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Contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CNTNAP2) gene encodes for CASPR2, a presynaptic type 1 transmembrane protein, involved in cell–cell adhesion and synaptic interactions. Biallelic CNTNAP2 loss has been associated with “Pitt-Hopkins-like syndrome-1” (MIM#610042), while the pathogenic role of heterozygous variants remains controversial. We report 22 novel patients harboring mono- (n = 2) and bi-allelic (n = 20) CNTNAP2 variants and carried out a literature review to characterize the genotype–phenotype correlation. Patients (M:F 14:8) were aged between 3 and 19 years and affected by global developmental delay (GDD) (n = 21), moderate to profound intellectual disability (n = 17) and epilepsy (n = 21). Seizures mainly started in the first two years of life (median 22.5 months). Antiseizure medications were successful in controlling the seizures in about two-thirds of the patients. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and/or other neuropsychiatric comorbidities were present in nine patients (40.9%). Nonspecific midline brain anomalies were noted in most patients while focal signal abnormalities in the temporal lobes were noted in three subjects. Genotype–phenotype correlation was performed by also including 50 previously published patients (15 mono- and 35 bi-allelic variants). Overall, GDD (p p p = 0.012), ASD (p = 0.009), language impairment (p = 0.020) and severe cognitive impairment (p = 0.031) were significantly associated with the presence of biallelic versus monoallelic variants. We have defined the main features associated with biallelic CNTNAP2 variants, as severe cognitive impairment, epilepsy and behavioral abnormalities. We propose CASPR2-deficiency neurodevelopmental disorder as an exclusively recessive disease while the contribution of heterozygous variants is less likely to follow an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern.

Considering the substantial variability in treatment response across patients with spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), reliable markers for monitoring response to therapy and predicting treatment responders need to be identified. The study aimed to determine if measured concentrations of disease biomarkers (total tau protein, neurofilament light chain, and S100B protein) correlate with the duration of nusinersen treatment and with scores obtained using functional scales for the assessment of motor abilities.A total of 30 subjects with SMA treated with nusinersen between 2017 and 2021 at the Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Croatia, were included in this study. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected by lumbar puncture prior to intrathecal application of nusinersen. Protein concentrations in CSF samples were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 26 subjects. The motor functions were assessed using functional motor scales.The main finding was significantly decreased total tau correlating with the number of nusinersen doses and motor improvement in the first 18-24 months of treatment (in all SMA patients and SMA type 1 patients). Neurofilament light chain and S100B were not significantly changed after administration of nusinersen.The measurement of total tau concentration in CSF is a reliable index for monitoring the biomarker and clinical response to nusinersen therapy in patients with SMA.

Aim: To evaluate the relationship between the neurological outcome, neonatal epileptic seizures, and signal-intensity visibility of the frontal and parietal periventricular crossroads of pathways on brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in preterm infants at term-equivalent age. ----- Methods: The study enrolled 48 preterm infants born between 2012 and 2016. The signal-intensity characteristics of the frontal and parietal periventricular crossroads were evaluated and classified into four grades. A non-favorable outcome was defined as a motor and functional disorder with developmental delay and/or cerebral palsy. ----- Results: Neonatal seizures, epilepsy, pathological EEG and brain ultrasound finding, and brain MRI abnormalities were mostly found in neonates with non-favorable outcomes. Visible frontal and parietal periventricular crossroads were associated with a normal neurologic outcome (P=0.0004; P=0.0009, respectively). Not-visible or slightly visible periventricular crossroads were associated with non-favorable outcomes in the case of frontal crossroads (P=0.036) and not-visible periventricular crossroads in the case of both frontal and parietal crossroads (P=0.001, P=0.015, respectively). The visibility of the frontal and parietal periventricular crossroads was associated with a lack of neonatal epileptic seizures (P=0.03; P=0.02, respectively). The frontal crossroads were more frequently slightly visible, while the parietal periventricular crossroads were more frequently visible. ----- Conclusion: Poor visibility of the frontal and parietal crossroads of pathways on MRI is associated with neonatal epileptic seizures and poor neurological outcomes in preterm infants at term-equivalent age.

