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The aim of this study was to determine the phytochemical composition and micrographic characteristics of the plants consumed by Okapia johnstoni. The results indicate that each plant species has characteristic microscopic elements for its identification. These plants are rich in phenolic acids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, anthraquinones, coumarins, terpenoids and iridoids. Alchornea cordifolia is richer in total polyphenols (198.53±3.39 mg GAE/g DM) followed respectively by Musanga cercopioides (91.87±6.71 mg GAE/g DM), Macaranga spinosa (59.65±6.54 mg GAE/g DM), Ficus vallis-choudae (46.37±2.43 mg GAE/g DM), Cola acuminata (38.83±4.04 mg GAE/g DM), Pycnanthus angolensis (31.96±3.45 mg GAE/g DM), Alstonia boonei (31.55±1.60 mg GAE/g DM) and Trilepisium madagascariensis (25.18±0.99 mg GAE/g DM). As for flavonoids, the highest content is obtained in T. madagascariensis followed respectively by A. boonei, Pycnanthus angolensis, Cola acuminata, M. spinosa, F. vallis-choudae, M. cercopioides and A. cordifolia. The difference in the content of secondary metabolites is justified by the fact that their expression in the plant is a function of both abiotic and biotic factors and the specificity of each plant species linked to its genetic make-up. The characterization of these chemical compounds is necessary for the formulation of herbal medicines for the management of Okapi ex situ or for human health. Also, the microscopic profiles of the leaves powder of the studied plant species provide relevant information, which may be helpful for the plant authentication and for quality control of raw material.

Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) possess specialised locomotor morphology, namely elongate and gracile distal limbs. Whilst this contributes to their overall height (and enhanced feeding behaviour), we propose that the combination of long limb segments and modest muscle lever arms results in low effective mechanical advantage (EMA, the ratio of in-lever to out-lever moment arms), when compared with other cursorial mammals. To test this, we used a combination of experimentally measured kinematics and ground rection forces (GRFs), musculoskeletal modelling, and inverse dynamics to calculate giraffe forelimb EMA during walking. Giraffes walk with an EMA of 0.34 (±0.05 S.D.), with no evident association with speed within their walking gait. Giraffe EMA was markedly below the expectations extrapolated from other mammals ranging from 0.03 – 297 kg, and provides further evidence that EMA plateaus or even diminishes in mammals exceeding horse size. We further tested the idea that limb segment length is a factor which determines EMA, by modelling the GRF and muscle moment arms in the extinct giraffid Sivatherium giganteum and the other extant giraffid Okapia johnstoni. Giraffa and Okapia shared similar EMA, despite a 4-6 fold difference in body mass (Okapia EMA = 0.38). In contrast Sivatherium, sharing a similar body mass to Giraffa, had greater EMA (0.59), which we propose reflects behavioural differences, such athletic performance. Our modelling approach suggests that limb length is a determinant of GRF moment arm magnitude, and that unless muscle moment arms scale isometrically with limb length, tall mammals are prone to low EMA.Significance StatementGiraffes are the tallest living animals - using their height to access food unavailable to their competitors. It is not clear how their specialized anatomy impacts their athletic ability. We made musculoskeletal models of the forelimbs from a giraffe and two close relatives, and used motion-capture and forceplate data to measure how efficient they are when walking in a straight line. A horse for example, uses just 1 unit of muscle force to oppose 1 unit of force on the ground. Giraffe limbs however are comparatively disadvantaged – their muscles must develop 3 units of force to oppose 1 unit of force at the ground. This explains why giraffes walk and run at relatively slow speeds.

Banked serum samples from seven okapi (Okapia johnstoni) with known pregnancy status were evaluated using the BioPRYN wild enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB). Thirty-six serum samples, 18 from known pregnant and 18 from nonpregnant okapi, were analyzed. Using optical density cutoffs, the BioPRYN wild assay demonstrated a sensitivity of 88% (95% confidence interval, 65%-98%) and a specificity of 100% (95% confidence interval, 81%-100%). In one sample, this test confirmed pregnancy as early as 21 days of gestation; however, two pregnant okapi were reported to be not pregnant at 23 and 38 days of gestation, suggesting sensitivity may be lower in early gestation. Sensitivity improved to 100% when samples were evaluated in okapi at 116 days or greater of gestation. Analysis of PSPB can be used to augment pregnancy diagnosis in okapi, a species that is of high conservation value and has documented pregnancy-associated morbidity.

