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Consumption of water and salts are vital processes associated with maintaining homeostasis in the body. Both water and salts have several benefits for the body if taken in moderation. Excessive use is connected with many health risks. The present study aims to examine the frequency of water and salt consumption and the factors that determine this choice. A survey was conducted among 550 (324 women and 226 men), aged from 18 to 65 years, living in the district of Stara Zagora, the Republic of Bulgaria. The participants were not selected according to any proportions of the population in the country and represent a random sample. The answers to the survey are coded and applied in the processing as codes or as ordinal and nominal values. The statistical data processing was performed based on descriptive and inferential statistics. The analysis of the data shows that the majority of respondents - 46%, consume less than one liter of water per day, and carbonated water is among the least preferred types of beverages. It is consumed every day by 11.49% of the respondents. There is approximately equal distribution of people who do not use extra salt (36.52%) in their daily routine, 32.02% of them sometimes use extra salt, and those who prefer a saltier taste are 31.46%. More in-depth studies are needed on the frequency of water and salt consumption and its determinants, as it is directly linked to human health. In this way, it can contribute to maximizing the benefits of these important substances for the body and to suppressing health risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To better understand the mechanism of salt tolerance, we analyzed cotton growth and the ionomes in different tissues under different types of salt–alkali stress. Cotton was exposed to the soil salt and alkali stresses, NaCl, Na2SO4, and Na2CO3 + NaHCO3, in a pot study. Salt and alkali stress significantly inhibited cotton growth, significantly reduced root length, surface area, and volume, and significantly increased relative electrical conductivity (REC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content but also significantly increased antioxidant enzyme activities, and proline (Pro) content. The REC in leaves was higher under salt stress than under alkali stress, but the effects on Pro were in the order Na2CO3 + NaHCO3 > NaCl > Na2SO4. Principal component analysis showed a significant difference in ion composition under the different types of salt–alkali stress. Under the three types of salt–alkali stress, concentrations of Na and Mo increased significantly in different organs of cotton plants. Under NaCl stress, the absorption of Ca was inhibited, the transport capacity of P, Mg, and Cu was reduced, and the ion balance was maintained by promoting the uptake and transport of Zn, Mn, Al, and Mo. Under Na2SO4 stress, the absorption of P and Ca was inhibited, the transport capacity of Mg, B, and Cu was reduced, and the ion balance was maintained by promoting the uptake and transport of S, Zn, Fe, Mo, Al, and Co. Under Na2CO3 + NaHCO3 stress, the absorption of P and S was inhibited, the transport capacity of Mg and B was reduced, but that of Al and Fe increased, and the ion balance was maintained by promoting the uptake and transport of Mn, Mo, Ni, and Co. The relative expression of GhSOS1 and GhNHX1 in leaves increased significantly under salt stress but decreased under alkali stress. These results suggest that cotton is well-adapted to salt–alkali stress via the antioxidant enzyme system, adjustment of osmotic substances, and reconstruction of ionic equilibrium; neutral salt stress primarily disrupts the ion balance, whereas alkali stress decreases the ability to regulate Na and inhibits the absorption of mineral elements, as well as disrupts the ion balance; and the changes in the expression of salt tolerance-related genes may partially explain the accumulation of Na ions in cotton under salt–alkali stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study investigated acute arsenic toxicity and bioconcentration capacity in Litopenaeus vannamei because it has been frequently exposed to lower salinities than its isosmotic point (25 g L−1). Juveniles (9.9 ± 0.4 g) were exposed to low (5–10 g L−1) and isosmotic salinity (25 g L−1) levels; As values were 30.8, 20.2, 16.8 and 13.9 mg L−1 at 5 g L−1; 30.4, 19.1, 16.8 and 14.8 mg L−1 at 10 g L−1; 31.5, 19.0, 15.0 and 11.9 mg L−1 at 25 g L−1 at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h LC 50 , respectively. No significant differences were found among As LC 50 values calculated for different salinity levels and same exposure times, concluding that low salinity did not affect shrimp sensitivity to As. Likewise, no significant differences were observed in As bioconcentration in shrimp exposed to the same waterborne As and distinct salinity, supporting the results of acute toxicity. Bioconcentration factors of As maintained a relatively stable tendency where all values (0.8 ± 0.2 to 1.7 ± 0.4) were statistically comparable to 1, indicating that As was accumulated in a similar proportion to waterborne As concentration at three salinity levels. This study proposed 135.3 ± 12.1 μg L−1 for salinities from 5 to 25 g L−1 as provisional safe As concentration. According to these results, the hypothesis that sustains an effect of low salinity on As acute toxicity and its bioconcentration capacity cannot be acceptable. Therefore, the information provided allows knowing the threshold levels of As in water to avoid ecological and economic losses. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Acute toxicity and bioconcentration of As were determined in shrimp juveniles. • LC 50 -96 h were 13.9, 14.8 and 11.9 mg L−1 for 5, 10 and 25 g L−1. • Significant differences were not found between LC 50 for different salinities examined. • As bioconcentration was not affected by the low-salinities examined. • It is proposed as safe As level 135.3 ± 12.1 μg L−1 for salinities from 5 to 25 g L−1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salt stress is a major abiotic stress that limits agricultural productivity in many regions of the world. To understand the molecular basis of the salt stress response, two wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) cultivars, Karim and Azizi, which are of agronomic significance in Tunisia, were grown under non-saline and saline conditions (100 mM). Leaves and roots of control and salt-stressed plants were harvested after 11 days of salt treatment. Karim cultivar may behave as a typical Na+ include, which compartmentalizes Na+ within the leaf cell vacuoles where it could be used as an osmoticum to lower the osmotic potential necessary for the maintenance of the plant hydric status. While, accumulation of K+ was greater in Karim cultivar compared to Azizi, in both organs, presenting an important manifestation of salinity tolerance. Significant changes in metabolism of antioxidative system were observed, with an increase in protein tyrosine nitration, which indicates that salinity stress induces a nitro-oxidative stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The key mechanisms of salinity tolerance (ST) in durum wheat were investigated, with five genotypes used to determine changes in morpho-physiological traits and mineral and metabolite contents after exposure to 50, 100 and 200 mM NaCl. Plant growth impairment was evident at the highest salt level. Under this condition, a wide range of shoot Na+ contents and ST were observed within genotypes. However, no significant correlation was seen between ST and Na+ exclusion from the shoots, which indicates that tissue tolerance also has a role. Consistent with this, there was significant correlation between ST and the Na+:K+ ratio in the shoots. Indeed, the maintenance of the shoot Na+ and K+ homeostasis was found to be essential to achieve osmotic adjustment, which relied substantially on inorganic osmolytes, and to avoid toxicity symptoms, such as chlorophyll loss, which appeared only at the highest salinity level. Consistently, the metabolite changes occurred mainly in the shoots, with a dual response to salinity: (i) a conserved response that was common to all the genotypes and resulted in the accumulation of proline and in the depletion of organic acids, including some intermediates of the Krebs cycle; and (ii) a genotype-specific response that involved the accumulation of GABA, threonine, leucine, glutamic acid, glycine, mannose and fructose and appeared related to the different tolerance of genotypes to salinity. The lower magnitude of response to salinity detected in the roots confirmed the major role of the shoots in the determination of ST of durum wheat. Highlights • Salinity tolerance in durum wheat relies mainly in Na+ and K+ homeostasis regulation. • Durum wheat achieved full osmotic adjustment substantially through inorganic ions. • The main metabolic changes under salinity occurred in the shoots rather in the roots. • Genotype-specific metabolic responses were related to the different salinity tolerance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Leishmaniases are infectious diseases, caused by protozoa of the Leishmania genus. These drugs present high toxicity, long-term administration, many adverse effects and are expensive, besides the identification of resistant parasites. In this work, the antileishmanial activity of quinoline derivative salts (QDS) was evaluated, as well as the toxicity on mammalian cells and the mechanism of action of the most promising compound. Among the compound tested, only the compound QDS3 showed activity against promastigotes and amastigotes of Leishmania spp., being more active against the intracellular amastigotes of L. amazonensis -GFP (IC 50 of 5.48 μM). This value is very close to the one observed for miltefosine (IC 50 of 4.05 μM), used as control drug. Furthermore, the compound QDS3 exhibited a selective effect, being 40.35 times more toxic to the amastigote form than to the host cell. Additionally, promastigotes of L. amazonensis treated with this compound exhibited characteristics of cells in the process of apoptosis such as mitochondrial