicate a sharp decrease in millimeter optical depth at the disk center, consistent with a deficit of material at distances less than ~20 AU from the star. We refine the accretion disk model of Calvet et al. (2005) based on the unresolved spectral energy distribution (SED) and demonstrate that it reproduces well the spatially resolved millimeter continuum data at both available wavelengths. We also present complementary SMA observations of CO J=3-2 and J=2-1 emission from the disk at 2" resolution. The observed CO morphology is consistent with the continuum model prediction, with two significant deviations: (1) the emission displays a larger CO J=3-2/J=2-1 line ratio than predicted, which may indicate additional heating of gas in the upper disk layers; and (2) the position angle of the kinematic rotation pattern differs by 11 +/- 2 degrees from that measured at smaller scales from the dust continuum, which may indicate the presence of a warp. We note that photoevaporation, grain growth, and binarity are unlikely mechanisms for inducing the observed sharp decrease in opacity or surface density at the disk center. The inner hole plausibly results from the dynamical influence of a planet on the disk material. Warping induced by a planet could also potentially explain the difference in position angle between the continuum and CO data sets., Comment: 12 pages, 6 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ

We present the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) spectrum of SR20, a 5--10 AU binary T Tauri system in the $\rho$ Ophiuchi star forming region. The spectrum has features consistent with the presence of a disk; however, the continuum slope is steeper than the $\lambda^{-4/3}$ slope of an infinite geometrically thin, optically thick disk, indicating that the disk is outwardly truncated. Comparison with photometry from the literature shows a large increase in the mid-infrared flux from 1993 to 1996. We model the spectral energy distribution and IRS spectrum with a wall + optically thick irradiated disk, yielding an outer radius of 0.39$_{+0.03}^{-0.01}$ AU, much smaller than predicted by models of binary orbits. Using a two temperature $\chi^2$ minimization model to fit the dust composition of the IRS spectrum, we find the disk has experienced significant grain growth: its spectrum is well-fit using opacities of grains larger than 1 $\mu$m. We conclude that the system experienced a significant gravitational perturbation in the 1990s., Comment: 4 pages, 4 figures, 1 table, accepted to ApJ Letters

We present Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph spectra of 28 Class I protostars in the Taurus star-forming region. The 5 to 36 micron spectra reveal excess emission from the inner regions of the envelope and accretion disk surrounding these predecessors of low-mass stars, as well as absorption features due to silicates and ices. Together with shorter- and longer-wavelength data from the literature, we construct spectral energy distributions and fit envelope models to 22 protostars of our sample, most of which are well-constrained due to the availability of the IRS spectra. We infer that the envelopes of the Class I objects in our sample cover a wide range in parameter space, particularly in density and centrifugal radius, implying different initial conditions for the collapse of protostellar cores., 46 pages, 29 figures; accepted for publication in ApJS

Using SpeX at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility and the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph, we have obtained infrared spectra from 0.7 to 40 μm for three young brown dwarfs in the TW Hydra association (τ ~ 10 Myr), 2MASSW J1207334–393254, 2MASSW J1139511–315921, and SSSPM J1102–3431. The spectral energy distribution for 2MASSW J1139511–315921 is consistent with a stellar photosphere for the entire wavelength range of our data, whereas the other two objects exhibit significant excess emission at λ > 5μm. We are able to reproduce the excess emission from each brown dwarf using our models of irradiated accretion disks. According to our model fits, both disks have experienced a high degree of dust settling. We also find that silicate emission at 10 and 20 μm is absent from the spectra of these disks, indicating that grains in the upper disk layers have grown to sizes larger than ~5 μm. Both of these characteristics are consistent with previous observations of decreasing silicate emission with lower stellar masses and older ages. These trends suggest that either (1) the growth of dust grains, and perhaps planetesimal formation, occurs faster in disks around brown dwarfs than in disks around stars or (2) the radii of the mid-IR-emitting regions of disks are smaller for brown dwarfs than for stars, and grains grow faster at smaller disk radii. Finally, we note the possible detection of an unexplained emission feature near 14 μm in the spectra of both of the disk-bearing brown dwarfs.