This study evaluated the use of a commercially available, visual enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for diagnosis of pregnancy in okapi (Okapia johnstoni), gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), eastern giant eland (Tragelaphus derbianus spp. gigas), and dama gazelle (Nanger dama). This assay has been validated for use in domestic cattle, sheep, goats, and water buffalo. Unlike other blood-based pregnancy associated glycoprotein (PAG) detection methods, this assay does not require sophisticated laboratory equipment for detection or interpretation and can therefore be utilized in many settings. Banked serum samples from gerenuk (n = 11), giant eland (n = 4), dama gazelle (n = 33) and okapi (n = 3) were tested, and a pregnant and nonpregnant sample from each individual were included. The ELISA showed 100% sensitivity and specificity in gerenuk and giant eland samples, and 0% sensitivity in dama gazelle and okapi samples. Using this assay, pregnancy was detected by 7–8 wk gestation in gerenuk and 6 wk in giant eland. These results are consistent with previous studies that were able to accurately detect pregnancy in other members of the family Bovidae, but it is possible that PAGs present in okapi and dama gazelle are structurally dissimilar relative to the intended test target, and are therefore unrecognizable using this test. The faint positivity in the dama gazelle assays may be due to cross-reactivity with other proteins in the sample, or due to inconsistent binding with the dama gazelle PAG. This ELISA appears to be an accurate, rapid, and inexpensive method of point-of-care pregnancy diagnosis in gerenuk and giant eland, but not okapi and dama gazelle. Additional studies should be pursued to further characterize the limits of pregnancy detection using this assay in gerenuk and giant eland, and to investigate the validity of this test in other nondomestic ruminant species.

Papillomavirus-specific DNA was detected in skin lesions collected from an okapi (Okapia johnstoni) in the Zoo Basel. According to the nucleotide sequence analysis, the virus belongs to the genus Deltapapillomavirus. Based on bioinformatics analysis, we propose to designate the newly identified virus as Okapia johnstoni Papillomavirus type 1 (OjPV1). OjPV1 is genetically most closely related to a recently described giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) -specific papillomavirus (GcPV1). Of note, the putative oncogenic E5 proteins from OjPV1 and GcPV1 are more conserved than the L1 proteins. This indicates, that the selection pressure on E5 may be more pronounced than that on the otherwise most conserved major capsid protein L1.

Applying principles of foraging ecology to zoo-housed animals can positively influence animal behavior, and assist with evaluating exhibit space and design. In this study, we implemented zoo foraging ecology by measuring giving-up densities (GUDs) in food patches to address several welfare-related questions with captive okapi (Okapia johnstoni). Our objectives were to: (1) determine whether food patches can reveal how the individual animals perceive their exhibit space (i.e., areas of preference and aversion; landscapes of comfort); and (2) determine whether implementation of food patches could reduce performance of repetitive behavior. We established 24 food patches throughout the 929 m2 outdoor exhibit, determined each okapi’s landscape of comfort, and evaluated the effects of the presence or absence of these food patches on okapi behavior. Food patches revealed landscapes of comfort that were unique to each individual. Food patch presence did not significantly lower the proportion of time spent in repetitive behavior, but did significantly increase the proportion of time that each animal spent actively foraging and animal movement throughout the exhibit space. We conclude that utilizing food patches in animal enrichment and welfare regimes can benefit zoo-housed species, particularly okapi, by providing not only a valuable form of enrichment, but by also allowing animals to directly reveal their individual perceptions and exhibit preferences to their caretakers.

In order to identify the game species sold on the central market of Kisangani and to check up the respectability of the regulation of hunting by the Congolese population, we collected data from January to August 2009 and from December 2014 to May 2015. The results indicate that 29,525 game carcasses marketed, belong to 8 orders, 13 families and at least 27 species. On the central market of Kisangani, Artiodactyla (40.06%) are the most sold followed by Primates (37.79%). The family Bovidae (37.98%) is the most represented followed by Cercopithecidae (37.61%). Based on counting carcasses, Cercopithecus sp (35.35%), followed by Cephalophus monticola (22.96%) are the most sold. The Low n° 82-002 which regulates hunting is not observed in Kisangani, as well as the ministerial decree n° 14/003 of 11 February 2014 relating to the conservation of nature. In fact, the regular hunting period is not observed. In addition, Loxodonta africana, Manis gigantea, Okapia johnstoni, and Pan troglodytes which are totally protected, Cephalophus sylvicultor, Potamochoerus porcus, and Syncerus caffer nanus which are partially protected are exploited. Therefore, it is essential to implement mechanisms for integrated management of wild fauna which respect the Congolese legislation and International conventions.

The family Giraffidae is represented by two extant taxa (Giraffa camelopardalis and Okapia johnstoni), both of which are committed browsers. During the late Miocene, however, the Pikermian Biome included more than 15 giraffid species with a wider range of dietary ecologies. To examine the diet of these taxa, we apply a novel combined approach using four variables from two methods of dental mesowear. We score the traditional outer mesowear, which evaluates the sharpness and relief of the labial-most paracone enamel band. We also apply inner mesowear, which evaluates the surface morphology of the lingual band of paracone enamel on the mesial and distal ends, as well as the junction point between the two. Using a database of 8 extant species (N = 98) of browsing, grazing, and mixed feeding ruminants, we predict the diets 190 extinct giraffid specimens. The discriminant function analysis (DFA) of the extant taxa using all four mesowear variables predicted diet with greater accuracy than any single mesowear variable. We compare the dietary profiles of species found in four Pikermian Biome regions: Samos, Pikermi, North China, and Linxia Basin. We find differences in the giraffid diet throughout the Pikermian Biome: in the localities from Greece, a larger number of giraffids were predicted as browsers, whereas both Chinese regions included a larger number of mixed feeding individuals. Our inner and outer mesowear dietary predictions agree with previously studied ecomorphological paleodietary proxies. Our data supports the hypothesis that the late Miocene giraffids comprised a wider range of dietary habits than the living giraffe and okapi.