membrane depolarization, mitochondrial swelling, increase of ROS production, phosphatidylserine externalization, reduced and rounded shape, and cell cycle alteration. The integrity of the plasma membrane remained unaltered, excluding necrosis in treated promastigotes. The compound QDS3 inhibited the formation of autophagic vacuoles, which may have contributed to parasite death by preventing autophagic mechanisms in the removal of damaged organelles, intensifying the damage caused by the treatment, highlighting the antileishmanial effect of this compound. In addition, treatment with QDS3 induced increased ROS levels in L. amazonensis -infected macrophages, but not in uninfected host cell. These data reinforce that the induction of oxidative stress is one of the main toxic effects caused by the treatment with the compound QDS3 in L. amazonensis , causing irreversible damage and triggering a selective death of intracellular parasites. Data shown here confirm the biological activity of quinoline derivatives and encourage future in vivo studies with this compound in the murine model. Highlights • Organic salts were screened as potential antileishmanial agents. • The quinoline derivative salt (QDS3) exhibited the best antileishmanial effect. • QDS3 induced apoptosis in promastigotes of L. amazonensis. • This compound inhibited the formation of autophagic vacuoles. • The oxidative stress can be the key event in the induction of apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The immune system evolved to protect organisms from invading pathogens. A network of pro‐ and anti‐inflammatory cell types equipped with special effector molecules guarantees efficient elimination of intruders like viruses and bacteria. However, imbalances can lead to an excessive response of effector cells incurring autoimmune or allergic diseases. An interplay of genetic and environmental factors contributes to autoimmune diseases and recent studies provided evidence for an impact of dietary habits on the immune status and related disorders. Western societies underwent a change in lifestyle associated with changes in food consumption. Salt (sodium chloride) is one component prevalent in processed food frequently consumed in western countries. Here we summarize recent advances in understanding the mechanisms behind the effects of sodium chloride on immune cells like regulatory T cells (Tregs) and T helper (TH) 17 cells and its implication as a risk factor for several diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The plant stress hypothesis posits that a herbivore’s reproductive success increases when it feeds on stressed plants, while the plant vigor hypothesis predicts that a herbivore preferentially feeds on more vigorous plants. We examined these opposing hypotheses by growing spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) on the leaves of stressed and healthy (vigorous) cucumber plants. Host plants were grown under controlled conditions at low, moderate, and high concentrations of NaCl (to induce salinity stress), at low, moderate, and high fertilizer concentrations (to support growth), and without these additions (control). The effects of these treatments were evaluated by measuring fresh and dry plant biomass, carotenoid and chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activity, and concentrations of PO43−, K+, and Na+ in plant tissues. The addition of low concentrations of fertilizer increased dry mass, protein, and carotenoid content relative to controls, suggesting a beneficial effect on plants. The highest NaCl treatment (2560 mg L−1) resulted in increased Na+ and protein content relative to control plants, as well as reduced PO43−, K+, and chlorophyll levels and reduced catalase and ascorbate peroxidase enzyme activity levels. Analysis of life table data of T. urticae mites raised on leaves from the aforementioned plant groups showed the intrinsic rate of increase (r) for mites was 0.167 day−1 in control specimens, 0.125 day−1 for mites reared on plants treated with a moderate concentration of fertilizer (10 mL L−1), and was highest (0.241 day−1) on plants grown under moderate salinity conditions (1920 mg L−1 NaCl). Reproductive success of T. urticae did not differ on plants watered with a moderate concentration of NaCl or a high concentration of fertilizer. The moderately-stressed plants formed a favorable environment for the development and reproduction of spider mites, supporting the plant stress hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Purpose: Our recent studies show that the reduced activity of epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) in endothelial cells accounts for the adaptation of vasculature to salt in Sprague-Dawley rats. The present study examines a hypothesis that enhanced ENaC activity mediates the loss of vasorelaxation in Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rats.Experimental Approach: We used the cell-attached patch-clamp technique to record ENaC activity in split-open mesenteric arteries. Western blot and immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate the levels of aldosterone, ENaC, eNOS and NO. Blood pressure was measured with the tail-cuff method and the artery relaxation was measured with the wire myograph assay.Key Results: High-salt (HS) diet significantly increased plasma aldosterone and ENaC activity in the endothelial cells of Dahl SS rats. The endothelium-dependent artery relaxation was blunted by HS challenge in these rats. Amiloride, a potent blocker of ENaC, increased both phosphorylated eNOS and NO and therefore prevented the HS-induced loss of vasorelaxation. As, in SS rats, endogenous aldosterone was already elevated by HS challenge, exogenous aldosterone did not further elevate ENaC activity in the rats fed with HS. Eplerenone, a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, attenuated the effects of HS on both ENaC activity and artery relaxation.Conclusions and Implications: These data suggest that HS diet blunts artery relaxation and causes hypertension via a pathway associated with aldosterone-dependent activation of ENaC in endothelial cells. This pathway provides one of the mechanisms by which HS causes hypertension in Dahl SS rats.Linked Articles: This article is part of a themed section on Spotlight on Small Molecules in Cardiovascular Diseases. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v175.8/issuetoc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

First principles investigations are conducted to explore the NaCl to CsCl phase transition of Sr 2 PdO 3 and to predict the similar transition of the Ruddlesden-Popper type layered perovskite Sr 2 TiO 4 . Our results established that a first-order phase transition from Immm phase to Ammm phase of Sr 2 PdO 3 occurs at around 30.6 GPa, being in good accordant with the experimental data (29 GPa). More interesting, the analogous topotactic structural phase transition from I 4/ mmm phase to orthorhombic Cmcm one is predicted to take place at about 66.6 GPa in Sr 2 TiO 4 , and associated with the increase of oxygen anion coordination number around strontium cation from nine to ten. Compared to the case of Sr 2 PdO 3 with MO 4 square planar motif, the influence of the occupancy of the vacant apical oxygen on the critical transition pressure has been deliberated. As far as we know, the I 4/ mmm → Cmcm transition in Sr 2 TiO 4 has not been subject to detailed experimental high pressure studies yet. Furthermore, Sr 2 TiO 4 is a prototypical Ruddlesden-Popper type perovskite, thus, this typical phase transition is probably ubiquitous in many compounds. We hope our results will motivate further studies, theoretical and/or experimental, on the high pressure behavior of the Ruddlesden-Popper series of layered perovskites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel method for cleavage of the dithiine ring in 5,12-(dimethyl)-thioqinantrenium bis-chloride 1 "via" reaction with sodium hydrosulfide leads to 1-methyl-3-mercaptoquinoline-4(1H)-thione 2. Further transformation of thiol and thione functions of compound 2 leads to a series of sulfide and disulfide derivatives of quinolinium salts 4 and 6. 1-Methyl-4-chloro-3-benzylthioquinoline chloride 8 was obtained by N-alkylating 4-chloro-3-benzylthioquinoline using dimethyl sulfate. Antimicrobial activity of the obtained compounds was investigated using six Gram-positive and six Gram-negative bacterial strains, as well as Candida albicans yeast. Greater activity was demonstrated towards Gram-positive strains. MIC values for compounds and with benzylthio 4d and benzoylthio 4f substituents in 3-quinoline position were found to be in the 0.5-1 µg/mL range, at a level similar to that of ciprofloxacin (reference). Compounds 4d and 4f also demonstrated interesting antifungal properties (MIC = 1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salts exist in any cell and living organism in contact with biological macromolecules. How these salts affect biomolecules such as enzyme is important from both basic sciences and practical technologies. It was observed that divalent salts can change structure and function of protein at higher concentrations. Here, we investigated the effect of divalent salt on the behavior of a multimeric enzyme. We treated glucose oxidase as dimer-active enzyme in different CaCl 2 concentration and seen that the enzyme become inactive at high concentration of salt. These experimental results are in agreement with recently published researches. To find a possible mechanism, a series of molecular dynamics simulation of the enzyme were performed at different salt concentration. According to the MD simulation, the conformational changes at the active site and FAD-binding site support the hypothesis of enzyme inactivation at high CaCl 2 concentration. MD simulations also showed that enzyme has an unstable conformation at higher salt concentration which is in agreement with our experimental data. Detailed structural properties of the enzyme have been analyzed under different conditions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that bears detailed structural mechanism about the salt effects on multimeric