Objective: Autosomal recessive pathogenic variants of the SLC13A5 gene are associated with severe neonatal epilepsy, developmental delay, and tooth hypoplasia/hypodontia. We report on 14 additional patients and compare their phenotypic features to previously published patients to identify the clinical hallmarks of this disorder. Methods: We collected clinical features of 14 patients carrying biallelic variants in SLC13A5 and performed a PubMed search to identify previously published patients. Results: All patients presented clonic or tonic seizures in the first days of life, evolving into status epilepticus in 57%. Analysis of seizure frequency and developmental milestones divided into five epochs showed an evolutionary trajectory of both items. In the first 3 years of life, 72% of patients had weekly/monthly seizures, often triggered by fever; 14% were seizure-free. Between the ages of 3 and 12 years, 60% become seizure-free; in the following years, up to age 18 years, 57% were seizure-free. After the age of 18 years, all three patients reaching this age were seizure-free. Similarly, 86% of patients at onset presented mild to moderate developmental impairment and diffuse hypotonia. In late childhood, all had developmental delay that was severe in most. Benzodiazepines, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and carbamazepine were the most effective drugs. Eight probands carried heterozygous compound variants, and homozygous pathogenic variants occurred in six. Literature review identified 45 patients carrying SLC13A5 gene pathogenic variants whose clinical features overlapped with our cohort. A peculiar and distinguishing sign is the presence of tooth hypoplasia and/or hypodontia in most patients. Significance: Autosomal recessive pathogenic variants in SLC13A5 are associated with a distinct neonatal epileptic encephalopathy evolving into severe cognitive and motor impairment, yet with seizures that settle down in late childhood. Tooth hypoplasia or hypodontia remains the peculiar feature. The SLC13A5 gene should be screened in neonatal epileptic encephalopathies; its recessive inheritance has relevance for genetic counseling.

Chatron et al. describe a novel syndrome caused by bi-allelic loss-of-function mutations in GAD1, the gene encoding the GABA synthetic enzyme GAD67. The syndrome is characterized by the unique association of developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, cleft palate, joint contractures and/or omphalocele., Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies are a heterogeneous group of early-onset epilepsy syndromes dramatically impairing neurodevelopment. Modern genomic technologies have revealed a number of monogenic origins and opened the door to therapeutic hopes. Here we describe a new syndromic developmental and epileptic encephalopathy caused by bi-allelic loss-of-function variants in GAD1, as presented by 11 patients from six independent consanguineous families. Seizure onset occurred in the first 2 months of life in all patients. All 10 patients, from whom early disease history was available, presented with seizure onset in the first month of life, mainly consisting of epileptic spasms or myoclonic seizures. Early EEG showed suppression-burst or pattern of burst attenuation or hypsarrhythmia if only recorded in the post-neonatal period. Eight patients had joint contractures and/or pes equinovarus. Seven patients presented a cleft palate and two also had an omphalocele, reproducing the phenotype of the knockout Gad1−/− mouse model. Four patients died before 4 years of age. GAD1 encodes the glutamate decarboxylase enzyme GAD67, a critical actor of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) metabolism as it catalyses the decarboxylation of glutamic acid to form GABA. Our findings evoke a novel syndrome related to GAD67 deficiency, characterized by the unique association of developmental and epileptic encephalopathies, cleft palate, joint contractures and/or omphalocele.

Rosai-Dorfman-Destombes (RDD) disease also known as sinus histiocytosis with massive lymphadenopathy is a rare disease characterized by disorder of histiocytes within lymph nodes or other affected tissues. Extranodal forms of disease are even more uncommon. Only small percent of patients present with intracranial extranodal form of disease. Lesion biopsy and characteristic histopathological findings are crucial for definitive diagnosis. Histological findings typically show emperipolesis of affected histiocytes or hyperplastic lymph node sinuses containing enlarged histiocytes with phagocyted intact lymphocytes with specific immunoassay findings of the characteristic histiocytic non-Langerhans cells. Therapy includes various modalities such as surgery, steroids, radiotherapy, and/or chemotherapy. In case of extranodal intracranial form of disease, resection (single or combined with other treatment) was reported as effective. There are only few cases of extranodal intracranial disease in pediatric population described in the world so far. We aimed to provide brief comprehensive review of published cases referring on pediatric extranodal intracranial RDD.

The developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs) are heterogeneous disorders with a strong genetic contribution, but the underlying genetic etiology remains unknown in a significant proportion of individuals. To explore whether statistical support for genetic etiologies can be generated on the basis of phenotypic features, we analyzed whole-exome sequencing data and phenotypic similarities by using Human Phenotype Ontology (HPO) in 314 individuals with DEEs. We identified a de novo c.508C>T (p.Arg170Trp) variant in AP2M1 in two individuals with a phenotypic similarity that was higher than expected by chance (p = 0.003) and a phenotype related to epilepsy with myoclonic-atonic seizures. We subsequently found the same de novo variant in two individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders and generalized epilepsy in a cohort of 2,310 individuals who underwent diagnostic whole-exome sequencing. AP2M1 encodes the mu-subunit of the adaptor protein complex 2 (AP-2), which is involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) and synaptic vesicle recycling. Modeling of protein dynamics indicated that the p.Arg170Trp variant impairs the conformational activation and thermodynamic entropy of the AP-2 complex. Functional complementation of both the mu-subunit carrying the p.Arg170Trp variant in human cells and astrocytes derived from AP-2 mu conditional knockout mice revealed a significant impairment of CME of transferrin. In contrast, stability, expression levels, membrane recruitment, and localization were not impaired, suggesting a functional alteration of the AP-2 complex as the underlying disease mechanism. We establish a recurrent pathogenic variant in AP2M1 as a cause of DEEs with distinct phenotypic features, and we implicate dysfunction of the early steps of endocytosis as a disease mechanism in epilepsy.

Primjena antiepileptičkih lijekova pri liječenju epilepsije u djece i adolescenata, a osobito donošenje odluke o započinjanju farmakoterapije mogu biti zahtjevni i složeni s obzirom na različite farmakoterapijske mogućnosti. Antiepileptičke lijekove treba propisivati prema generičkom nazivlju pojedinog lijeka, a ne prema farmaceutskom odnosno tvornički zaštićenom imenu. Liječenje epilepsije treba započeti lijekom prvog izbora: izvornim (originalnim) lijekom ili generičkim. U smjernicama za farmakoterapiju epilepsija u djece prikazani su opća načela farmakološkog liječenja epilepsije i mogućnosti donošenja odluka o farmakološkom liječenju epilepsija i epileptičkih sindroma u Republici Hrvatskoj. U radu je dan i kratak osvrt na najčešće upotrebljavane i najvažnije antiepileptičke lijekove, njihove neželjene učinke i interakcije. Navedeni su i noviji antiepileptički lijekovi koji još nisu na osnovnoj ili dopunskoj listi lijekova u RH, no primjenjuju se pri liječenju epilepsija u djece i učinkoviti su. Lijekovi prvog izbora za napadaje sa žarišnim početkom i žarišne epilepsije jesu okskarbazepin (razina dokaza: klasa 1A (AAN) i GRADE 1B) i karbamazepin (razina dokaza: klasa 1A (AAN) i GRADE 1B). Antiepileptički lijek prvog izbora za epileptičke napadaje s generaliziranim početkom i generalizirane epilepsije, ponajprije u dječaka, jest valproat (razina dokaza: klasa 1A (AAN) i GRADE 1A). Zbog mogućega teratogenog i nepovoljnog učinka na postnatalni razvoj djece izložene in utero valproatima i lijekovima generički srodnima valproatu kao prvi lijek izbora za generaliziranu epilepsiju bolesnicama se preporučuju levetiracetam (razina dokaza: klasa 1B (AAN) i GRADE 1C) i etosuksimid (potonji za apsanse) (razina dokaza: klasa 1A (AAN), GRADE 1B), i to od dojenačke do kraja generativne dobi. Svakako je opravdana primjena valproata u djevojčica kao lijeka izbora pri nedjelotvornosti ili nuspojavama antiepileptičkog lijeka prvog izbora za generalizirane epilepsije i kada trudnoća nije vjerojatna zbog težine bolesti.

EBioMedicine 72, 103588 (2021). doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103588, Published by Elsevier, Amsterdam [u.a.]

Brain arteriovenous malformation is a type of high flow vascular malformation shunt in which blood flows from a feeding artery to a draining vein forming a connection called nidus (shunting arterioles/venous loops). They may not become clinically evident for several years. Other possible clinical presentations include headaches, seizures, and hemorrhage, which can be a vital complication.