International audience; Today, the family Giraffidae is restricted to two genera endemic to the African continent, Okapia and Giraffa, but, with over ten genera and dozens of species, it was far more diverse in the Old World during the late Miocene. We attempt to describe here how several species may have shared feeding resources in the Eastern Mediterranean. Dietary preferences were explored by means of Dental Microwear Textural Analysis in combination with estimation of body mass and the maximum height at which the various species were able to browse. One of our main results concerns the modern okapi, Okapia johnstoni. It is a forest dweller usually regarded as a browser, but we show that it might also forage on tough plants, possibly herbaceous monocots. Such feeding habits including portions of herbaceous monocotyledons were also found for some extinct species, especially the genera Samotherium and Palaeotragus. Palaeogiraffa shows a contrasted pattern the specimens of P. pamiri from a site in Thrace were leaf-dominant browsers whereas those belonging to P. major and P. macedoniae from the Axios valley in Greece ingested herbaceous monocotyledons. Helladotherium duvernoyi, the only sivatheriine analyzed here is described as a leaf-dominant browser. The giraffine Bohlinia attica also falls within the leaf-dominant browser category but could browse on higher foliages than H. duvernoyi. On the whole, the reconstructed diets confirm the relationship between more grazing habits and smaller premolars, but not with higher dental crown height.

The okapi (Okapia johnstoni), native to the Democratic Republic of Congo, is a large, solitary, and diurnal forest-dwelling ungulate highly sensitive to captive conditions. The captive population demonstrates persistent health problems, reproductive abnormalities, and several potentially abnormal repetitive behaviors. This study reports on locomotion and pacing in adult male and female okapis. Commonly, data on repetitive behavior have been derived from surveys. Although insightful, the results are often highly generalized and provide little information about the true preponderance and nature of such behavior in a population. In this study, direct observations determining how often and when a behavior of interest occurs are paired with information on factors (intrinsic and extrinsic) that can impact a nonhuman animal's propensity to perform repetitive behavior. More than half of the North American okapi population comprised the study population. Each animal was studied for 2 summer and winter seasons. Factors predictive of pacing in both males and females included 3 housing and habitat factors and 4 management factors. Patterns of locomotion and the rate and pattern of pacing in males when compared with females suggested different mechanisms may be driving these behaviors in the different sexes and that a sex-specific management strategy would benefit this species.

A 10-yr-old female okapi (Okapia johnstoni) at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park was evaluated for intermittent malaise, inappetence, occasional cough, abdominal splinting, and licking at both flanks. Physical examination revealed tachypnea, tachycardia, and fluid sounds on thoracic auscultation. Transthoracic ultrasound showed multiple uniform, anechoic filled structures in the right and left pleural space. Surgical exploration of the thoracic cavity revealed bilateral, mature, fibrous, compartmentalizing adhesions between the visceral and parietal pleura, confirming a diagnosis of chronic, infectious, fibrinous pleuritis. The suspected etiology was occult aspiration pneumonia secondary to historical episodes of regurgitation associated with general anesthesia. Culture of the pleural fluid and fibrous adhesions grew Trueperella (Arcanobacterium) pyogenes, Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, and few Fusobacterium species. Treatment consisted of chest-tube placement to establish drainage, thoracic lavage, unilateral surgical debridement, and long-term antibiotics. The animal made a complete clinical recovery over 7 mo.

The placenta of ruminants contains characteristic binucleate cells (BNC) with a highly conserved glycan structure which evolved early in Ruminant phylogenesis. Giraffe and Okapi placentae also contain these cells and it is not known whether they have a similar glycan array. We have used lectin histochemistry to examine the glycosylation of these cells in these species and compare them with bovine BNC which have a typical ruminant glycan composition. Two placentae, mid and near term, from Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and two term placenta of Okapi (Okapia johnstoni) were embedded in resin and stained with a panel of 23 lectins and compared with near-term bovine (Bos taurus) placenta. Significant differences were found in the glycans of Giraffe and Okapi BNC compared with those from the bovine, with little or no expression of terminal αN-acetylgalactosamine bound by Dolichos biflorus and Vicia villosa agglutinins which instead bound to placental blood vessels. Higher levels of N-acetylglucosamine bound by Lycopersicon esculentum and Phytolacca americana agglutinins were also apparent. Some differences between Okapi and Giraffe were evident. Most N-linked glycans were similarly expressed in all three species as were fucosyl residues. Interplacentomal areas in Giraffe and Bovine showed differences from the placentomal cells though no intercotyledonary BNC were apparent in Okapi. In conclusion, Giraffidae BNC developed different glycan biosynthetic pathways following their split from the Bovidae with further differences evolving as Okapi and Giraffe diverged from each other, affecting both inter and placentomal BNC which may have different functions during development.

