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This manuscript summarizes the capabilities of the new DIAD beamline for dual imaging and diffraction (DIAD) at Diamond Light Source, dedicated to quasi-simultaneous, time-resolved imaging/tomography and powder diffraction for 3D microstructure and phase identification/strain analysis studies., The Dual Imaging and Diffraction (DIAD) beamline at Diamond Light Source is a new dual-beam instrument for full-field imaging/tomography and powder diffraction. This instrument provides the user community with the capability to dynamically image 2D and 3D complex structures and perform phase identification and/or strain mapping using micro-diffraction. The aim is to enable in situ and in operando experiments that require spatially correlated results from both techniques, by providing measurements from the same specimen location quasi-simultaneously. Using an unusual optical layout, DIAD has two independent beams originating from one source that operate in the medium energy range (7–38 keV) and are combined at one sample position. Here, either radiography or tomography can be performed using monochromatic or pink beam, with a 1.4 mm × 1.2 mm field of view and a feature resolution of 1.2 µm. Micro-diffraction is possible with a variable beam size between 13 µm × 4 µm and 50 µm × 50 µm. One key functionality of the beamline is image-guided diffraction, a setup in which the micro-diffraction beam can be scanned over the complete area of the imaging field-of-view. This moving beam setup enables the collection of location-specific information about the phase composition and/or strains at any given position within the image/tomography field of view. The dual beam design allows fast switching between imaging and diffraction mode without the need of complicated and time-consuming mode switches. Real-time selection of areas of interest for diffraction measurements as well as the simultaneous collection of both imaging and diffraction data of (irreversible) in situ and in operando experiments are possible.

Multi-scale structural assessment of biological soft tissue is challenging but essential to gain insight into structure-function relationships of tissue/organ. Using the human placenta as an example, this study brings together sophisticated sample preparation protocols, advanced imaging, and robust, validated machine-learning segmentation techniques to provide the first massively multi-scale and multi-domain information that enables detailed morphological and functional analyses of both maternal and fetal placental domains. Finally, we quantify the scale-dependent error in morphological metrics of heterogeneous placental tissue, estimating the minimal tissue scale needed in extracting meaningful biological data. The developed protocol is beneficial for high-throughput investigation of structure-function relationships in both normal and diseased placentas, allowing us to optimise therapeutic approaches for pathological pregnancies. In addition, the methodology presented is applicable in characterisation of tissue architecture and physiological behaviours of other complex organs with similarity to the placenta, where an exchange barrier possesses circulating vascular and avascular fluid spaces. Summary Using the human placenta as an example, this study brings together sophisticated sample preparation protocols, advanced 3D X-ray imaging, and robust, validated machine-learning segmentation techniques to provide massively multi-scale and multi-domain insights on vascular-rich organ morphology and function.

In prostate cancer, two different types of histone lysine demethylases (KDM), LSD1/KDM1 and JMJD2/KDM4, are co-expressed and co-localize with the androgen receptor. We designed and synthesized hybrid LSD1/JmjC - "pan-KDM" - inhibitors 1-6, by coupling the skeleton of tranylcypromine 7, a known LSD1 inhibitor, with 4-carboxy-4'-carbomethoxy-2,2'-bipyridine 8 or 5-carboxy-8-hydroxyquinoline 9, two 2-oxoglutarate competitive templates developed for JmjC inhibition. Hybrid compounds 1-6 are able to simultaneously target both KDM families, and have been validated as potential antitumor agents in cells. Among them, compounds 2 and 3 increase H3K4 and H3K9 methylation levels in cells and cause growth arrest and substantial apoptosis in LNCaP prostate and HCT116 colon cancer cells. When tested in non-cancer mesenchymal progenitor (MePR) cells, 2 and 3 induced little and no apoptosis, respectively, thus showing a cancer-selective inhibiting action.