macromolecules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We previously reported an alfalfa half-sib family, HS-B, with improved salt tolerance, compared to parental plants, P-B. In this study, we conducted additional experiments to address potential physiological mechanisms that may contribute to salt tolerance in HS-B. Vegetatively propagated HS-B and P-B plants were treated with a nutrient solution (control) or a nutrient solution containing NaCl ( EC = 12 dS/m). Shoots and roots were harvested at various time points after treatment for quantification of proline, soluble sugar, and H2O2 using spectrophotometers. Subcellular localization and quantification of Na in roots were conducted using a Na+-specific dye under a confocal microscope. HS-B produced 86 and 89% greater shoot and root dry biomass, respectively, compared to parental plants, P-B, under salinity in the greenhouse. Under saline conditions the HS-B shoots accumulated 115% and roots 55% more soluble sugars than P-B counterparts. The non-saline HS-B shoots, however, showed 72% less soluble sugars than the non-saline P-B plants. Under saline conditions HS-B accumulated 39% less proline in shoots, while roots accumulated 56% more proline, compared to their P-B parents. HS-B plants also showed a greater reduction of stomatal conductance under mild saline stress. HS-B shoots and roots contained 3-4 times less reactive oxygen species (H2O2) after salt treatment compared to P-B plants. Sodium localization and distribution analysis using Na+-specific dye revealed HS-B plants accumulated 88% and 48% less Na+ in stele and xylem vessels compared to P-B. The study provides insights into the potential mechanisms that may contribute to salt tolerance in HS-B: maintaining RWC by accumulating soluble sugars while reducing transpiration, maintaining healthy status by reducing oxidative stresses, and preventing salt toxicity by reducing accumulation of Na+ inside root cells and xylem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In two experiments, rats received exposure to a compound consisting of a solution of salt plus a distinctive flavor (A), followed by an injection of furo-doca to induce a salt need. Experiment 1, established that this procedure successfully generated a preference for flavor A in a subsequent choice test between A and water. Experiment 2 used this within-event learning effect to investigate generalization, testing the rats with both A and a novel flavor (B). For different groups the interval between the training phase and the test phase was varied. Subjects tested immediately after training showed a steep generalization gradient (i.e., a strong preference for A, and a weak preference for B). Subjects given a 14-day retention interval showed a flattened gradient, a reduced level of preference for A and an enhanced preference for B. These results are interpreted in terms of changes in stimulus representations over the retention interval that act to reduce the effectiveness of the distinctive features of stimuli (the features that are necessary to ensure discrimination between them). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, more and more studies confirm that high salt intake may not only lead to hypertensive, but also affect bone metabolism.Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system(RAAS) plays an important role in regulation of water and salt metabolism, as well as in regulation of bone metabolism.This review focuses on the effects of high salt-intake and RAAS on bone metabolism and its mechanism, in order to provide theoretical basis for the correlation between water and salt metabolism and bone metabolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of our study is to evaluate the impact of Bousfer desalination plant brine discharges on the Algerian west coast, on a natural population of the marine gastropod mollusc Patella rustica. The effects of a chronic exposure to such discharges are complex to understand due to the combined effects of environmental physico-chemical parameters (e.g., high salinity) and different pollutants that can modulate the physiological responses of this species to stress. In this context, we assessed the biological effects in a marine species P. rustica, by a multibiomarker approach that provided information on the health status of organisms in response to such an environmental stress. We measured biomarkers in the whole soft tissues of limpets as indicators of neurotoxicity (AChE activity), oxidative stress (CAT, SOD, GR, and GPx activities), biotransformation (GST), oxidative damage (LPO through TBARS levels), and genotoxicity (CSP 3-like activity). In parallel, hydrological parameters were measured in the Bay of Oran, at four selected sites: site H considered as a 'hotspot,' located at Bousfer desalination plant; two other sites E and W, at the east and the west of H respectively; finally, site R 'reference' located in Madragh, which is considered as a remote clean site. Our analyses revealed that the activities of antioxidant defense enzymes reached the highest levels in P. rustica collected from site H. The activation of antioxidant defense system in these organisms translated the alteration of their status health, reflecting a level of environmental disruption generated by the desalination plant brine discharges and the high salinity in this area. We also observed that the tissues of limpets collected from site H as well as the two other sites, E and W, had undergone molecular damage, confirmed by the high levels of CSP 3-like activity. This damage resulted from chronic exposure to environmental conditions, potentially genotoxic, due to the desalination plant discharges. The present results indicate the adverse impact of brine effluents from desalination plants on marine fauna and suggest the need for a more consistent approach to environmental management of brine discharges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Spot urine samples are easier to collect than 24-h urine samples and have been used with estimating equations to derive the mean daily salt intake of a population. Whether equations using data from spot urine samples can also be used to estimate change in mean daily population salt intake over time is unknown. We compared estimates of change in mean daily population salt intake based upon 24-h urine collections with estimates derived using equations based on spot urine samples.Methods: Paired and unpaired 24-h urine samples and spot urine samples were collected from individuals in two Australian populations, in 2011 and 2014. Estimates of change in daily mean population salt intake between 2011 and 2014 were obtained directly from the 24-h urine samples and by applying established estimating equations (Kawasaki, Tanaka, Mage, Toft, INTERSALT) to the data from spot urine samples. Differences between 2011 and 2014 were calculated using mixed models.Results: A total of 1000 participants provided a 24-h urine sample and a spot urine sample in 2011, and 1012 did so in 2014 (paired samples n = 870; unpaired samples n = 1142). The participants were community-dwelling individuals living in the State of Victoria or the town of Lithgow in the State of New South Wales, Australia, with a mean age of 55 years in 2011. The mean (95% confidence interval) difference in population salt intake between 2011 and 2014 determined from the 24-h urine samples was -0.48g/day (-0.74 to -0.21; P < 0.001). The corresponding result estimated from the spot urine samples was -0.24 g/day (-0.42 to -0.06; P = 0.01) using the Tanaka equation, -0.42 g/day (-0.70 to -0.13; p = 0.004) using the Kawasaki equation, -0.51 g/day (-1.00 to -0.01; P = 0.046) using the Mage equation, -0.26 g/day (-0.42 to -0.10; P = 0.001) using the Toft equation, -0.20 g/day (-0.32 to -0.09; P = 0.001) using the INTERSALT equation and -0.27 g/day (-0.39 to -0.15; P < 0.001) using the INTERSALT equation with potassium. There was no evidence that the changes detected by the 24-h collections and estimating equations were different (all P > 0.058). Separate analysis of the unpaired and paired data showed that detection of change by the estimating equations was observed only in the paired data.Conclusions: All the estimating equations based upon spot urine samples identified a similar change in daily salt intake to that detected by the 24-h urine samples. Methods based upon spot urine samples may provide an approach to measuring change in mean population salt intake, although further investigation in larger and more diverse population groups is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salt-reduction in processed products has been proposed as a high-impact intervention for reducing the sodium intake at population level. A major limitation for this approach is its potential negative impact on the sensory characteristics of products. The current practice in sensory and consumer science involves single sip/bite evaluations, which may not properly reflect the sensory experience that occurs during product consumption. In this context, the aim of the present work was to compare single and two bite evaluations of consumer sensory and hedonic perception of salt-reduced breads. Five studies with a total of 499 consumers were carried out, in which overall-liking scores of five salt-reduced bread samples were collected after the first and the second bite evaluation. In one of the studies consumers also answered a CATA (check-all-that-apply) question after the first and the second bite. Neither bite nor the interaction between samples and bite had a significant effect on hedonic scores. However, when hedonic scores were analysed separately for each bite, the overall liking scores from the second bite evaluation better reflected differences among samples according to their salt content in two of the five studies. The sensory characterization of the samples did not largely vary between the first and the second bite. Results suggest that consumers' perception of salt reduced bread samples did not largely vary between a single and a two bites evaluation. Further research is warranted in this regard, in particular considering more complex products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effect