The recently recognized class of "transitional disk" systems consists of young starswith optically-thick outer disks but inner disks which are mostly devoid of small dust. Here we introduce a further class of "pre-transitional disks" with significant near-infrared excesses which indicate the presence of an optically thick inner disk separated from an optically thick outer disk; thus, the spectral energy distributions of pre-transitional disks suggest the incipient development of disk gaps rather than inner holes. In UX Tau A, our analysis of the Spitzer IRS spectrum finds that the near-infrared excess is produced by an inner optically thick disk and a gap of ~56 AU is present. The Spitzer IRS spectrum of LkCa 15 is suggestive of a gap of ~46 AU, confirming previous millimeter imaging. In addition, UX Tau A contains crystalline silicates in its disk at radii >~ 56 AU which poses a challenge to our understanding of the production of this crystalline material. In contrast, LkCa 15's silicates are amorphous and pristine. UX Tau A and LkCa 15 increase our knowledge of the diversity of dust clearing in low-mass star formation., 4 pages, accepted ApJL

We present observations of a circumstellar disk that is inclined close to edge-on around a young brown dwarf in the Taurus star-forming region. Using data obtained with SpeX at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, we find that the slope of the 0.8-2.5 um spectrum of the brown dwarf 2MASS J04381486+2611399 cannot be reproduced with a photosphere reddened by normal extinction. Instead, the slope is consistent with scattered light, indicating that circumstellar material is occulting the brown dwarf. By combining the SpeX data with mid-IR photometry and spectroscopy from the Spitzer Space Telescope and previously published millimeter data from Scholz and coworkers, we construct the spectral energy distribution for 2MASS J04381486+2611399 and model it in terms of a young brown dwarf surrounded by an irradiated accretion disk. The presence of both silicate absorption at 10 um and silicate emission at 11 um constrains the inclination of the disk to be ~70 deg, i.e. ~20 deg from edge-on. Additional evidence of the high inclination of this disk is provided by our detection of asymmetric bipolar extended emission surrounding 2MASS J04381486+2611399 in high-resolution optical images obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope. According to our modeling for the SED and images of this system, the disk contains a large inner hole that is indicative of a transition disk (R_in~58 R_star~0.275 AU) and is somewhat larger than expected from embryo ejection models (R_out=20-40 AU vs. R_out, The Astrophysical Journal, in press

At centimeter wavelengths, the young stellar system T Tauri is known to be composed of two sources, the northern one associated with the optical star T Tau itself, and the southern one related to the infrared companion T Tau S. Here wereexaminetheoriginoftheradioemissionfromthesetwocomponentsusingarchival2cm,3.6cm,and6cmVLA observations. The emission from the northern member is confirmed to be largely dominated by free-free radiation from an ionized wind, while the southern radio source is confirmed to consist of a compact component of magnetic origin, surrounded by an extended halo. Only moderately variable, the extended structure associated with the southern source is most likely the result of free-free radiation related to stellar winds. However, its flat spectral energy distribution,its extent,andthelackofvariationof itssizewiththefrequencyofobservationareincompatiblewiththe classical picture of a fully ionized wind with constant velocity and mass-loss rate leading to an electron density distribution of ne(r) / r � 2 . Instead, we propose a model in which the ionization results from the impact of a supersonic wind driven by T Tau Sb onto dense surrounding material, possibly associated with the circumbinary disk recently identified around the T Tau Sa/T Tau Sb pair. The timescales for cooling and recombination in such a situation are in good agreement with the observed morphological changes undergone by the extended structure as its driving source moves through the environment. Subject headings: binaries: general — ISM: jets and outflows — radiation mechanisms: general — radio continuum: stars — stars: formation

Resolved submillimeter imaging of transitional disks is increasingly revealing the complexity of disk structure. Here we present the first high-resolution submillimeter image of a recently identified transitional disk around IRAS 04125+2902 in the Taurus star-forming region. We measure an inner disk hole of ~20 AU around IRAS 04125+2902 by simultaneously modeling new 880 micron Submillimeter Array (SMA) data along with an existing spectral energy distribution supplemented by new Discovery Channel Telescope (DCT) photometry. We also constrain the outer radius of the dust disk in IRAS~04125+2902 to ~50-60 AU. Such a small dust disk could be attributed to initial formation conditions, outward truncation by an unseen companion, or dust evolution in the disk. Notably, the dust distribution of IRAS 04125+2902 resembles a narrow ring (delta R ~ 35 AU) composed of large dust grains at the location of the disk wall. Such narrow dust rings are also seen in other transitional disks and may be evidence of dust trapping in pressure bumps, possibly produced by planetary companions. More sensitive submillimeter observations of the gas are necessary to further probe the physical mechanisms at work in shaping the spatial distribution of large dust in this disk. Interestingly, the IRAS 04125+2902 disk is significantly fainter than other transitional disks that have been resolved at submillimeter wavelengths, hinting that more objects with large disk holes may exist at the faint end of the submillimeter luminosity distribution that await detection with more sensitive imaging telescopes., accepted to ApJ