The okapi Okapia johnstoni is an endangered, even-toed ungulate in the family Giraffidae, and is endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Okapi are highly elusive and very little is known about their behaviour and ecology in the wild. We used non-invasive genetic methods to examine the social structure, mating system and dispersal for a population of okapi in the Reserve de Faune a Okapis, DRC. Okapi individuals were found to be solitary, but genetically polygamous or promiscuous. There was no evidence for any close spatial association between large groups of related or unrelated okapi for either sex, but we did find evidence for male-biased dispersal. An isolation by distance pattern of genetic similarity was present, but appears to be operating just below the spatial scale of the area investigated in the present study. We describe how the analyses used here can infer aspects of behavioural ecology and discuss the strengths and limitations of these analyses. We therefore provide a guide for future studies using non-invasive genetics to investigate behavioural ecology of rare, elusive animals. This study furthers scientific knowledge about a species that has recently been recognized by the IUCN as endangered, and is a potentially important flagship species for Central Africa.

Acute signs associated with cardiovascular disease occurred in three pregnant okapi ( Okapia johnstoni ) during early to midgestation and progressed to congestive heart failure. Congestive heart failure was diagnosed antemortem using echocardiography and plasma cardiac troponin levels. Clinical signs included decreased activity, hyporexia, tachypnea, dyspnea, flared nostrils, and productive coughing with copious amounts of foamy nasal discharge. Parenteral and oral treatment with furosemide, enalapril, and spironolactone controlled clinical signs in the three okapi allowing each to carry out one pregnancy to term. Two okapi carried the first pregnancy to term after showing signs, while one okapi aborted the first calf and gave birth to a healthy calf in a subsequent pregnancy. Subsequent pregnancy in one okapi ended with abortion and associated dystocia and endometritis. Following parturition, clinical signs associated with heart failure resolved in all three individuals; serial echocardiography in two individuals showed improvement in fractional shortening and left atrial size and all three okapi showed markedly decreased pleural effusion and resolution of pulmonary edema. However, subsequent pregnancies in all three okapi induced respiratory distress and recurrence of congestive heart failure; one okapi died from congestive heart failure associated with subsequent pregnancy. This case series describes the clinical presentation and pathologic findings of congestive heart failure during pregnancy in adult okapi.

Seven anesthesia events were performed over 6 wk on a 1.5-yr-old female okapi (Okapia johnstoni) being managed for a fetlock injury. A combination of butorphanol (B) (median; range) (0.045; 0.031–0.046 mg/kg), medetomidine (M) (0.037; 0.031–0.037 mg/kg), ketamine (K) (0.553; 0.536–1.071 mg/kg), and thiafentanil (T) (0.0045; 0.0040–0.0046 mg/kg) was administered in a padded stall. One dart containing all drugs was used for the first two anesthesias. Subsequently, BM was administered 10 min prior to KT using two darts. Time (median; range) from initial injection to first effects (6; 3–7 min) and recumbency (14; 4–20 min) were recorded. Induction quality with the one-dart protocol was poor or fair and was good or excellent with the two-dart protocol. Following recumbency, the okapi was intubated and ventilated, and physiological parameters were recorded. Anesthesia was consistently achieved with BMKT, but induction was smoother with the staged two-dart approach. Neither resedation nor renarcotization was observed post-reversal.

The okapi Okapia johnstoni, a rainforest giraffid endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo, was recategorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2013. Historical records and anecdotal reports suggest that a disjunct population of okapi may have occurred south-west of the Congo River but the current distribution and status of the okapi in this region are not well known. Here we describe the use of non-invasive genetic identification for this species and assess the success of species identification from dung in the wild, which varied throughout the range. This variation is probably attributable to varying okapi population densities and/or different sample collection strategies across the okapi's distribution. Okapi were confirmed to occur south-west of the Congo River, in scattered localities west of the Lomami River. We demonstrated that non-invasive genetic methods can provide information on the distribution of cryptic, uncommon species that is difficult to obtain by other methods. Further investigation is required to genetically characterize the okapi across its range and to investigate the biogeographical processes that have led to the observed distribution of okapi and other fauna in the region.

We analyzed the urinary excretion of glucose and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) in six okapis (Okapia johnstoni) in captivity to investigate the cause of their urinary sugar excretion. The urinary glucose-positive okapi had significantly higher urinary NAG indices than the urinary glucose-negative okapi. There was also a positive correlation between urinary glucose levels and urinary NAG indices. These results suggest that the proximal tubular function of the glycosuric okapi may have been obstructed, which impaired glucose reabsorption.