Covalent modifications to histones play important roles in chromatin dynamics and the regulation of gene expression. The JumonjiC (JmjC)-containing histone demethylases (HDMs) catalyze the demethylation of methylated lysine residues on histone tails. Here we report the development of homogeneous luminescence-based assay methods for measuring the catalytic activity and the binding affinities of peptides to HDMs. The assays use amplified luminescent proximity homogeneous assay (ALPHA) technology, are sensitive and robust, and can be used for small molecule inhibitor screening of HDMs. We have profiled known inhibitors of JMJD2E and demonstrate a correlation between the inhibitor potencies determined by the ALPHA and other types of assays. Although this study focuses on the JMJD2E isoform, the catalytic turnover and binding assays described here can be used in studies on other HDMs. The assays should be useful for the development of small molecule inhibitors selective for HDM isoforms.

2-Oxoglutarate and iron dependent oxygenases are therapeutic targets for human diseases. Using a representative 2OG oxygenase panel, we compare the inhibitory activities of 5-carboxy-8-hydroxyquinoline (IOX1) and 4-carboxy-8-hydroxyquinoline (4C8HQ) with that of two other commonly used 2OG oxygenase inhibitors, N-oxalylglycine (NOG) and 2,4-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (2,4-PDCA). The results reveal that IOX1 has a broad spectrum of activity, as demonstrated by the inhibition of transcription factor hydroxylases, representatives of all 2OG dependent histone demethylase subfamilies, nucleic acid demethylases and γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase. Cellular assays show that, unlike NOG and 2,4-PDCA, IOX1 is active against both cytosolic and nuclear 2OG oxygenases without ester derivatisation. Unexpectedly, crystallographic studies on these oxygenases demonstrate that IOX1, but not 4C8HQ, can cause translocation of the active site metal, revealing a rare example of protein ligand-induced metal movement. © 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry.

2-Oxoglutarate (2OG) dependent oxygenases are ubiquitous iron enzymes that couple substrate oxidation to the conversion of 2OG to succinate and carbon dioxide. In humans their roles include collagen biosynthesis, fatty acid metabolism, DNA repair, RNA and chromatin modifications, and hypoxic sensing. Commercial applications of 2OG oxygenase inhibitors began with plant growth retardants, and now extend to a clinically used pharmaceutical compound for cardioprotection. Several 2OG oxygenases are now being targeted for therapeutic intervention for diseases including anaemia, inflammation and cancer. In this critical review, we describe studies on the inhibition of 2OG oxygenases, focusing on small molecules, and discuss the potential of 2OG oxygenases as therapeutic targets (295 references).

2-Oxoglutarate (2OG) dependent oxygenases are ubiquitous iron enzymes that couple substrate oxidation to the conversion of 2OG to succinate and carbon dioxide. In humans their roles include collagen biosynthesis, fatty acid metabolism, DNA repair, RNA and chromatin modifications, and hypoxic sensing. Commercial applications of 2OG oxygenase inhibitors began with plant growth retardants, and now extend to a clinically used pharmaceutical compound for cardioprotection. Several 2OG oxygenases are now being targeted for therapeutic intervention for diseases including anaemia, inflammation and cancer. In this critical review, we describe studies on the inhibition of 2OG oxygenases, focusing on small molecules, and discuss the potential of 2OG oxygenases as therapeutic targets (295 references).