We present observations of six late-type members of the young cluster IC 348 detected at 24 μm with the Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer (MIPS). At least four of the objects are probably substellar. Combining these data with ground-based optical and near-infrared photometry and complementary observations with the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC), we have modeled the spectral energy distributions using detailed models of irradiated accretion disks. We are able to fit the observations with models using a range of maximum grain sizes from ISM-type dust to grains as large as 1 mm. Two objects show a lack of excess emission at wavelengths shortward of 5.8-8 μm but significant excess at longer wavelengths, indicative of large optically thin or evacuated inner holes. Our models indicate an inner hole of radius ~0.5-0.9 AU for the brown dwarf L316; this is the first brown dwarf with evidence for an AU-scale inner disk hole. We examine several possible mechanisms for the inner disk clearing in this case, including photoevaporation and planet formation.

We present new K-band long baseline interferometer observations of three young stellar objects of the FU Orionis class, V1057 Cyg, V1515 Cyg and Z CMa-SE, obtained at the Keck Interferometer during its commissioning science period. The interferometer clearly resolves the source of near-infrared emission in all three objects. Using simple geometrical models we derive size scales (0.5-4.5 AU) for this emission. All three objects appear significantly more resolved than expected from simple models of accretion disks tuned to fit the broadband optical and infrared spectro-photometry. We explore variations in the key parameters that are able to lower the predicted visibility amplitudes to the measured levels, and conclude that accretion disks alone do not reproduce the spectral energy distributions and K-band visibilities simultaneously. We conclude that either disk models are inadequate to describe the near-infrared emission, or additional source components are needed. We hypothesize that large scale emission (10s of AU) in the interferometer field of view is responsible for the surprisingly low visibilities. This emission may arise in scattering by large envelopes believed to surround these objects., Accepted by The Astrophysical Journal, in press

We presented the results of an infrared imaging survey of Tr 37 and NGC 7160 using the IRAC and MIPS instruments on board the Spitzer Space Telescope. Our observations cover the wavelength range from 3.6 to 24 microns, allowing us to detect disk emission over a typical range of radii 0.1 to 20 AU from the central star. In Tr 37, with an age of about 4 Myr, about 48% of the low-mass stars exhibit detectable disk emission in the IRAC bands. Roughly 10% of the stars with disks may be "transition" objects, with essentially photospheric fluxes at wavelengths i 4.5 microns but with excesses at longer wavelengths, indicating an optically thin inner disk. The median optically thick disk emission in Tr 37 is lower than the corresponding median for stars in the younger Taurus region; the decrease in infrared excess is larger at 6-8 microns than at 24 microns, suggesting that grain growth and/or dust settling has proceeded faster at smaller disk radii, as expected on general theoretical grounds. Only about 4% of the low-mass stars in the 10 Myr old cluster NGC 7160 show detectable infrared disk emission. We also find evidence for 24 micron excesses around a few intermediate-mass stars, which may represent so-called "debris disk" systems. Our observations provided new constraints on disk evolution through an important age range.

Observational studies show that the probability of finding gas giant planets around a star increases with the star's metallicity. Our latest simulations of disks undergoing gravitational instabilities (GIs) with realistic radiative cooling indicate that protoplanetary disks with lower metallicity generally cool faster and thus show stronger overall GI-activity. More importantly, the global cooling times in our simulations are too long for disk fragmentation to occur, and the disks do not fragment into dense protoplanetary clumps. Our results suggest that direct gas giant planet formation via disk instabilities is unlikely to be the mechanism that produced most observed planets. Nevertheless, GIs may still play an important role in a hybrid scenario, compatible with the observed metallicity trend, where structure created by GIs accelerates planet formation by core accretion., Published in ApJL (Jan. 10, 2006); for related movies, see http://westworld.astro.indiana.edu/Movies/internal/kai/; Revised according to the Erratum (April 2006)

We present spectra of four Herbig AeBe stars obtained with the Infrared Spectrograph (IRS). on the Spitzer Space Telescope. All four of the sources show strong emission from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), with the 6.2 um emission feature shifted to 6.3 um and the strongest C-C skeletal-mode feature occuring at 7.9 um instead of at 7.7 um as is often seen. Remarkably, none of the four stars have silicate emission. The strength of the 7.9 um feature varies with respect to the 11.3 um feature among the sources, indicating that we have observed PAHs with a range of ionization fractions. The ionization fraction is higher for systems with hotter and brighter central stars. Two sources, HD 34282 and HD 169142, show emission features from aliphatic hydrocarbons at 6.85 and 7.25 um. The spectrum of HD 141569 shows a previously undetected emission feature at 12.4 um which may be related to the 12.7 um PAH feature. The spectrum of HD 135344, the coolest star in our sample, shows an unusual profile in the 7-9 um region, with the peak emission to the red of 8.0 um and no 8.6 um PAH feature.