of salts (Sodium chloride (NaCl), Sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ), Ammonium sulfate ((NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ), and nonionic surfactants (glycerol, tween20, tween80) on thermal properties of egg white proteins as a whole were investigated. Egg white solutions with additive (0, 0.5 and 1%) were collected after 0, 1 and 2 min heat treatment. Physico-chemical properties of egg white proteins were evaluated by measuring heat coagulation time, solubility and turbidity of solution. Adding glycerol caused the most significant decrease in turbidity and increase in heat coagulation time and solubility of egg white, although Sodium Chloride had the least positive impact on physico-chemical properties of egg white under heat treatment. The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy analysis of heat treated egg white proteins as a whole with additives demonstrated changes in secondary protein structure, which are presented regarding the shape, intensity and position of FT-IR band. Meanwhile, it showed a good correlation with the physico-chemical properties consequences. Generally, the effect of nonionic surfactants were more noticeable than that of salts in preventing of egg white proteins aggregation under heat treatment. By improving thermal stability of egg white proteins, its usage in thermal processing industry can be evolved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Barramundi minced muscle with salt 10 g kg−1 and 20 g kg−1 added is gelled by different combinations of pressurisation (300, 400 and 500 MPa at 4 °C for 10 min), cooking (0.1 MPa, 90 °C for 30 min) and setting (0.1 MPa, 50 °C for 2 h) to improve mechanical properties of barramundi gels and reduce salt added to barramundi gels. RESULTS At the low salt concentration of 10 g kg−1, pressurisation prior to cooking (P-C) treatment induced barramundi gels with comparable mechanical properties and water-holding capacity to those of conventional heat induced ( HI) gels with 20 g kg−1 added salt. At salt concentration of 20 g kg−1, pressurisation prior to setting (P-S) and P-C gels exhibited higher mechanical properties and water-holding capacity as compared to HI gels. Scanning electron microscopy images showed a smooth and dense microstructure of P-C and P-S gels whereas the microstructure of HI gels is rough and less compact. CONCLUSIONS P-C treatment can reduce salt concentration added to barramundi gels to 10 g kg−1. P-S and P-C treatment can result in higher mechanical and functional properties of barramundi gels at conventional salt concentration (20 g kg−1) as compared to HI gels. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four new isostructural salts, [M(phen)](IBr)·3CHCl where, M=Co ( 1), Ni ( 2), Cu ( 3), or Zn ( 4) have been synthesized by reacting the metal nitrates with 1,10-phenanthroline (phen) in presence of potassium bromide and iodine in a two phase procedure. The [Cu(phen)] coordination corresponds to tetragonally elongated octahedron while the other three are much more symmetrical. The pure Cu complex as well as other salts doped with Cu give hyperfine resolved EPR spectra in a wide temperature range showing dynamic Jahn-Teller distortion. The trihalide ion is nearly linear with bond distances in the range, I-I (2.786-2.833 Å) and I-Br (2.759-2.794 Å). Geometry optimization (DFT and MP2 methods) predicts a much more unsymmetrical 'gas phase' structure for IBr ion. Calculated Raman frequencies are in reasonable agreement with observed values. Electronic spectral results show that the integrity of the trihalide ion is retained in solution. Graphical Abstract: Three new isostructural compounds having the general formula [M(phen)](IBr) having nearly symmetrical IBr ion are synthesized and characterized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Workers in precious metals refineries are at risk of exposure to salt compounds of the platinum group metals through inhalation, as well as through the skin. Rhodium salt permeation through the skin has previously been proven using rhodium trichloride (RhCl3) dissolved in synthetic sweat at a pH of 6.5. However, the skin surface pH of refinery workers may be lower than 6.5. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of pH 6.5 and 4.5 on the in vitro permeation of rhodium through intact Caucasian skin using Franz diffusion cells. A concentration of 0.3 mg mL−1 rhodium was used and analyses were performed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. Results indicated a cumulative increase in permeation over 24 h. Rhodium permeation after 12 h was significantly greater at pH 4.5 (1.56 ± 0.24 ng cm−2) than at 6.5 (0.85 ± 0.13 ng cm−2; p = 0.02). At both pH levels, there was a highly significant difference (p < 0.01) between the mass of rhodium remaining in the skin (1428.68 ± 224.67 ng cm−2 at pH 4.5 and 1029.90 ± 115.96 ng cm−2 at pH 6.5) and the mass that diffused through (0.88 ± 0.17 ng cm−2 at pH 4.5 and 0.62 ± 0.10 ng cm−2 at pH 6.5). From these findings, it is evident that an acidic working environment or low skin surface pH may enhance permeation of rhodium salts, contributing to sensitization and adverse health effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Non-communicable disease (NCD) prevention strategies now prioritise four major risk factors: food, tobacco, alcohol and physical activity. Dietary salt intake remains much higher than recommended, increasing blood pressure, cardiovascular disease and stomach cancer. Substantial reductions in salt intake are therefore urgently needed. However, the debate continues about the most effective approaches. To inform future prevention programmes, we systematically reviewed the evidence on the effectiveness of possible salt reduction interventions. We further compared “downstream, agentic” approaches targeting individuals with “upstream, structural” policy-based population strategies. Methods: We searched six electronic databases (CDSR, CRD, MEDLINE, SCI, SCOPUS and the Campbell Library) using a pre-piloted search strategy focussing on the effectiveness of population interventions to reduce salt intake. Retrieved papers were independently screened, appraised and graded for quality by two researchers. To facilitate comparisons between the interventions, the extracted data were categorised using nine stages along the agentic/structural continuum, from “downstream”: dietary counselling (for individuals, worksites or communities), through media campaigns, nutrition labelling, voluntary and mandatory reformulation, to the most “upstream” regulatory and fiscal interventions, and comprehensive strategies involving multiple components. Results: After screening 2,526 candidate papers, 70 were included in this systematic review (49 empirical studies and 21 modelling studies). Some papers described several interventions. Quality was variable. Multi-component strategies involving both upstream and downstream interventions, generally achieved the biggest reductions in salt consumption across an entire population, most notably 4g/day in Finland and Japan, 3g/day in Turkey and 1.3g/day recently in the UK. Mandatory reformulation alone could achieve a reduction of approximately 1.45g/day (three separate studies), followed by voluntary reformulation (-0.8g/day), school interventions (-0.7g/day), short term dietary advice (-0.6g/day) and nutrition labelling (-0.4g/day), but each with a wide range. Tax and community based counselling could, each typically reduce salt intake by 0.3g/day, whilst even smaller population benefits were derived from health education media campaigns (-0.1g/day). Worksite interventions achieved an increase in intake (+0.5g/day), however, with a very wide range. Long term dietary advice could achieve a -2g/day reduction under optimal research trial conditions; however, smaller reductions might be anticipated in unselected individuals. Conclusions: Comprehensive strategies involving multiple components (reformulation, food labelling and media campaigns) and “upstream” population-wide policies such as mandatory reformulation generally appear to achieve larger reductions in population-wide salt consumption than “downstream”, individually focussed interventions. This ‘effectiveness hierarchy’ might deserve greater emphasis in future NCD prevention strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses impact of changing sodium landscape and focuses on the ecological role played by fungi in mediating effects of increasing or decreasing sodium levels in biomes and role played by sodium in physiology of fungi.

Indigenous legume crops are pivotal in providing proteins and food security to sub-Saharan African rural communities, but most of these crops are underutilized because of the so-called hard-to-cook (HTC) phenomenon in combination with inadequate processing techniques. This review studies the case of bambara groundnut, which is third in importance after groundnut and cowpea and especially adapted to semi-arid areas. Published data on the HTC phenomenon implicate microstructural and compositional changes as factors leading to its development. Useful and sustainable techniques to process HTC legumes in developing countries include cooking with alkaline salts, milling, roasting, fermentation, and malting. Improvement of these processing techniques in relation to nutrient bioaccessibility, safety, and consumer acceptance of the products is urgently needed. Recommendations are to lessen the problems of food security in sub-Saharan African countries through, amongst other means, the optimization of bambara groundnut processing methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of road deicing salts in regions that experience cold winters is increasing the salinity of freshwater ecosystems, which threatens freshwater resources. Yet, the impacts of environmentally relevant road salt concentrations on freshwater organisms are not well understood, particularly in stream ecosystems where salinization is most severe. We tested the impacts of deicing salts—sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ), and calcium chloride (CaCl 2 )—on the growth and development of newly hatched rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ). We exposed rainbow trout to a wide range of environmentally relevant chloride concentrations (25, 230, 860, 1500, and 3000 mg Cl − L −1 ) over an ecologically relevant time period (25 d). We found that the deicing salts studied had distinct effects. MgCl 2 did not affect rainbow trout growth at any concentration. NaCl had no effects at the lowest three concentrations, but rainbow trout length was reduced by 9% and mass by 27% at 3000 mg Cl − L −1 . CaCl 2 affected rainbow trout growth at 860 mg Cl − L −1 (5% reduced length; 16% reduced mass) and these effects became larger at higher concentrations (11% reduced length; 31% reduced mass). None of the deicing salts affected rainbow trout development. At sub-lethal and environmentally relevant concentrations, our results do not support the paradigm that MgCl 2 is the most toxic deicing salt to fish, perhaps due to hydration effects on the Mg 2+ cation. Our results do suggest different pathways for lethal and sub-lethal effects of road salts. Scaled to the population level, the reduced growth caused by NaCl and CaCl 2 at critical early-life stages has the potential to negatively affect salmonid recruitment and population dynamics. Our findings have implications for environmental policy and management strategies that aim to reduce the impacts of salinization on freshwater organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the numbers of chemical contaminants in freshwater ecosystems increase, it is important to understand whether contaminants interact in ecologically important ways. The present study investigated the independent and interactive effects of 2 contaminants that frequently co-occur in freshwater environments among higher latitudes, including a commonly applied insecticide (carbaryl) and road salt (NaCl). The hypothesis was that the addition of either contaminant would result in a decline in zooplankton, an algal bloom, and the subsequent decline of both periphyton and periphyton consumers. Another hypothesis was that combining the contaminants would result in synergistic effects on community responses. Outdoor mesocosms were used with communities that included phytoplankton, periphyton, zooplankton, amphipods, clams, snails, and tadpoles. Communities were exposed to 4 environmentally relevant concentrations of salt (27 mg Cl- L−1, 77 mg Cl- L−1, 277 mg Cl- L−1, and 727 mg Cl- L−1) fully crossed with 4 carbaryl treatments (ethanol, 0 µg L−1, 5 µg L−1, and 50 µg L−1) over 57 d. Contaminants induced declines in rotifer and cladoceran zooplankton, but only carbaryl induced an algal bloom. Consumers exhibited both positive and negative responses to contaminants, which were likely the result of both indirect community interactions and direct toxicity. In contrast to the hypothesis, no synergistic effects were found, although copepod densities declined when high concentrations of both chemicals were combined. The results suggest that low concentrations of salt and carbaryl are likely to have mostly independent effects on aquatic communities. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:771-779. © 2016 SETAC [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic and pulse increments of salinity can cause different consequences on the aquatic communities, and its effects are related to factors such as the magnitude, frequency and ionic composition, as well as on the baseline salt concentrations in the water. The aim of this study was to explore the responses of the biofilms from a nutrient-rich stream to both pulse and chronic additions of salt, along with their recovery after the stressor had been removed. For this purpose, a microcosm study was conducted exposing biofilms to water enriched with sodium chloride in two treatments (press and pulse), and comparing the changes in the biofilm with control microcosms without salt additions. The experiment lasted 72 h, and the variables measured included bacterial density, chlorophyll- a concentration, community composition, total carbohydrate content, oxygen consumption and the percentage of nuclear alterations in diatoms. Both treatments resulted in a decrease in the bacterial density of the biofilm and in oxygen consumption; the chronic treatment in particular also caused an increased percentage of nuclear abnormalities in the diatom assemblage. The biofilm recovered to control levels after the treatments had been discontinued for 72 h. We concluded that the biofilms can be altered significantly under both chronic and pulse additions of salt even after a short-term exposure, and that the community can recover if the stressor is withdrawn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the variety and potential toxicity of synthetic cathinones, clinicians and educators would benefit from information about patterns of and motivations for use, frequency of psychosocial consequences, and experience of acute subjective effects. We administered a comprehensive, web-based survey to 104 recreational users of synthetic cathinones. Sixty percent of respondents consumed synthetic cathinones once or more per month, usually snorting or swallowing these drugs, typically at home, usually with others, customarily during the evening and nighttime hours, and often in combination with another drug such as alcohol or marijuana. Acute subjective effects attributed to synthetic cathinones were similar to those of other psychostimulants, including increased energy, rapid heartbeat, racing thoughts, difficulty sleeping, euphoria, decreased appetite, open-mindedness, and increased sex drive. Reported reasons for using synthetic cathinones included its stimulating effects, curiosity, substitution for another drug, and being at a party/music event. Respondents had experienced an average of six negative consequences of using synthetic cathinones during the previous year (e.g., tolerance, neglecting responsibilities, personality change). In combination with previously published investigations, these findings increase our understanding of the reported rationales and outcomes of recreational use of synthetic cathinones. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Key points Recent studies have shown that high salt (HS) intake leads to endothelial dysfunction and impaired vascular reactivity in different vascular beds in both animal and human models, due to increased oxidative stress., The objective of this study was to assess vascular response to flow-induced dilatation (FID) and to elucidate the role of vascular oxidative stress/antioxidative capacity in middle cerebral arteries (MCAs) of HS-fed rats in vitro., The novelty of this study is in demonstrating impaired flow-induced dilatation of MCAs and down-regulation of vascular antioxidant genes with HS intake, leading to increased levels of oxidative stress in blood vessels and peripheral lymph organs, which together contribute to impaired FID., In addition, results show increased oxidative stress in leukocytes of peripheral lymph organs, suggesting the occurrence of inflammatory processes due to HS intake., Recirculation of leukocytes might additionally increase vascular oxidative stress in vivo., Abstract The aim of this study was to determine flow-induced dilatation (FID) and the role of oxidative stress/antioxidative capacity in isolated, pressurized middle cerebral arteries (MCAs) of high salt (HS)-fed rats. Healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats (11 weeks old) were fed low salt (0.4% NaCl; LS group) or high salt (4% NaCl; HS group) diets for 1 week. Reactivity of MCAs in response to stepwise increases in pressure gradient (Δ10-Δ100 mmHg) was determined in the absence or presence of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetic TEMPOL and/or the nitric oxide synthases (NOS) inhibitor Nω-nitro- l-arginine methyl ester ( l-NAME). mRNA levels of antioxidative enzymes, NAPDH-oxidase components, inducible (iNOS) and endothelial nitric oxide synthases (eNOS) were determined by quantitative real-time PCR. Blood pressure (BP), antioxidant enzymes activity, oxidative stress in peripheral leukocytes, lipid peroxidation products and the antioxidant capacity of plasma were measured for both groups. FID was reduced in the HS group compared to the LS group. The presence of TEMPOL restored dilatation in the HS group, with no effect in the LS group. Expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) and iNOS in the HS group was significantly decreased; oxidative stress was significantly higher in the HS group compared to the LS group. HS intake significantly induced basal reactive oxygen species production in the leukocytes of mesenteric lymph nodes and splenocytes, and intracellular production after stimulation in peripheral lymph nodes. Antioxidant enzyme activity and BP were not affected by HS diet. Low GPx4 expression, increased superoxide production in leukocytes, and decreased iNOS expression are likely to underlie increased oxidative stress and reduced nitric oxide bioavailability, leading to impairment of FID in the HS group without changes in BP values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A reduction in salt intake reduces blood pressure, stroke and other cardiovascular events, including chronic kidney disease, by as much as 23% (i.e. 1.25 million deaths worldwide). It is effective in both genders, any age, ethnic group, and in high-, medium- and low-income countries. Population salt reduction programmes are both feasible and effective (preventive imperative). Salt reduction programmes are cost-saving in all settings (high-, middle- and low-income countries) (economic imperative). Public health policies are powerful, rapid, equitable and cost-saving (political imperative). The important shift in public health has not occurred without obstinate opposition from organizations concerned primarily with the profits deriving from population high salt intake and less with public health benefits. A key component of the denial strategy is misinformation (with 'pseudo' controversies). In general, poor science has been used to create uncertainty and to support inaction. This paper summarizes the evidence in favour of a global salt reduction