Given the important contribution of urban consumption in bushmeat trade, information on bushmeat sales in urban markets can provide valuable insights for understanding the dynamics of this trade and its implications for conservation and food security. We monitored bushmeat traded in the market of Kisangani (the provincial capital of the Province Orientale in the Democratic Republic of Congo) and compared data collected in surveys in 2002 and 2008–2009. In both periods more than two-thirds of the carcasses sold were of rodents and ungulates. From 2002 to 2008–2009 the number of carcasses increased by 44% but the equivalent biomass by only 16% because of a significant decrease in medium-sized species (10–50 kg) and an increase in small species (Okapia johnstoni and small diurnal monkeys and the continued presence of protected species, and also highlights the food security role that bushmeat plays for poor urban people who cannot afford alternative sources of protein.

Several large mammals such as the black and white giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca, the mottled giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis, and striped and russet okapi Okapia johnstoni have striking and wel...

In order to investigate differences in the relative maximum longevity and other life history parameter between ruminant species, we collated data on mean body mass, maximum longevity, gestation period and newborn mass in wild ruminant and camelid species. Among ruminants, giraffids (giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis and okapi Okapia johnstoni) have particularly high longevities, long gestation periods, and low intrauterine growth rates. A particularly high absolute and relative longevity is also achieved by the anoa (Bubalus depressicornis), a member of the bovinae (cattle-type ruminants) and an insular dwarf (inhabiting the Indonesian island of Sulawesi). The fact that some (but not all) other small ruminants also achieve surprisingly high longevities leads to the hypothesis that extreme relative longevities in this group are an indication for secondary body size reduction.

We collected 17 milk samples at 1 day to 6 months post partum from one captive okapi (Okapia johnstoni). Milks were examined for nutrient composition, including water, fat, crude protein, carbohydrates, ash and five minerals. The average values of the concentrations were 79.2 ± 3.0% SD water, 8.5 ± 3.4% fat, 7.5 ± 1.1% crude protein, 3.6 ± 0.6% carbohydrate, 1.2 ± 0.1% ash, 263.7 ± 47.3 mg/100 g calcium, 183.0 ± 40.0 mg/100 g phosphorus, 95.2 ± 17.6 mg/100 g sodium, 74.4 ± 34.3 mg/100 g potassium and 28.4 ± 4.4 mg/100 g magnesium, respectively. The protein concentration increased at late lactation (P < 0.01). The contents of sodium and potassium were rather high in the early lactation period, while those of calcium and phosphorus were rather low in the early lactation period. During the course of lactation in the first week post partum and the protein concentration was high at 1 day post partum. We compare our findings with the American Association of Zoos & Aquariums's Okapi Species Survival Plan Hand-rearing Protocol, and recommend that nutrient composition of the formula for okapi calves is developed using the present study as a guide.

Assisted reproduction includes simple strategies, such as oral progestin to maintain pregnancy and hormone monitoring to predict oestrus for breeding introductions, as well as complex procedures, such as oestrous synchronization and artificial insemination (AI). The primary focus of research at White Oak Conservation Center, Yulee, FL, has been to work towards techniques allowing movement of frozen semen to manage metapopulations rather than translocate animals. Using the Gerenuk Litocranius walleri walleri as a model for threatened antelope, oestrous synchronization and AI were refined to produce four live offspring (from six attempts) using hand restraint rather than anaesthesia for inseminations. Conversely, similar progress with Okapi Okapia johnstoni has been slower. Okapi sperm are highly susceptible to osmotic changes and the physical pressures of the freezing process, which has limited the ability to develop suitable cryopreservation protocols. Storage of frozen semen from highly threatened animals provides insurance against loss of the individual’s genes to the population and, if used for future insemination, can potentially provide new ‘founders’. Biomaterials from both species, including blood and blood products, are preserved in genome resource banks together with samples from other threatened species, including the Florida panther Felis concolor coryi. It is important to note that assisted reproduction in novel species requires significant commitment and continuity from zoological institutions for optimal results.

Mycobacterium arupense is a non-tuberculous, potentially pathogenic species rarely isolated from humans. The aim of the study was to ascertain the spectrum of non-tuberculous mycobacteria within 271 sequenced mycobacterial isolates not belonging to M. tuberculosis and M. avium complexes. Isolates were collected between 2004 and 2009 in the Czech Republic and were examined within the framework of ecological studies carried out in animal populations infected with mycobacteria. A total of thirty-three mycobacterial species were identified. This report describes the isolation of M. arupense from the sputum of three human patients and seven different animal and environmental samples collected in the last six years in the Czech Republic: one isolate from leftover refrigerated organic dog food, two isolates from urine and clay collected from an okapi ( Okapia johnstoni) and antelope bongo ( Tragelaphus eurycerus) enclosure in a zoological garden, one isolate from the soil in an eagle's nest (Haliaeetus albicilla) band two isolates from two common vole ( Microtus arvalis) livers from one cattle farm. All isolates were identified by biochemical tests, morphology and 16S rDNA sequencing. Also, retrospective screening for M. arupense occurrence within the collected isolates is presented.