We present Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) observations of two objects of the Taurus population that show unambiguous signs of clearing in their inner disks. In one of the objects, DM Tau, the outer disk is truncated at 3 AU; this object is akin to another recently reported in Taurus, CoKu Tau/4, in that the inner disk region is free of small dust. Unlike CoKu Tau/4, however, this star is still accreting, so optically thin gas should still remain in the inner disk region. The other object, GM Aur, also accreting, has ~0.02 lunar masses of small dust in the inner disk region within ~5 AU, consistent with previous reports. However, the IRS spectrum clearly shows that the optically thick outer disk has an inner truncation at a much larger radius than previously suggested, ~24 AU. These observations provide strong evidence for the presence of gaps in protoplanetary disks.

We analyzed Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph data of a representative sample of classical T Tauri stars in the Taurus star-forming region by computing color indices in wave bands that characterize the continuum emission from dust in circumstellar disks. We compared these indices to those derived from a grid of accretion disk models with varying inclination angles, mass accretion rates, and amounts of dust settling. We conclude that most T Tauri stars in our sample have experienced some degree of dust settling and grain growth in their disks, indicating disk evolution.

Theoretical arguments suggest that protoplanetary disks around young stars should start small and grow with the addition of high angular momentum material to reach the radii of several hundred AUs that characterize the disks around optically visible T Tauri stars. Examples of much more compact disks, with radii much less than 100 AU, have been found around some very young stars, but in all cases tidal truncation from a near binary companion provides a ready explanation for the small disk size. We report here an example of a compact, possibly isolated disk around the class 0 object IRAS16293-2422B, which is thought to be among the youngest protostars known. This disk has a Gaussian half power radius of only $\sim$8 AU, and a detailed, self-consistent, accretion disk model indicates an outer radius of only 26 AU. This discovery supports the notion that protoplanetary disks start small and grow with time, although other explanations for the compact size cannot be ruled out, including gravitational instability in its outer parts and tidal truncation from the close approach of a now distant stellar companion.

We present Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph measurements for two young stars near the hydrogen-burning mass limit in the Taurus star-forming region. While one of the objects, V410 X-ray 3, displays no mid-infrared excess, the other one, V410 Anon 13, shows a clear excess at wavelengths longward of 10 mm, indicative of a circumstellar disk. Moreover, the disk surrounding V410 Anon 13 is reminiscent of flared accretion disks around classical T Tauri stars; small dust grains in the disk photosphere generate the broad 10 mm silicate emission feature, whose structure suggests the presence of crystalline components. This demonstrates that very low mass objects, like their more massive counterparts, experience dust processing in their disks.

We present new observations of the FUV (1100-2200 Angstrom) radiation field and the near- to mid-IR (3--13.5 micron) spectral energy distribution (SED) of a sample of T Tauri stars selected on the basis of bright molecular disks (GM Aur, DM Tau, LkCa15). In each source we find evidence for Ly alpha induced H2 fluorescence and an additional source of FUV continuum emission below 1700 Angstroms. Comparison of the FUV spectra to a model of H2 excitation suggests that the strong continuum emission is due to electron impact excitation of H2. The ultimate source of this excitation is likely X-ray irradiation which creates hot photo-electrons mixed in the molecular layer. Analysis of the SED of each object finds the presence of inner disk gaps with sizes of a few AU in each of these young (~1 Myr) stellar systems. We propose that the presence of strong H2 continuum emission and inner disk clearing are related by the increased penetration power of high energy photons in gas rich regions with low grain opacity., 5 pages, 3 figures, accepted by ApJ Letters

We have used the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph to observe seven members of the TW Hya association, the nearest stellar association whose age ($\sim$ 10 Myr) is similar to the timescales thought to apply to planet formation and disk dissipation. Only two of the seven targets display infrared excess emission, indicating that substantial amounts of dust still exist closer to the stars than is characteristic of debris disks; however, in both objects we confirm an abrupt short-wavelength edge to the excess, as is seen in disks with cleared-out central regions. The mid-infrared excesses in the spectra of Hen 3-600 and TW Hya include crystalline silicate emission features, indicating that the grains have undergone significant thermal processing. We offer a detailed comparison between the spectra of TW Hya and Hen 3-600, and a model that corroborates the spectral shape and our previous understanding of the radial structure of these protoplanetary disks., To appear in the Spitzer special issue of ApJS; 12 pages, 2 figures