In eukaryotes, nuclear DNA is packaged into chromatin by binding to histones and associated factors. Covalent modifications to histone tails are associated with specific transcriptional states of the associated DNA. Acetylation of lysine side chains normally correlates with transcriptional activation, while deacetylation leads to transcriptional silencing. The regulatory roles of lysine and arginine methylation appear to be more complex. Methylation of certain lysine residues is associated with active transcription, while methylation of others is associated with silencing and heterochromatin formation. Each methylation marker is placed, removed and interpreted in a site-specific manner by histone methyltransferases, demethylases and methyl binding domains, respectively. The biological functions of the individual enzymes are largely undefined and are the focus of current investigations (for Reviews see References [1, 2]) The JmjC histone demethylases are 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent oxygenases that catalyse N-lysyl demethylation via hydroxylation of the methyl group in a 2OGand Fe-dependent manner (Scheme 1). Human 2OG oxygenases catalyse a range of reactions, including hydroxylation of amino acids, DNA, and small molecules, and demethylation of proteins and DNA. 2OG oxygenases show promise as therapeutic targets; an inhibitor of g-butyrobetaine hydroxylase (BBOX) is used for the treatment of cardiovascular disease, and inhibitors of the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) prolyl hydroxylases are in clinical trials for the treatment of anaemia. Inhibitors of the collagen prolyl hydroxylases have also been evaluated as potential therapeutics for the treatment of liver fibrosis. 8] The discovery of the JmjC domain histone demethylases, and the suggestion that some of them are potential therapeutic targets for cancer treatment, has stimulated interest in their inhibition, but relatively few studies have been described. Reported inhibitors of the JmjC demethylases include N-oxalyl amino acids, 8-hydroxyquinolines, pyridine dicarboxylates, hydroxamic acids and catechol-type flavonoids (Figure 1). Compounds that catalyse the ejection of a structural Zn ion from the JMJD2 demethylases have also been reported (Figure 1).

RecQ helicases have attracted considerable interest in recent years due to their role in the suppression of genome instability and human diseases. These atypical helicases exert their function by resolving a number of highly specific DNA structures. The crystal structure of a truncated catalytic core of the human RECQ1 helicase (RECQ1(49-616)) shows a prominent β-hairpin, with an aromatic residue (Y564) at the tip, located in the C-terminal winged-helix domain. Here, we show that the β-hairpin is required for the DNA unwinding and Holliday junction (HJ) resolution activity of full-length RECQ1, confirming that it represents an important determinant for the distinct substrate specificity of the five human RecQ helicases. In addition, we found that the β-hairpin is required for dimer formation in RECQ1(49-616) and tetramer formation in full-length RECQ1. We confirmed the presence of stable RECQ1(49-616) dimers in solution and demonstrated that dimer formation favours DNA unwinding; even though RECQ1 monomers are still active. Tetramers are instead necessary for more specialized activities such as HJ resolution and strand annealing. Interestingly, two independent protein-protein contacts are required for tetramer formation, one involves the β-hairpin and the other the N-terminus of RECQ1, suggesting a non-hierarchical mechanism of tetramer assembly.

Mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenases (IDHs) have a gain-of-function effect leading to R(-)-2-hydroxyglutarate (R-2HG) accumulation. By using biochemical, structural and cellular assays, we show that either or both R- and S-2HG inhibit 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent oxygenases with varying potencies. Half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) values for the R-form of 2HG varied from approximately 25 μM for the histone N(ɛ)-lysine demethylase JMJD2A to more than 5 mM for the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) prolyl hydroxylase. The results indicate that candidate oncogenic pathways in IDH-associated malignancy should include those that are regulated by other 2OG oxygenases than HIF hydroxylases, in particular those involving the regulation of histone methylation.

Background Hundreds of millions of people are infected with cryptosporidiosis annually, with immunocompromised individuals suffering debilitating symptoms and children in socioeconomically challenged regions at risk of repeated infections. There is currently no effective drug available. In order to facilitate the pursuit of anti-cryptosporidiosis targets and compounds, our study spans the classification of the Cryptosporidium parvum kinome and the structural and biochemical characterization of representatives from the CDPK family and a MAP kinase. Results The C. parvum kinome comprises over 70 members, some of which may be promising drug targets. These C. parvum protein kinases include members in the AGC, Atypical, CaMK, CK1, CMGC, and TKL groups; however, almost 35% could only be classified as OPK (other protein kinases). In addition, about 25% of the kinases identified did not have any known orthologues outside of Cryptosporidium spp. Comparison of specific kinases with their Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii orthologues revealed some distinct characteristics within the C. parvum kinome, including potential targets and opportunities for drug design. Structural and biochemical analysis of 4 representatives of the CaMK group and a MAP kinase confirms features that may be exploited in inhibitor design. Indeed, screening CpCDPK1 against a library of kinase inhibitors yielded a set of the pyrazolopyrimidine derivatives (PP1-derivatives) with IC50 values of < 10 nM. The binding of a PP1-derivative is further described by an inhibitor-bound crystal structure of CpCDPK1. In addition, structural analysis of CpCDPK4 identified an unprecedented Zn-finger within the CDPK kinase domain that may have implications for its regulation. Conclusions Identification and comparison of the C. parvum protein kinases against other parasitic kinases shows how orthologue- and family-based research can be used to facilitate characterization of promising drug targets and the search for new drugs.