The survival rate of Okapi Okapia johnstoni calves born in captivity has been relatively low. At Dallas Zoo, over 32 years, 19 calves were born five of which died in their first year. In 1982 a series of neonatal health checks was instigated and infants are now sexed, weighed, measured and various other procedures carried out within 48 hours of parturition.

The aim of the present study was to establish a simple method to monitor ovarian activity and non-invasively diagnose pregnancy in okapi (Okapia johnstoni). The feces of a female okapi were collected daily or every 3 days for 28 months. Steroids in lyophilized feces were extracted with 80% methanol, and the fecal levels of immunoreactive progestagens (progesterone and pregnanediol-glucuronide), androgen (testosterone), and estrogens (estradiol-17beta and estrone) were determined by enzyme immunoassays with commercially available antisera. Using the progesterone profiles, the durations of the luteal phase, follicular phase, and estrous cycle were determined to be 11.1 +/- 0.4, 5.3 +/- 0.6, and 16.5 +/- 0.7 days (n=22), respectively. Fecal levels of immunoreactive progesterone, pregnanediol glucuronide, and testosterone gradually increased from early pregnancy and peaked several months before parturition. More pregnanediol glucuronide was excreted in feces than progesterone during late pregnancy, but not during the estrous cycle. Although the fecal concentrations of immunoreactive estradiol-17beta and estrone change a little throughout pregnancy and non-pregnancy, they rose sharply and temporarily on the day following parturition. The present study indicates that fecal assays with commercial antisera for progesterone and pregnanediol glucuronide are useful for evaluating luteal activity and diagnosing pregnancy and indicates that estrogens might have some role as a trigger of parturition.

Quantitative data on digestive anatomy of the world’s largest ruminant, the giraffe, are scarce. Data were collected from a total of 25 wild caught and 13 zoo housed giraffes. Anatomical measures were quantified by dimension, area or weight, and analyzed by allometric regression. The majority of measures scaled positively and isometrically to body mass. Giraffes had lower tissue weight of all stomach compartments and longer large intestinal length than cattle. When compared to other ruminants, the giraffe digestive tract showed many of the convergent morphological adaptations attributed to browsing ruminants, e.g., lower reticular crests, thinner ruminal pillars and smaller surface area of the omasal laminae. Salivary gland weight of the giraffe, however, resembled that of grazing ruminants. This matches a previous finding of similarly small salivary glands in the other extant giraffid, the okapi (Okapia johnstoni) suggesting that not all convergent characteristics need be expressed in all species and that morphological variation between species is a combination of phylogenetic and adaptational signals.

Eighteen of 38 captive okapi housed in the United States were found glucosuric by dipstick analysis. To confirm these findings, urine glucose concentrations of captive okapi from one collection (n = 10) were analyzed by two methods: urine dipstick analysis and quantitative analysis. Seven of these urine samples were positive for glucose by dipstick, with comparable glucose measurements by quantitative analysis. For a presumed normal control, okapi (n = 10) held in captivity within their native home range were tested for glucosuria by urine dipsticks; all were negative. Serum fructosamine (221–362 μmol/L) and insulin (9–45 pmol/L, 1.17–5.85 μU/ml) concentrations were determined from okapi (n = 6) with and without glucosuria with the use of results considered within normal limits for other ruminants. We conclude that glucosuria is a true finding in many apparently healthy captive okapi in the United States.

The aim of publishing this paper is to add to the knowledge and aid hand-rearing of Okapi Okapia johnstoni in captivity. The calf in this case study had a mass of 10.92 kg at birth (expected mean mass at birth c. 19.6 kg, n= 7) and by the time it was 3 hours old it had not nursed or stood on its own. Hand-rearing strategies discussed include: plasma transfer, development and testing of a new milk formula for neonates, the need for interspecies interaction and successful reintroduction to the adult group. Miscellaneous medical procedures are also considered.

Giraffidae is the only family of ruminants that is represented by two extant species; Okapia johnstoni and Giraffa camelopardalis. Of these taxa, O. johnstoni represents a typical short-necked ungulate, and G. camelopardalis exemplifies the most extreme cervical elongation seen in any ruminant. We utilize these two species to provide a comprehensive anatomic description of the cervical vertebrae. In addition, we compare the serial morphologic characteristics of the okapi and giraffe cervical vertebrae, and report on several osteologic differences seen between the two taxa. The giraffe neck appears to exhibit homogenization of C3-C7; the position of the dorsal tubercle, thickness of the cranial articular process, shape of the ventral vertebral body, and orientation of the ventral tubercle are constant throughout these vertebrae, whereas these features are serially variable in the okapi. We also report on several specializations of the giraffe C7, which we believe relates to an atypical cervico-thoracic junction, corresponding to the substantial neck lengthening. The morphologic differences exhibited between the okapi and giraffe cervical vertebrae have implications on the function of the necks relating to both fighting and feeding.