We compare the infrared colors predicted by theoretical models of protostellar envelopes and protoplanetary disks with initial observations of young stellar objects made with the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) on the Spitzer Space Telescope. Disk and envelope models characterized by infall and/or accretion rates found in previous studies can quantitatively account for the range of IRAC colors found in four young embedded clusters: S140, S171, NGC 7129, and Cep C. The IRAC color-color diagram ([3.6]� [4.5] vs. [5.8]� [8.0]) can be used to help distinguish between young stars with only disk emission and protostars with circumstellar envelopes. Subject heading gs: infrared: stars — stars: formation — stars: pre–main-sequence

We investigate the physical conditions of the material around massive protostars by modelling the so-called hot molecular cores. We present a model for the spectral energy distribution (SED) as well as the ammonia line emission of the G31.41+0.31 hot core. We find that the best fit to the SED is achieved by assuming a density distribution corresponding to the collapse of a magnetized logatropic sphere. On the other hand, the line emission is reproduced by adopting a gas phase ammonia abundance increasing towards the center of the core, as a result of the release of the ammonia molecules trapped in ice grain mantles.

We report results of continuum (1.3 and 3.6 cm) and H2O maser line high angular resolution observations, made with the Very Large Array (VLA) in the A configuration, toward the star-forming region AFGL 2591. Three radio continuum sources (VLA 1, VLA 2, and VLA 3) were detected in the region at 3.6 cm, and one source (VLA 3) at 1.3 cm. VLA 1 and VLA 2 appear resolved and their spectral indices suggest free-free emission from optically thin H II regions. VLA 3 is elongated in the east-west direction, along the axis of the bipolar molecular outflow observed in the region. Its spectral energy distribution is consistent with it being a ~200 AU optically thick disk plus a photoionized wind. In addition, we detected 85 water maser spots toward the AFGL 2591 region, which are distributed in three main clusters. Two of these clusters are spatially associated with VLA 2 and VLA 3, respectively. The third cluster of masers, including the strongest water maser of the region, does not coincide with any known continuum source. We suggest that this third cluster of masers is excited by an undetected protostar that we predict to be located 05 (500 AU) north from VLA 3. The maser spots associated with VLA 3 are distributed along a shell-like structure of 001 size, showing a peculiar velocity-position helical distribution. We propose that VLA 3 is the powering source of the observed molecular outflow in this region. Finally, we support the notion that the AFGL 2591 region is a cluster of B0-B3 type stars.

We model the vertical structure of magnetized accretion disks subject to viscous and resistive heating, and irradiation by the central star. We apply our formalism to the radial structure of magnetized accretion disks threaded by a poloidal magnetic field dragged during the process of star formation developed by Shu and coworkers. We consider disks around low mass protostars, T Tauri, and FU Orionis stars. We consider two levels of disk magnetization, $\lambda_{sys} = 4$ (strongly magnetized disks), and $\lambda_{sys} = 12$ (weakly magnetized disks). The rotation rates of strongly magnetized disks have large deviations from Keplerian rotation. In these models, resistive heating dominates the thermal structure for the FU Ori disk. The T Tauri disk is very thin and cold because it is strongly compressed by magnetic pressure; it may be too thin compared with observations. Instead, in the weakly magnetized disks, rotation velocities are close to Keplerian, and resistive heating is always less than 7\% of the viscous heating. In these models, the T Tauri disk has a larger aspect ratio, consistent with that inferred from observations. All the disks have spatially extended hot atmospheres where the irradiation flux is absorbed, although most of the mass ($\sim 90-95$ \%) is in the disk midplane. With the advent of ALMA one expects direct measurements of magnetic fields and their morphology at disk scales. It will then be possible to determine the mass-to-flux ratio of magnetized accretion disks around young stars, an essential parameter for their structure and evolution. Our models contribute to the understanding of the vertical structure and emission of these disks., Comment: 37 pages, 8 figures