strategy and analyses the peddling of well-worn myths behind the false controversies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routine handling procedures used in the management of a flock are not generally regarded as stressful and have not been extensively researched. The aim of this study was to determine the serum cortisol concentration after routine handling procedures, viz. handling, heat exposure, food deprivation and water deprivation as well as the cumulative effect of these potential stressors in South African indigenous goats. The results indicated that goats subjected to typical routine handling procedures such as oral drenching and subcutaneous vaccination had significantly higher serum cortisol concentration than the basal levels and can be considered as acute stressors. Stressors that did not involve handling, such as heat exposure, food and water deprivation did not elicit cortisol levels significantly higher than the basal level in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Isothiouronium salts are well known in their variety of antimicrobials activities. The use of polymeric biocides, polymers with antimicrobial activities, is expected to enhance the efficacy of some existing antimicrobial agents, thus minimizing the environmental problems accompanying conventional antimicrobials. Methods: The current manuscript describes the synthesis and characterization of crosslinked polyisothiouronium methylstyrene (PITMS) nanoparticles (NPs) of narrow size distribution by dispersion co-polymerization of the monomer isothiouronium methylstyrene with the crosslinking monomer ethylene glycol dimetacrylate. Results and discussion: The effect of total monomer, crosslinker and initiator concentrations on the size and size distribution of the formed NPs was also elucidated. The bactericidal activity of PITMS NPs of 67 ± 8 nm diameter was illustrated for 4 bacterial pathogens: Listeria innocua, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. In order to demonstrate the potential of these PITMS NPs as inhibitor of biofilm formation, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films were thin-coated with the PITMS NPs. The formed PET/PITMS films reduced the viability of the biofilm of Listeria by 2 orders of magnitude, making the coatings excellent candidates for further development of non-fouling surfaces. In addition, PITMS NP coatings were found to be non-toxic in HaCaT cells. Conclusions: The high antibacterial activity and effective inhibition of bacterial adsorption indicate the potential of these nanoparticles for development of new types of antibacterial and antibiofilm additives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the avoidance behaviour of the earthworm Eisenia fetida towards Cd, Cu, and Zn, trace elements (TEs) tested as chloride, nitrate and sulphate salts. Sub adults were exposed individually using dual-cell chambers at 20 + 2 °C in the dark. Recordings were realised at different dates from 2 h to 32 h. We used filter paper and extruded water agar gel as exposure media to evaluate the contribution of the dermal and the digestive exposure routes on the avoidance reactions. Exposures to Cu or Cd (10 mg metal ion L −1 ) resulted in highly significant avoidance reactions through the exposure duration. Worms avoided Zn poorly and reactions towards Zn salts varied along the exposure. Worm sensitivity towards TEs differed between salts and this could result from differential toxicity or accessibility of these TE salts to earthworms. The anion in itself was not the determinant of the avoidance reactions since exposures to similar concentrations of these anions using calcium salts did not result in significant avoidance worm behaviour. Avoidance responses towards TEs were higher in the case of water agar exposures than in filter paper exposures. Thus, dermal contacts with TE solutions would elicit worm avoidance but signals from receptors located inside the digestive tract could reinforce this behaviour. The use of extruded water agar gels as the substrate allows checking the real sensitivity of earthworm species towards TEs since the TE concentrations leading to significant avoidance reactions were below those reported in the literature when using TE-spiked soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High salt intake contributes to the development of autoimmune/inflammatory diseases, while potassium supplementation antagonizes the effects. Interleukin (IL)-17A are tightly related with autoimmune/inflammatory diseases. Thus, we explored the effects and underlying molecular mechanism of high salt and potassium supplementation on IL-17A production in T lymphocytes. Forty-nine healthy participants received a low-salt, high-salt, followed by a high-salt diet plus potassium supplement for 7 days, respectively. Human T lymphocyte Jurkat cells were treated with different concentrations of NaCl and KCl. In the participants, IL-17A levels in plasma and in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were significantly increased after a high-salt diet, which was dramatically reversed when potassium was supplemented. In Jurkat cells, the addition of 40 mM NaCl markedly enhanced IL-17A production and the expression of phosphorylated p38/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and its downstream target, serum/glucocorticoid-regulated kinase (SGK)1, whereas combined treatment with additional 2 mM KCl significantly decreased them. Respective inhibition of p38/MAPK and SGK1 suppressed IL-17A expression induced by NaCl, and KCl inhibited IL-17A production induced by specific activator of p38/MAPK. We conclude potassium supplementation has a blocking effect on IL-17A production in T lymphocytes induced by salt loading. This protective effect is mediated through the direct suppression of p38/MAPK-SGK1 pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil salinization is a growing threat to global agriculture and carbon sequestration, but to date it remains unclear how microbial processes will respond. We studied the acute response to salt exposure of a range of anabolic and catabolic microbial processes, including bacterial (leucine incorporation) and fungal (acetate incorporation into ergosterol) growth rates, respiration, and gross N mineralization and nitrification rates. To distinguish effects of specific ions from those of overall ionic strength, we compared the addition of four salts frequently associated with soil salinization (NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, and K2SO4) to a nonsaline soil. To compare the tolerance of different microbial processes to salt and to interrelate the toxicity of different salts, concentrationresponse relationships were established. Growth-based measurements revealed that fungi were more resistant to salt exposure than bacteria. Effects by salt on C and N mineralization were indistinguishable, and in contrast to previous studies, nitrification was not found to be more sensitive to salt exposure than other microbial processes. The ion-specific toxicity of certain salts could be observed only for respiration, which was less inhibited by salts containing SO42- than Cl- salts, in contrast to the microbial growth assessments. This suggested that the inhibition of microbial growth was explained solely by total ionic strength, while ion-specific toxicity also should be considered for effects on microbial decomposition. This difference resulted in an apparent reduction of microbial growth efficiency in response to exposure to SO42- salts but not to Cl- salts; no evidence was found to distinguish K+ and Na+ salts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of osmoprotectants on the high salinity anaerobic digestion in engineering and microbial aspects with a special focus on syntrophic microbial populations. The experimental results indicated that glycine betaine (GB) exerted some differentiated influences on anaerobic syntrophic microbial populations at high salinity conditions. It was found that glycine betaine was beneficial for acetic acid producers, aceticlastic methanogens, n-butyrate utilizers, and comparatively not so effective for the propionate producers and utilizers. Moreover, although the addition of GB in advance could not prevent the imbalance of anaerobic process caused by the high salt shock, it was helpful for the anaerobes to recover the methanogenic activity following salt inhibition. Repeated feeding experimental results indicated that the osmoprotectant played a prolonged positive role on high saline anaerobic digestion, which was proved to be closely related to the extracellular osmoprotectants. These findings could provide a deep insight on the microbiological aspect on osmoprotectants enhancing anaerobic digestion, and some operating strategies could be developed based on it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Salt intake is recognized as an important risk factor for hypertension in the general population. On the other hand, the availability of various classes of antihypertensive drugs means that it is generally not considered crucial to control the salt intake of hypertensive patients. In this study, we evaluated whether blood pressure (BP) was correlated with 24-hour salt intake in patients receiving antihypertensive therapy. Methods A total of 1496 consecutive participants undergoing health screening examinations were recruited. Subjects were divided into two groups according to their antihypertensive medications checked on prescriptions: 1005 subjects without antihypertensive therapy (untreated subjects) and 491 subjects with antihypertensive therapy (treated subjects). The 24-hour urinary sodium excretion (24 h-uNa), a surrogate marker for daily salt intake, was estimated with the formula proposed by Tanaka et al. in 2002. Results Univariate analysis indicated that 24 h-uNa was positively correlated with the systolic BP of both untreated and treated subjects. This was confirmed by multiple linear regression analysis after adjustment for confounding factors (untreated subjects: partial regression coefficient β = 1.45 ± 0.26, p < 0.001; treated subjects: β = 0.75 ± 0.27, p = 0.01). Salt intake was also correlated