In the course of a revision of Haemonchus Cobb, 1898 (Nematoda), commonly referred to as large stomach worms, significant new morphological information was discovered that allows the recognition of 2 species believed for more than 50 yr to be synonymous. Both species, Haemonchus mitchelli Le Roux, 1929, from the eland Taurotragus oryx and other African ruminants and H. okapiae van den Berghe, 1937, from the okapi Okapia johnstoni, have a synlophe of 42 ridges, but the synlophe of H. mitchelli is longer than that of H. okapiae. The distal tip of the left spicule of H. mitchelli bears a barb that is about twice as long as the short barb and half as long as the long barb on the right spicule. In contrast, the barb on the left spicule of H. okapiae is similar in size to the short barb and about 25% as long as the long barb of the right spicule. The dorsal ray of H. mitchelli is bifurcated distally for 25-39% (32%) of its length and its stem is expanded proximally, but the dorsal ray of H. okapiae is bifurcated 37-50% (42%) and its stem is of uniform thickness.

Glucosuria in okapis (Okapia johnstoni) was first documented in 1980, yet the etiology remains unclear. In August 2006, an attempt to lower glucosuria in captive okapi by diet modification (omitting all fruit and adding unmolassed beet pulp) was started at the Antwerp Zoo. To study the possible relationship between glucosuria and diet, stress, and/or pregnancy, four okapis were monitored over a period of 4.5 yr. One animal, born in 2006, became glucosuric near the age of three. Three okapis were adults at the start of the study and had been glucosuric for more than 5 yr. The glucose/creatinine urinary ratio values of these four glucosuric animals did not change considerably over time despite dietary changes. Stress did not appear to influence glucosuria in these okapi. Urinary ratio decreased during the second half of pregnancy in two females. In conclusion, the diet change did not reduce glucosuria, but pregnancy appeared to lower urinary glucose in okapis.

The okapi is an endangered, evolutionarily distinctive even-toed ungulate classified within the giraffidae family that is endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo. The okapi is currently under major anthropogenic threat, yet to date nothing is known about its genetic structure and evolutionary history, information important for conservation management given the species' current plight. The distribution of the okapi, being confined to the Congo Basin and yet spanning the Congo River, also makes it an important species for testing general biogeographic hypotheses for Congo Basin fauna, a currently understudied area of research. Here we describe the evolutionary history and genetic structure of okapi, in the context of other African ungulates including the giraffe, and use this information to shed light on the biogeographic history of Congo Basin fauna in general. Using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis of mainly non-invasively collected samples, we show that the okapi is both highly genetically distinct and highly genetically diverse, an unusual combination of genetic traits for an endangered species, and feature a complex evolutionary history. Genetic data are consistent with repeated climatic cycles leading to multiple Plio-Pleistocene refugia in isolated forests in the Congo catchment but also imply historic gene flow across the Congo River.

We describe 13 polymorphic microsatellite loci for the okapi (Okapia johnstoni). These markers were tested with 20 samples collected from a number of populations and exhibited a mean of 6.1 alleles per locus and a mean expected heterozygosity of 0.759. All but one locus was in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, and no evidence for linkage disequilibrium was detected between any loci. These loci will be useful for the future study of population genetic diversity and genetic structure in this elusive and emblematic species.

Across the past 20 years, captive reproduction has declined steeply in mongoose lemurs (Eulemur mongoz) and has been only moderately successful in black lemurs (E. macaco). At the same time, reproduction has been so successful in brown lemurs (E. fulvus) that contraception has been used since 1987 to limit captive numbers. No obvious cause for the differential reproductive success has been identified. Our experience with a pair of unrelated mongoose lemurs at the Philadelphia Zoological Garden suggested that they reproduced in only those years when they were caged in close proximity to another nonreproductive, full-sibling pair of mongoose lemurs. Examination of the worldwide pattern of captive reproduction by Eulemur species during the past two decades revealed that female black and mongoose lemurs housed in institutions with either additional conspecific males or additional conspecific pairs had a higher rate of reproduction than those maintained as an isolated pair. Black lemurs also had higher rates of reproduction when additional conspecific females were present. No similar pattern was found for brown lemurs or for two comparable mammals, the pudu (Pudu pudu) and the okapi (Okapia johnstoni). The evidence presented for the black and mongoose lemurs supports the existence of the Allee effect in these two species, namely, that reproduction is enhanced by the presence of conspecifics. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Intrachromosomal telomeric sequences (TTAGGG)n were analyzed in the two members of the family Giraffidae, the giraffe and the okapi. The giraffe has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 30, whereas the okapi chromosome number varies from 2n = 46 to 2n = 45 and 2n = 44 due to a “recent” Robertsonian fusion event. The interstitial telomeres that we detected in these species are of two types: (1) In the okapi, a long interstitial telomeric element is present at the fusion site of the rob(4;26). The nature of this interstitial telomeric element suggests that it is a remnant of the telomeres of the ancestral chromosomes that participated in the fusion event. (2) In the giraffe, short stretches or degenerate telomeric sequences which are part of the satellite DNA are present at intrachromosomal sites. The results of this study provide insights into the origin of interstitial telomeric sequences in the Giraffidae.