Using high angular resolution 7 mm Very Large Array (VLA) observations, we show that the low-mass protostellar object IRAS 043682557 in L1527 is composed of two radio sources separated in projection by 25 AU. One of the two components is extended in the direction perpendicular to the outflow powered by IRAS 043682557 and is, most likely, a compact accretion disk ( AU), similar to those found in L1551 R ∼ 20 IRS 5 by Rodro ´guez et al. As in L1551 IRS 5, the disk found here is small compared to those around T Tauri stars. Tidal interactions with nearby companions provide a natural way of truncating disks, and we argue that the two millimeter-wavelength sources in L1527 trace a compact binary system, where the disk surrounding one of the components has been truncated by the tidal influence of the other. A comparison between observations obtained in 1996 and 2002 reveals large proper motions, which can be only partly attributed to the overall largescale motion of the region in which IRAS 043682557 is located. The remaining “residual” proper motions might trace the orbital motion of the binary and would suggest a total mass for the system larger than 0.2 M, and likely of the order of 0.5–2 M,. This mass (only a small fraction of which is in the disk) is of the same order as that of the extended surrounding envelope of gas and dust traced by far-infrared and submillimeter observations ( M,), implying that the stars that will eventually form out of IRAS 043682557 would M ∼ 0.5 env have already acquired a significant fraction of their final masses. It is worth noting that multiepoch VLA studies of nearby protobinary systems similar to that presented here could provide direct mass estimates in most nearby star-forming sites. Combined with submillimeter observations of the surrounding envelopes, this would provide a more reliable measure of the evolutionary status of binary protostars. Subject headings: astrometry — binaries: general — ISM: jets and outflows — stars: formation

We report the discovery of a spatially-resolved edge-on protoplanetary disk in the ~2-Myr-old MBM 12 young association. Our near-infrared images of LkHa 263C (MBM 12A 3C), obtained with the Hokupa'a adaptive optics system on the Gemini North telescope, clearly show two elongated reflection nebulosities separated by a dark lane, a morphology well-matched by scattered light models of an optically thick (at near-infrared wavelengths) edge-on disk. An optical spectrum of the scattered light nebulosity obtained with the Keck II telescope exhibits a spectral type of M0 +/- 0.5 (T_eff = 3850 +/- 100 K) for the central star and contains H_alpha and forbidden emission lines, which may indicate the presence of a jet. The absence of a near-infrared point source implies A_K > 9.5 toward the unseen central star. The disk is flared and has a radius of ~150 AU (at a distance of 275 pc) and an inclination of 87 degrees. The aspect ratio of the model disk in the J-band is 0.72. There is possible evidence for dust settling to the disk midplane. LkHa 263C is 4.115" from the 0.415" binary LkHa 263 A and B (MBM 12A 3A and 3B), which is itself 15.5" from LkHa 262 (MBM 12A 2). Thus, LkHa 263C may be the first disk to be clearly resolved around an individual star in a young quadruple system. The detection of a faint edge-on disk near a bright star demonstrates both the high angular resolution and the high sensitivity that can be achieved with adaptive optics imaging on large telescopes., 12 pages, 3 PostScript figures, to appear in The Astrophysical Journal Letters

We present detailed models of irradiated T Tauri disks including dust grain growth with power-law size distributions. The models assume complete mixing between dust and gas and solve for the vertical disk structure self-consistentlyincluding the heating effects of stellar irradiation as well as local viscous heating. For a given total dust mass, grain growth is found to decrease the vertical height of the surface where the optical depth to the stellar radiation becomes unit and thus the local irradiation heating, while increasing the disk emission at mm and sub-mm wavelengths. The resulting disk models are less geometrically thick than our previous models assuming interstellar medium dust, and agree better with observed spectral energy distributions and images of edge-on disks, like HK Tau/c and HH 30. The implications of models with grain growth for determining disk masses from long-wavelength emission are considered., 29 pages, including 11 figures and 1 table, APJ accepted

Molecular line observations that could resolve protoplanetary disks of ~100 AU both spatially and kinematically would be a useful tool to unambiguously identify these disks and to determine their kinematical and physical characteristics. In this work we model the expected line emission from a protoplanetary disk irradiated by an infalling envelope, addressing the question of its detectability with subarcsecond resolution. We adopt a previously determined disk model structure that gives a continuum spectral energy distribution and a mm intensity spatial distribution that are consistent with observational constraints of HL Tau. An analysis of the capability of presently working and projected interferometers at mm and submm wavelengths shows that molecular transitions of moderate opacity at these wavelengths (e.g., C17O lines) are good candidates for detecting disk lines at subarcsecond resolution in the near future. We suggest that, in general, disks of typical Class I sources will be detectable., 41 pages, 16 figures. To be published in The Astrophysical Journal

It has frequently been stated (in particular by us) that the problem of a jet with a periodically varying injection velocity does not allow full analytic solutions. A description of such jets in terms of a sequence of free-streaming, continuous jet beam segments, separated by narrow ‘internal working surfaces’ results in a set of simple equations, which have then been solved numerically. Also, an asymptotic analytic solution (for large distances from the source) has been found. In this paper we present a new method for solving the equations for a hypersonic jet with a time-dependent injection velocity, based on a consideration of the momentum conservation for the internal working surfaces. With this formulation, it is possible to derive parametric analytic solutions for the full flow. We derive such solutions for specific time dependencies of the injection velocity and density: a sinusoidal velocity variability with constant mass injection rate, and with constant injection density. These analytic solutions have clear applications for the interpretation of observations of HH jets.