with the pulse pressure in both treated subjects (β = 0.55 ± 0.24, p = 0.02) and untreated subjects (β = 0.93 ± 0.19, p < 0.001). Conclusion These results suggest the importance of reducing salt intake in hypertensive patients on pharmacotherapy, as well as in the general population. Further studies of hypertensive patients employing 24-h urine collection are warranted to confirm the present findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several broiler commercial farms were affected with different overdoses of sodium chloride in their feed. Within a period of about one month about six commercial broiler farms and one breeding farm, all from the southern part of Israel were affected. The clinical picture ranged from increased water consumption and wet litter without any mortality to houses with 20% mortality and severe clinical and pathological findings typical of sodium intoxication. The most affected broiler flocks suffered from increased mortality of chicks from 5 days of age with many chicks appearing on their backs paddling and showing difficulty in standing, severe respiratory distress, apathy and some neurological signs suggesting brain involvement such as lack of coordination and opistotonous. Pathological findings included severe subcutaneous edema, accumulation of clear fluid in the pericardium, ascites and enlarged kidneys. Mortality reached in the most affected flocks was more than 20% within 7 days. The breeding flocks affected by salt overdose did not show any mortality or clinical signs, but suffered from increased water consumption and wet litter and a drop in egg production of up to 8%. Post mortem examination in these flocks revealed enlarged swollen kidneys. Salt or sodium intoxication in poultry is an exceptional situation in the modern poultry industry. In this report we describe the clinical and pathological findings of feed related salt/sodium intoxication at different concentrations and at different ages in broilers and breeders due to technical problems in production at the feed mill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study elucidated the effect of NaCl on the thermal resistance and cell morphology of Escherichia coli strains. E. coli O157:H7 NCCP11142, E. coli O111 ATCC12795 and E. coli O26 ATCC43887 were incubated in tryptic soy broth formulated with 0% NaCl (nonhabituated) as well as broth formulated with 2% and 4% NaCl (NaCl-habituated) at 35C. Nonhabituated, 2% NaCl-habituated and 4% NaCl-habituated E. coli O157:H7, E. coli O111 and E. coli O26 were heat-challenged at 50C. The transcriptomes (osmotic stress-related: betA, ompC, proV, proW and heat stress-related: clpB, dksA, dnaJ, dnaK, grpE, msbB, rpoE) were analyzed using real-time polymerase chain reaction and the morphology of E. coli strains was also observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy. The survival of E. coli O157:H7 was higher ( P < 0.05) than those of other strains after the heat challenge. The expression levels of proV, proW and rpoE increased ( P < 0.05) as NaCl concentration increased, but only proV expression levels were significantly different ( P < 0.05) among E. coli strains. The results indicate that the effect of NaCl on the thermal resistance and the cell morphology depends on the E. coli strain, and increased proV expression level by NaCl may cause the increased thermal resistance of E. coli O157:H7. Practical Applications NaCl is widely used as an antimicrobial and a preservative agent in food processing. However, Escherichia coli O157:H7 exposed to 2% and 4% NaCl showed thermal resistance, upregulated gene expression on osmotic- and heat-related genes and changed cell morphology. Thus, NaCl concentration should be limited in food not to increase E. coli O157:H7 tolerance to other stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biogenesis of the Gram-negative outer membrane involves the chaperone seventeen kilodalton protein (Skp). A Skp trimer is currently thought to bind its unfolded outer membrane protein (uOMP) substrates. Using sedimentation equilibrium, we discovered that Skp is not an obligate trimer under physiological conditions and that Na+, Cl-, Mg2+, and PO43- ions are not linked to Skp trimerization. These findings suggest that electrostatics play a negligible role in Skp assembly. Our results demonstrate that Skp monomers are populated at biologically relevant concentrations, which raises the idea that kinetic formation of Skp-uOMP complexes likely involves Skp monomer assembly around its substrate. In addition, van't Hoff analysis of Skp self-association does not support a previously proposed coupled folding and trimerization of Skp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to investigate trends in the awareness of salt restriction and actual salt intake in hypertensive patients at a hypertension clinic and general clinic following guidance regarding salt restriction. Subjects comprised 107 patients (mean age 71 ± 12 years) who were followed at a hypertension clinic and 164 patients (mean age 68 ± 11 years) who were followed at a general clinic. Estimated salt intake using spot urine samples and awareness of salt intake using a self-description questionnaire were assessed in 2013 and one year after guidance regarding salt restriction. No significant changes were observed in office blood pressure at the two clinics. Estimated salt intake in 2013 was slightly lower at the hypertension clinic than at the general clinic (8.9 ± 2.5 vs 9.3 ± 2.5 g/day). Estimated salt intake decreased and the awareness of salt intake improved significantly after one year at both clinics; however, the reduction in estimated salt intake was larger at the general clinic than that at the hypertension clinic (−1.6 ± 3.2 vs −0.6 ± 2.9 g/day,p < 0.01). Individual guidance including data on actual salt intake appeared to be effective and important for reducing salt intake in hypertensive patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dietary sodium content is considered as a major contributor to hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Mozzarella cheese contains high amount of sodium, and addition of emulsifying salts (ESs) to the manufacture of processed cheese further adds to the overall sodium content. The present investigation envisaged the manufacture of low-sodium processed Mozzarella cheese by partial replacement of sodium chloride with potassium chloride (KCl) and also by using potassium-based emulsifying salts, i.e., potassium citrate and di-potassium phosphate, in place of sodium-containing salts. Desired level of potassium chloride and potassium-based emulsifying salt was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Sensory attributes, instrumental hardness, meltability, and stretchability were kept as responses of the design. The study returned 30.96% of KCl and 2% of emulsifying salt to be optimum, and at these levels, the product had maximum sensory scores. Hardness, meltability, and stretchability of the product were reported to be 14.355 N, 21.68 cm and 15.07 cm, respectively. Further, the study was validated by manufacturing the product using optimized levels of ESs and KCl and comparing the actual responses with the responses predicted by RSM. No significant difference ( p > 0.05) between actual and predicted values validated the results of RSM. Full-sodium and low-sodium cheeses had 905 mg/100 g and 260 mg/100 g sodium, respectively. Thus, the study resulted in 71.27% reduction in overall sodium content of processed Mozzarella cheese. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most osmotolerant food-borne pathogens. While its growth is repressed by competing bacteria, the organism exhibits a growth advantage at increased salt concentrations. Staphylococcal enterotoxin D leads to vomiting and diarrhea upon ingestion. To date, the effect of NaCl on both sed expression and its regulatory control are unclear. We determined the impact of NaCl stress on sed expression and the influence of agr, sarA and sigB on sed expression under NaCl stress. The temporal expression of sed in LB and LB with 4.5% NaCl was compared, as well as sed expression of wild-type (wt) strains and isogenic agr, sarA and sigB mutants. In general, NaCl stress led to decreased sed expression. However, one strain exhibited a trend towards increased sed expression under NaCl stress. No significant effect of agr on sed expression was detected and only one sigB mutant showed a significant decrease in sed expression in the early stationary phase under NaCl stress. One sarA mutant showed decreased sed expression in the early stationary and another increased sed expression in the stationary growth phase under NaCl stress. These findings suggest high strain-specific variation in sed expression and its regulation under NaCl stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies have explored environmental factors that drive the distributions of anuran larvae. However, the causal links between physical or chemical factors and tadpole distributions often remain untested. The Río Salado is an intermittent, naturally saline river in Puebla, Mexico, that is increasingly being impacted by removal of water for commercial salt production. Using tadpoles of Exerodonta xera (Hylidae; Puebla Treefrog) and Incilius occidentalis (Bufonidae; Pine Toad), we experimentally examined the hypothesis that the distribution of tadpoles along the Río Salado results from the effects of salinity on tadpole survivorship, growth, and metamorphosis. We also examined the effect of tadpole density and the interaction of tadpole density and salinity, because pool size likely affects tadpole density. Increased salinity did not affect survivorship in I. occidentalis but reduced survivorship in E. xera by approximately 20% at both 0.4 parts per thousand (ppt) (0.4 g L−1) and 0.8 ppt (0.8 g L−1). Higher salinities delayed metamorphosis by up to 9 wk in E. xera and by 3 or 4 d in I. occidentalis. Tadpole density had a nonlinear effect on survivorship in E. xera, and higher densities delayed metamorphosis in I. occidentalis. There were no significant interactions between salinity and tadpole density in either species. Our results suggest that even