Aim To assess the role of human platelet antigens (HPA), P-selectin gene (SELP) polymorphisms, and HPA and SELP haplotypes with factor V (FV) R506Q in ischemic pediat - ric stroke (IPS) subtypes: cerebral sinovenous thrombosis (CSVT), perinatal (PAIS), and childhood (CAIS) arterial isch - emic stroke. Methods This case-control study enrolled 150 children with confirmed IPS and 150 age- and sex-matched con - trols. FV R506Q and HPA-1 were genotyped with CVD Stri - pAssay®, HPA-2 and HPA-3 with real-time polymerase chain reaction, SELP S290N, V599L, and T715P with high resolu - tion melting analysis, and SELP N562D with sequence-spe - cific polymerase chain reaction. Results HPA-1b allele (odds ratio [OR] 2.75, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.02-7.42, P =0.048) and HPA-1a2a3b (OR 5.46, 95% CI 1.51-19.76, P =0.011), HPA-1b2a3a (OR 7.00, 95% CI 1.25-39.13, P =0.028), and HPA-1b2b3a (OR 11.39, 95% CI 1.39-92.95, P =0.024) haplotypes increased the risk for CSVT. HPA-3b allele was significantly associated with 2-fold lower risk for PAIS (OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.26-0.89, P =0.020) and CAIS (OR 0.47, 95% CI 0.26-0.86, P =0.014) and non-signifi - cantly associated with increased risk for CSVT (OR 6.43, 95% CI 0.83-50.00, P =0.022). HPA-1a2b3a haplotype was significantly associated with CAIS (OR 6.76, 95% CI 2.13-21.44, P=0.001). The inclusion of FV R506Q in SELP haplotype analysis increased the risk for PAIS 4-fold in QNDVT carri - ers (OR 8.14, 95% CI 0.93-71.33, P =0.060) compared with NDVT haplotype (OR 2.45, 95% CI 0.98-6.18, P =0.058), but the result was not significant. Conclusion Individual HPAs, and particularly HPA haplo - types, are involved in IPS subtypes pathogenesis. A possi - ble risk-inducing synergistic effect of SELP haplotypes with FV R506Q is restricted to PAIS only.

Bilateral optic neuritis (bilON) is a rare clinical presentation often thought to be associated with relapsing disorders such as neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) or multiple sclerosis (MS).To characterize the clinical, radiological phenotype and antibody status of children presenting with bilON.Retrospective multicenter study on children with bilON age18 years with a first episode aquired demyelinating syndrome (ADS), cMRI, AQP4- and serum MOG-antibody status and follow-up data were collected.30 patients (f:m = 15:15, median age 8.0y) with bilON met the inclusion criteria. 22/30 (73%) were MOG-positive (median: 1:1280, range: 1:160-1:1520). No patient showed AQP4-abs. 4/30 patients (13%), all with high MOG-abs titers, had recurrent episodes. No patient developed MS. Improvement after IVMP was observed in most patients (26/30; 87%). Outcome was favorable with no sequelae in 22/30 patients. Serial MOG-abs titers tested in 15/22 patients decreased to a median of 1:160 (range: 0-1:640) over a period of 31 months (range: 2-141 months) in 14/15 (93%) patients. MR imaging showed a predominantly anterior affection of the visual system in seropositive patients with bilateral intraorbital lesions in 68% (15/22), compared to 25% in MOG-negative patients (2/8).Pediatric bilON is associated with high MOG-abs titers in combination with anterior involvement of the visual system. Despite severe loss of vision, the majority of patients shows distinct recovery after IVMP.