This paper discusses the formation of two-shock working surfaces in Herbig-Haro (HH) jets. These working surfaces can be formed either at the leading edge of the jet flow, or inside the body of the jet beam (as a result of variabilities in the jet flow velocity), and depending on the parameters of the flow can be either massless or mass conserving. It is shown that observations might indicate that these two regimes actually occur in some HH jets.

The dusty disks of many young stars are probably heated mostly by absorption of light from the central star. This stellar irradiation can control the vertical structure of the disk, particularly in the outer regions. Because the irradiation heating is sensitive to the disk structure—the disk vertical thickness and the tilt of the disk photosphere relative to the star—the possibility of an unstable feedback is present. To study this problem, we present calculations of the evolution of perturbations in vertically isothermal disks. We find that such disks are generally stable. In outer disk regions of T Tauri stars, linear analysis indicates that the radiative cooling time is so short that temperature perturbations will be damped faster than the disk structure can respond. Using our results for steady "alpha" viscosity disks, we estimate that this is true for distances larger than 2 AU (/10-8 M☉ yr-1)7/9(α/0.01)-7/9 for typical T Tauri stars. Inside this radius, if the disk surface tilt ("flaring") is still significant, numerical finite-amplitude calculations show that temperature perturbations will travel inward as they damp. We find that disk self-shadowing has a small effect on the results because the perturbation is damped on a timescale shorter than the time in which the shadowed disk region can respond. Our results help justify steady, smooth treatments of the effects of irradiation on the disks of young stellar objects.

The accretion by a protoplanetary disk of material from its surrounding natal envelope has been observed for the first time in the Class 0 protostar NGC 1333–IRAS 4B. This is a crucial early step in the formation of stars and planetary systems, through which all such systems are thought to go. Observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope reveal a rich emission-line mid-infrared spectrum from water vapour, which indicates an origin in an extremely dense disk surface, heated by a shock from the infalling envelope material. Once a protoplanetary disk has formed, planetesimals are thought to develop as the products of collisions between dust grains form ever larger objects. But current theories fail at the point where metre-sized boulders are formed: theory has them falling into the central protostar too quickly to form kilometre-sized planetesimals. New computer simulations suggest that the interaction of the gas disk with the boulders creates extremely dense regions. There the boulders are so close to each other that their mutual gravity draws them together into solid objects of many kilometres in size, forming directly the planetesimals that serve as building blocks of planets. The youngest protostellar objects show many signs of rapid development from their initial, spheroidal configurations. Watson et al. find in NGC1333 — IRAS4B a rich emission spectrum of H2O, at wavelengths 20–37 mm, which indicates an origin in extremely dense, warm gas. They model the emission as infall from a protostellar envelope onto the surface of a deeply embedded, dense disc. This is the only example in a sample of 30 class 0 objects, perhaps arising from a favourable orientation or this may be an early and short-lived stage in the evolution of a protoplanetary disk. Class 0 protostars, the youngest type of young stellar objects, show many signs of rapid development from their initial, spheroidal configurations, and therefore are studied intensively for details of the formation of protoplanetary disks within protostellar envelopes. At millimetre wavelengths, kinematic signatures of collapse have been observed in several such protostars, through observations of molecular lines that probe their outer envelopes. It has been suggested that one or more components of the proto-multiple system NGC 1333–IRAS 4 (refs 1, 2) may display signs of an embedded region that is warmer and denser than the bulk of the envelope3,4. Here we report observations that reveal details of the core on Solar System dimensions. We detect in NGC 1333–IRAS 4B a rich emission spectrum of H2O, at wavelengths 20–37 μm, which indicates an origin in extremely dense, warm gas. We can model the emission as infall from a protostellar envelope onto the surface of a deeply embedded, dense disk, and therefore see the development of a protoplanetary disk. This is the only example of mid-infrared water emission from a sample of 30 class 0 objects, perhaps arising from a favourable orientation; alternatively, this may be an early and short-lived stage in the evolution of a protoplanetary disk.

The ‘plasmon’ solution of De Young & Axford describes the interaction between a high-velocity clump and the surrounding medium. Even though this solution is probably too simplistic, it has proven to be most useful in the study of diverse astrophysical flows. In the present paper, we discuss a more detailed solution of the plasmon problem, which includes the centrifugal effects of the environmental material flowing around the plasmon. We derive both numerical and approximate analytic solutions of this problem, and compare them with the analytic solution of De Young & Axford.