though they can be found in pools averaging 0.8 ppt, tadpoles may not emerge from such pools because of delayed metamorphosis at salinities around 0.8 ppt. Decreasing pool volume and increasing tadpole density may further delay emergence of I. occidentalis. The removal of water from the Río Salado to produce salt may threaten amphibians that use the river for breeding. Numerosos estudios han examinado los factores ambientales que influyen en la distribución de renacuajos; sin embargo, los vínculos entre factores físicos o químicos y la distribución de renacuajos frecuentemente permanecen sin probarse. El Río Salado es un río salino localizado en Puebla, México que está siendo muy impactado por la extracción de agua para la producción comercial de sal. Utilizando renacuajos de Exerodonta xera e Incilius occidentalis, experimentalmente examinamos la hipótesis que la distribución de los renacuajos a lo largo del Río Salado es el resultado de los efectos de la salinidad sobre la sobrevivencia, crecimiento y metamorfosis de los renacuajos. También examinamos el efecto de la densidad de renacuajo y la interacción de la densidad de renacuajos y la salinidad, ya que el tamaño de las pozas probablemente afecta la densidad de los renacuajos. El incremento de la salinidad no afecto la supervivencia de I. occidentalis pero redujo la sobrevivencia de E. xera en aproximadamente 20% tanto en tratamientos de 0.4 como de 0.8 partes por mil (ppm). Salinidades más altas retrasaron la metamorfosis hasta por nueve semanas en E. xera y por tres o cuatro días en I. occidentalis. La densidad de renacuajos tuvo un efecto no lineal sobre la supervivencia en E. xera y las densidades más altas retrasaron la metamorfosis en I. occidentalis. No hubo interacciones significativas entre la salinidad y densidad de renacuajos en ninguna de las dos especies. Nuestros resultados sugieren que aunque estas especies pueden ocupar pozas con un promedio de 0.8 ppm, los renacuajos podrían no salir de estas pozas que se están secando debido al retraso en la metamorfosis en salinidades de alrededor 0.8 ppm. Disminuyendo el volumen de las pozas e incrementando la densidad de los renacuajos puede retrasar la transformación de renacuajos de I. occidentalis. La extracción de agua del Río Salado para producir sal puede amenazar la habilidad de los anfibios que utilizan el Río Salado para reproducirse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past years, massive progress has been made in the ability to collect large-scale gene expression data from a limited sample size. Combined with improvements in multiplex flow cytometry-based techniques, this has made it possible to isolate and characterize specific cellular subtypes within heterogeneous populations, with a great impact on our understanding of different biological processes. However, sorting based on intracellular markers requires fixation and permeabilization of samples, and very often the integrity of RNA molecules is compromised during this process. Many attempts have been made to improve the quality of nucleic acids from such samples, but RNA degradation still remains a limiting factor for downstream analyses. Here we present a method to isolate high quality RNA from cells that have been fixed, permeabilized, intracellularly labeled and sorted. By performing all incubation steps in the presence of a high salt buffer, RNA degradation was avoided and samples with remarkable integrity were obtained. This procedure offers a straightforward and very affordable technique to retrieve high quality RNA from isolated cell populations, which increases the possibilities to characterize gene expression profiles of subpopulations from mixed samples, a technique with implications in a broad range of research fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Aims: To investigate the change of intrarenal renin-agiotensin system (RAS) and its role in high-salt induced hypertension. Methods: Wistar rats were divided into normal-salt (NS), high-salt diet (HS) and high-salt diet with Losartan group (HS+L), for 6 weeks. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was monitored. Blood and urine samples were collected every 2 weeks. Angiotensinogen (AGT) was measured by ELISA. AGT mRNA and protein were measured by real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Renin activity and angiotensin II (Ang II) were measured by radioimmunoassay. Results: HS versus NS group, SBP increased from 2nd week (P<0.05), urinary protein increased at 6th week (P<0.05). Although plasma renin, AGT and Ang II had no significant changes (P>0.05), renal cortex renin, AGT, and Ang II increased significantly in HS (P<0.05). In HS+L, Losartan failed to reduce SBP (P>0.05) but abolished the increase of proteinuria (P<0.01), renal cortex renin, AGT, Ang II and urinary AGT reduced (P<0.05) while plasma renin, AGT and Ang II enhanced (P<0.05) when compared with HS. Urinary AGT was positively correlated with renal AGT (r=0.592, P <0.01) and Ang II (r=0.726, P <0.01). Conclusion: Inappropriate response of the renal RAS to a high salt diet may contribute to hypertension and renal damage, and urinary AGT could reflect intrarenal RAS activity. © 2014 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. It seems reasonable to develop a scientifically grounded manufacturing technology of whole-muscle products manufacturing that would provide an alternative to traditional technologies along with stability of quality indicators from raw materials with different biochemical properties. Materials and methods. The pH of salted beef filtrate was determined by potentiometer-340 (pH meter) and the moisture content was obtained by drying the sample in an oven at a temperature of 103 - 105 °C to achieving the constant samples weight. The content of nitric oxide pigments was determined on a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 540 nm relative to 80% aqueous solution of acetone, the residual amount of nitrite - by obtaining the colored solution due to the formation of isotopic color pigments, the specific shearing strength was determined with the help a installation MP-3, the value of moisture-retaining capacity (MRC) - using milk eleometer. Results and discussion. The use of multi-functional brine colloidal systems (MFBCS) significantly affects the improvement the basic functional and technological properties of raw materials and finished products quality indicators. The elaboration of a wholemuscle beef products processing technology with the usage of multifunctional brine colloidal systems MFBCS was proved experimentally, precise calculations of the required quantity of brine were carried out and the corning schedules of various raw materials were determined. Massaging in the machine with 8 revolutions per minute mode: 15 minutes operation, 15 minutes break. The round and chuck parts of beef side treatment duration is 16 hours for NOR beef and 18 hours for DFD beef with the following ageing at a terms of maturation +4 °C for 8 hours; neck and clod as well as loin strip - 14 hours for NOR beef and 16 hours for DFD beef with the following ageing at a terms of maturation +4 °C for 10 hours; for sirloin and rib muscles - 9 hours for NOR beef and 10-11 hours for DFD beef with the following ageing at a terms of maturation +4 °C for 12 hours. Efficiency of MFBCS implementation for the injections in 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% quantity shows the yield for DFD beef -104,8%; 123,9%; 143,7%; 162,5% and for NOR beef -102,6%; 123,5%; 142,9%; 161,7% respectively. The nitrate salt treatment in brine compositions reduces the permissible content of residual nitrite that is, mg/100g: for DFD beef is 2,34 - 2,91, and for NOR beef is 2,24 - 2,78. Conclusions. The results are basis of the technology of new types of whole-muscle smoked and cooked beef products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Selectfluor reacts with N-chloromethylated DABCO monocation BF 4 or NTf 2 salts in MeCN (rt to 80 °C) to give symmetrical [N−H−N] + trication salts. The same dimeric adducts are formed via the reaction of Selectfluor with Et 3 N, piperidine, or a basic-IL (imidazolium with an alkyl-piperidine tether). The resulting stable salts were studied by multinuclear NMR, 15 N/ 1 H HMBC, electrospray-MS, and by chemical reactivity. This hitherto unreported reactivity behavior contrasts the well documented ‘transfer fluorination’ by Selectfluor to quinuclidine and the quinuclidinic nitrogen of cinchona alkaloids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The afferent arteriole (Af-Art) controls glomerular capillary pressure, an important determinant of glomerular injury. Af-Art myogenic response is mediated by ATP, and ATP signaling is in turn mediated by 20-HETE. Dahl saltsensitive rats (Dahl SS) have decreased renal 20-HETE production. We hypothesized that Dahl SS have an impaired myogenic response and constrictor response to ATP, due to decreased 20-HETE. Af-Arts from Dahl SS or Dahl salt-resistant rats (Dahl SR) were microdissected and perfused. When myogenic response was induced by increasing Af-Art perfusion pressure from 60 to 140 mmHg, luminal Af-Art diameter decreased in Dahl SR but not in Dahl SS ( - 3 . 1 ± 0.8 vs. 0.5 ± 0.8 µm, P < 0.01). The 20-HETE antagonist 20-HEDE ( 1 0 - 6 M) blocked the myogenic response in Dahl SR but had no effect in Dahl SS. Addition of a subconstrictor concentration of 20-HETE (but not a subconstrictor concentration of norepinephrine) restored the myogenic response in Dahl SS. We then perfused Af-Arts at 60 mmHg and tested the effects of the ATP analog α,β-methylene-ATP ( 1 0 - 6 M). Maximum ATP-induced constriction was attenuated in Dahl SS compared with Dahl SR (1.5 ± 0.5 vs. 7.4 ± 0.8 µm, P < 0.001). 20-HEDE attenuated ATP-induced Af-Art constriction in Dahl SR but not in Dahl SS, and consequently, ATP-induced constriction was no longer different between strains. In conclusion, Dahl SS have an impaired myogenic response and ATP-induced Af-Art constriction due to a decrease in Af-Art 20-HETE. The impaired myogenic responses may contribute to the nephrosclerosis that develops in Dahl SS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]