Ferrous ion and 2-oxoglutarate (2OG) oxygenases catalyze the demethylation of N(epsilon)-methylated lysine residues in histones. Here we report studies on the inhibition of the JMJD2 subfamily of histone demethylases, employing binding analyses by nondenaturing mass spectrometry (MS), dynamic combinatorial chemistry coupled to MS, turnover assays, and crystallography. The results of initial binding and inhibition assays directed the production and analysis of a set of N-oxalyl-d-tyrosine derivatives to explore the extent of a subpocket at the JMJD2 active site. Some of the inhibitors were shown to be selective for JMJD2 over the hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase PHD2. A crystal structure of JMJD2A in complex with one of the potent inhibitors was obtained; modeling other inhibitors based on this structure predicts interactions that enable improved inhibition for some compounds.

Background Small molecule modulators of epigenetic processes are currently sought as basic probes for biochemical mechanisms, and as starting points for development of therapeutic agents. Ne-Methylation of lysine residues on histone tails is one of a number of post-translational modifications that together enable transcriptional regulation. Histone lysine demethylases antagonize the action of histone methyltransferases in a site- and methylation state-specific manner. Ne-Methyllysine demethylases that use 2-oxoglutarate as co-factor are associated with diverse human diseases, including cancer, inflammation and X-linked mental retardation; they are proposed as targets for the therapeutic modulation of transcription. There are few reports on the identification of templates that are amenable to development as potent inhibitors in vivo and large diverse collections have yet to be exploited for the discovery of demethylase inhibitors. Principal Findings High-throughput screening of a ∼236,000-member collection of diverse molecules arrayed as dilution series was used to identify inhibitors of the JMJD2 (KDM4) family of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent histone demethylases. Initial screening hits were prioritized by a combination of cheminformatics, counterscreening using a coupled assay enzyme, and orthogonal confirmatory detection of inhibition by mass spectrometric assays. Follow-up studies were carried out on one of the series identified, 8-hydroxyquinolines, which were shown by crystallographic analyses to inhibit by binding to the active site Fe(II) and to modulate demethylation at the H3K9 locus in a cell-based assay. Conclusions These studies demonstrate that diverse compound screening can yield novel inhibitors of 2OG dependent histone demethylases and provide starting points for the development of potent and selective agents to interrogate epigenetic regulation.

SummaryThere is a growing recognition of the importance of protein kinases in the control of alternative splicing. To define the underlying regulatory mechanisms, highly selective inhibitors are needed. Here, we report the discovery and characterization of the dichloroindolyl enaminonitrile KH-CB19, a potent and highly specific inhibitor of the CDC2-like kinase isoforms 1 and 4 (CLK1/CLK4). Cocrystal structures of KH-CB19 with CLK1 and CLK3 revealed a non-ATP mimetic binding mode, conformational changes in helix αC and the phosphate binding loop and halogen bonding to the kinase hinge region. KH-CB19 effectively suppressed phosphorylation of SR (serine/arginine) proteins in cells, consistent with its expected mechanism of action. Chemical inhibition of CLK1/CLK4 generated a unique pattern of splicing factor dephosphorylation and had at low nM concentration a profound effect on splicing of the two tissue factor isoforms flTF (full-length TF) and asHTF (alternatively spliced human TF).