Using results and calibrations from a previous paper (Gullbring et al. 1997), we estimate disk accretion rates for pre-main-sequence stars in the Taurus and Chamaeleon I molecular cloud complexes. The median accretion rate for T Tauri stars of age ~1 Myr is ~10-8 M☉ yr-1; the intrinsic scatter at a given age may be as large as 1 order of magnitude. There is a clear decline of mass accretion rates with increasing age t among T Tauri stars. Representing this decline as tη, we estimate 1.5 η 2.8; the large uncertainty is due to the wide range of accretion rates at a given age, the limited age range of the sample, and errors in estimating stellar ages and accretion luminosities. Adopting values of η near the low end of this range, which are more likely given probable errors and the neglect of birthline age corrections, masses accreted during the T Tauri phase are roughly consistent with disk masses estimated from millimeter-wave dust emission. Similarity solutions for evolving, expanding disks are used to investigate observational constraints on disk properties employing a minimum of parameters. For an assumed power-law form of the disk viscosity with radius ν Rγ, η 1.5 corresponds to γ 1. The limit γ ~ 1 corresponds to a roughly constant α in the Shakura-Sunyaev (1973) viscosity parameterization; using current observed disk sizes, we estimate α ~ 10-2 (on scales ~10-100 AU). Much of the observed variation in mass accretion rates can be accounted for by varying initial disk masses between 0.01 and 0.2 M☉, but this result may be strongly affected by the presence of binary companion stars. These results emphasize the need for older samples of stars for studying disk evolution.

Transitional disks are objects whose inner disk regions have undergone substantial clearing. The Spitzer Space Telescope produced detailed spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of transitional disks that allowed us to infer their radial dust disk structure in some detail, revealing the diversity of this class of disks. The growing sample of transitional disks also opened up the possibility of demographic studies, which provided unique insights. There now exist (sub)millimeter and infrared images that confirm the presence of large clearings of dust in transitional disks. In addition, protoplanet candidates have been detected within some of these clearings. Transitional disks are thought to be a strong link to planet formation around young stars and are a key area to study if further progress is to be made on understanding the initial stages of planet formation. Here we provide a review and synthesis of transitional disk observations to date with the aim of providing timely direction to the field, which is about to undergo its next burst of growth as ALMA reaches its full potential. We discuss what we have learned about transitional disks from SEDs, color-color diagrams, and imaging in the (sub)mm and infrared. We then distill the observations into constraints for the main disk clearing mechanisms proposed to date (i.e., photoevaporation, grain growth, and companions) and explore how the expected observational signatures from these mechanisms, particularly planet-induced disk clearing, compare to actual observations. Lastly, we discuss future avenues of inquiry to be pursued with ALMA, JWST, and next generation of ground-based telescopes.

We present Herschel Space Observatory PACS spectra of T Tauri stars, in which we detect amorphous and crystalline water ice features. Using irradiated accretion disk models, we determine the disk structure and ice abundance in each of the systems. Combining a model-independent comparison of the ice feature strength and disk size with a detailed analysis of the model ice location, we estimate that the ice emitting region is at disk radii >30AU, consistent with a proto-Kuiper belt. Vertically, the ice emits most below the photodesorption zone, consistent with Herschel observations of cold water vapor. The presence of crystallized water ice at a disk location a) colder than its crystallization temperature and b) where it should have been re-amorphized in ~1 Myr suggests that localized generation is occurring; the most likely cause appears to be micrometeorite impact or planetesimal collisions. Based on simple tests with UV models and different ice distributions, we suggest that the SED shape from 20 to 50 micron may probe the location of the water ice snow line in the disk upper layers. This project represents one of the first extra-solar probes of the spatial structure of the cometary ice reservoir thought to deliver water to terrestrial planets., Accepted to ApJ on Nov. 20th 2014; 16 pages, including 11 figures and 4 tables

We calculate the emission from steady viscous disks heated by radiation from an opaque infalling protostellar envelope. For typical envelope parameters used to explain the spectral energy distributions of protostellar sources, we find that the envelope heating raises the outer disk temperature dramatically. The resulting temperature distribution in the disk is a complicated function of both radial distance and vertical height above the disk midplane. We show that the visibility flux at λ = 0.87 mm and the spectral energy distribution from submillimeter to radio wavelengths of the flat-spectrum T Tauri star HL Tau can be explained by emission from an accretion disk irradiated by its infalling envelope, whereas thermal emission from an infalling envelope or radiation from a steady viscous accretion disk cannot explain the observations. Our results suggest that the radiation fields of collapsing protostellar envelopes may strongly affect the structure of pre-main-sequence accretion disks.