The present study was conducted to establish a noninvasive method of reproductive monitoring in the okapi (Okapia johnstoni). Fecal samples were collected three times a week from nonpregnant okapis (n = 3) for periods of 2, 9, and 23 months, respectively, and for 2 months each from pregnant okapis (n = 4) at different stages of gestation. Samples were analyzed with an enzyme-immunoas-say (EIA), using an antibody against pregnanediol, and the results are considered as measurements of unconjugated total immunoreactive progestagens (Pd-Pgs). Mean values of Pd-Pgs during the follicular (FP) and the luteal phases (LP) of the estrous cycles were 0.6 ± 0.1 μg/g and 6.1 −0.3 μg/g feces, respectively. Matings occurred at the terminations of the LP. By dividing the number of entire LPs into the time over which samples were available, average estrous cycle lengths in two okapis were estimated to be 15.5 (n = 11 LP) and 15.8 (n = 36 LP) days, respectively. In three animals, gestation lengths of 423, 424, and 431 days were calculated by observed matings. During days -280 to -220 before parturition, the fecal Pd-Pgs constantly increased from about 20--60 μg/g feces. Values were 100--350 μg/g during the last third of gestation. Values decreased in the week before parturition, and a continuous decline to FP values was observed within 3--4 days postpartum. During the 2 months postpartum investigated in one animal, the Pd-Pgs were in the FP range except one LP 3 weeks postpartum. It was concluded that fecal Pd-Pgs in female okapis are present in a ratio of ∼1: 10:>100 during FP, LP, and late pregnancy, respectively. Their measurement by EIA enables noninvasive monitoring of the estrous cycle and pregnancy diagnosis. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

An analysis of the morphological features of the recent Okapia johnstoni (Sclater), 1901, from the tropical rainforest in Zaire – with regard to the recurring climatic changes and the history of the vegetation in tropical Africa in the late Tertiary and Quaternary and also the fossil documentation of giraffids – is given. The Okapi is neither a “living fossil” nor a primary rainforest inhabitant. Miocene Palaeotragines as the ancestors of Okapia occurred in a savanna-like biotop. It is suggested, that Okapia is a secondary forest dweller, which is “immigrated” in the early Pliocene in the rainforest biome, at a time, in which a wide expansion of the rainforest in the tropical Africa after the “salinity-crisis” in the latest Miocene (Messinian) is beginning. The true motive (? competition, ? preadaptation = “exaptation”) for the secondary forest mode of life is not known. Zusammenfassung Nach einer Begriffserklarung wird eine eingehende Merkmalsanalyse von Okapia johnstoni unter Berucksichtigung der Klima- und Vegetationsgeschichte Zentral- und Ostafrikas sowie der Fossildokumentation durchgefuhrt. Diese Analyse ergibt, das das Okapi weder als “lebendes Fossil” noch als primarer Urwaldbewohner bezeichnet werden kann, sondern eine sekundare Urwaldform ist. Etliche Merkmale sind mit einer dauernd waldbewohnenden Lebensweise nicht vereinbar. Dieser Wechsel des Lebensraumes wird mit den starken Arealschwankungen des tropischen Regenwaldes durch globale Klima- und Feuchtigkeitsanderungen im Jungtertiar (Pliozan) Afrikas in Zusammenhang gebracht. Die eigentlichen Ursachen fur den Wechsel des Lebensraumes bleiben offen (? Konkurrenz;? Pradisposition).

Four okapi calves were monitored from birth for specific behavioral and physiological developmental phenomena. Substantial changes are appropriate in defining normal ranges and averages of some behavioral landmarks previously reported in the literature (i.e., birth weight, first time standing, first attempt to nurse, first successful nurse, and first defecation). Simple, minimally invasive habituation techniques were used to collect daily body temperatures and weights for the four calves from birth to at least 90 days of age. Body temperatures for this time period averaged 38.07°C. Okapi calves appear to take from 51 to 60 days of age to thermoregulate efficiently. The calves grow rapidly, doubling their birth weight within approximately four weeks (28 days), and tripling it by seven weeks of age (49 days). © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Postmortem examination of seven wild-caught southern giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa) from Namibia demonstrated focal discoloration, biliary thickening, and peribiliary fibrosis affecting mainly the left liver lobe. The giraffes were infected with Monodontella giraffae, previously associated with lethal infections in captive okapis (Okapia johnstoni) and giraffes. Contrary to this, all seven giraffes investigated in the present study were clinically healthy. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the nematode M. giraffae may not be an unusual parasite of the giraffe and that it does not necessarily cause detrimental liver disease.