Spinalna mišićna atrofi ja je autosomno recesivna, progresivna degenerativna bolest uzrokovana mutacijom gena SMN1 (survival of motor neuron 1) na kromosomu 5q. Djelotvorno zbrinjavanje bolesnika i utjecaj standardiziranog terapijskog pristupa radi postizanja kakvoće života zahtijeva multidisciplinski terapijski pristup i koordinaciju velikog broja stručnjaka - užih specijalista. Rana primjena neinvazivne ventilacije i aparata za potpomognuto iskašljavanje te ortopedski pristup rješavanju skolioze značajno povoljno utječu na prirodni tijek bolesti. Uspješan ishod terapijskih postupaka započinje ranom primjenom modifi cirajuće genetičke i genske terapije. Protusmjerni oligonukleotid nusinersen i mala molekula (risdiplam) usmjereni su na uključivanje egzona 7 u SMN2 mRNK te stvaranja stabilnog i funkcionalnog proteina, a genska terapija (onasemnogen abeparvovec) nadomjesna je terapija mutiranog gena SMN1. Rezultati primjene nusinersena upućuju na to da je napredak na testovima motoričkih funkcija najznačajniji u prvih 6 - 12 mjeseci primjene, osobito za spinalnu mišićnu atrofi ju tip 1, uz dobru podnošljivost s malim brojem nuspojava. Rana primjena modifi cirajuće terapije spinalne mišićne atrofi je, ponajprije u tipu 1, povezana je s promjenom prirodnog tijeka i ishoda bolesti u smislu zaustavljanja njene progresije i napretka u razvoju. Zasad nema međunarodno prihvaćenih kriterija za uključivanje bolesnika u gensku i genetičku terapiju prema tipovima, dobi, trajanju bolesti i ovisnosti o trajnoj mehaničkoj ventilaciji. Potrebna su dodatna ispitivanja radi procjene učinkovitosti terapije temeljem procjene motoričkih funkcija i stupnjeva motoričkog razvoja, terapijskog „prozora“, procjene ishoda pomoću biomarkera bolesti, trajanja liječenja, doze lijeka, nuspojava vezanih za dugotrajnu primjenu i ishoda terapije, ponajprije učinka na poremećaje ventilacije i gutanja, učinka na razvoj skolioze, kognitivnog razvoja te rasta i autonomnih funkcija te procjene objektivnosti ljestvica za procjenu motoričkih funkcija. Zaključak. Rano prepoznavanje kliničkih znakova, novorođenački probir i rana genetička dijagnoza, primjena ciljane terapije koja modifi cira tijek bolesti, redovito multidisciplinsko timsko praćenje i liječenje poremećaja disanja, ortopedskih i gastroenteroloških komplikacija bolesti, kao i rani početak tranzicijskog razdoblja neizostavan su dio skrbi o bolesnicima sa spinalnom mišićnom atrofi jom. Radi unapređenja zbrinjavanja i njege bolesnika, kao i standardizacije skrbi o njima značajna je kontinuirana evaluacija kriterija za uključivanje i prekid modifi cirajuće terapije te individualni pristup svakom bolesniku i poticanje osnivanja i redovitog obnavljanja registra bolesnika s neuromuskularnim bolestima s podatcima vezanim za ishod liječenja na nacionalnoj razini i u različitim zemljama širom svijeta, te njihovo međusobno povezivanje i suradnja., Spinal muscular atrophy is an autosomal recessive, progressive degenerative disease caused by mutation of the SMN1 (survival of motor neuron 1) gene on chromosome 5q. Eff ective patient care and success of standardized therapeutic approaches taken to achieve better quality of life require multidisciplinary therapeutic approach and coordination of a large number of specialists. Successful outcome of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures is based on the application of the standardized procedure. It begins with early recognition of clinical signs and symptoms, as well as the risk of complications. Early application of non-invasive ventilation and cough assist device together with orthopaedic approach to scoliosis signifi cantly alter the natural course of the disease. Antisense oligonucleotide (AON) nusinersen and small molecules are directed to enhancing inclusion of exon 7 in SMN2 mRNK and formation of a stable and functional protein, and gene therapy (onasemnogene abeparvovec) is an example of SMN1 gene replacement therapy. Results of treatment with nusinersen show improvement on motor function scales, which is most pronounced in the fi rst 6 to 12 months of therapy in spinal muscular atrophy type I, with good tolerability and safety. Earlier application of modifying therapy for spinal muscular atrophy, primarily for type I, may signifi cantly change of the natural course and outcomes of the disease in terms of halting disease progression, as well as establishing progress in motor development. There are currently no strict internationally accepted criteria for inclusion of diff erent genetic or gene therapies in patients according to disease type or duration, patient age and dependence on permanent mechanical invasive ventilation. Additional studies are required to evaluate therapeutic effi cacy, therapeutic window, duration of treatment, drug dose, side eff ects related to long-term use and treatment outcome, preferably eff ects on ventilation and swallowing, eff ect on cognitive development, scoliosis, growth and autonomic function, and objectivity of the rating scale for motor functions. In conclusion, early genetic diagnosis, neonatal screening and application of target therapy that modifi es the course of the disease, timely monitoring and treatment of respiratory, cardiologic and gastroenterological complications, as well as early onset of the transition period are crucial parts of the care for spinal muscular atrophy patients. In order to improve patient care, it is important to enable treatment possibilities according to standards of care, ongoing evaluation of the criteria for inclusion and termination of modifying therapy, relieving centres for tertiary level of care, reducing the number of disease related hospitalizations and individual access to each patient, along with encouraging the establishment of patient registries for neuromuscular disorders at the national level, as well as in diff erent countries around the world, and their interconnection and cooperation.

BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to assess sleep architecture and respiration during sleep in children with intractable epileptic encephalopathies using overnight video-polysomnography (V-PSG). ----- MATERIAL AND METHODS Between 2015 to 2017 overnight V-PSG recordings were made for 31 children (22 boys and 9 girls) with intractable epileptic encephalopathy with a mean age of 6.78±3.61 years and a mean body mass index (BMI) of 15.83±3.16 kg/m3. Thirty-one healthy children were matched for sex, age, and BMI as the control group. The phases of sleep studied included rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and non-REM (NREM) phases NREM 1, NREM 2, and NREM 3. Respiratory function during sleep was evaluated. ----- RESULTS Children with epileptic encephalopathies receiving antiepileptic treatment had significantly decreased total sleep time (TST) (p=0.038), significantly increased percentage of NREM1 (p=0.033), and a significantly lower percentage of total REM (p

Hyperammonemic encephalopathy in newborns with urea cycle disorders and certain organic acidurias can cause severe brain injury, coma and death. Standard therapy includes protein restriction, nitrogen-scavenging drugs, prevention of catabolism and hemodialysis. Neuroprotective hypothermia as part of the treatment has been reported only 3 times. It has been suggested that mild systemic hypothermia can contribute to better neurological outcomes in hyperammonemic encephalopathy. However, the limited experience precludes accurate conclusions on safety and efficacy.Whole body therapeutic hypothermia was included in the standard treatment of hyperammonemic encephalopathy in 4 neonates with urea cycle disorder or organic aciduria.Two patients survived the initial crisis. One patient has a developmental quotient of 0.8, while the other shows severe developmental delay. The cooling protocol had to be discontinued in 3 patients due to the otherwise untreatable complications (hypotension and hemorrhage).The efficacy and safety of therapeutic hypothermia in the treatment of neonatal hyperammonemic encephalopathy depend on various factors, requiring further evaluation.Die hyperammonämische Enzephalopathie bei Neugeborenen mit Harnstoffzyklusstörungen und bestimmten organischen Azidämien kann zu schweren Hirnverletzungen, Koma und Tod führen. Die Standardbehandlung umfasst Proteinrestriktion, „Stickstoff-fangenden“ Medikamente, Katabolismusprävention und die Hämodialyse. Die neuroprotektive Hypothermie wurde als Teil der Behandlung nur 3-mal berichtet. Es wurde vorgeschlagen, dass die milde systemische Hypothermie für bessere neurologische Ergebnisse bei der hyperammonämischen Enzephalopathie beitragen kann. Die begrenzte Erfahrung schließt jedoch die genauen Schlussfolgerungen zu Sicherheit und Wirksamkeit aus.Bei 4 Neugeborenen mit Harnstoffzyklusstörung oder organischer Azidämie wurde die Ganzkörper-Hypothermie in die Standardbehandlung der hyperammonämischen Enzephalopathie eingezogen.Zwei Patienten überlebten die erste Krise. Ein Patient hat einen Entwicklungsquotient von 0,8, während der andere schwere Entwicklungsverzögerung zeigt. Das Kühlungsprotokoll musste bei 3 Patienten wegen der nicht behandelbaren Komplikationen (niedriger Blutdruck und Blutungen) abgebrochen werden.Die Wirksamkeit und Sicherheit der therapeutischen Hypothermie bei der Behandlung der neonatalen hyperammonämischen Enzephalopathie hängt von verschiedenen Faktoren ab, die eine weitere Evaluierung erfordern.

Early onset cerebellar Ataxia (EOAc) comprises a large group of rare heterogeneous disorders. Determination of the underlying etiology can be difficult given the broad differential diagnosis and the complexity of the genotype-phenotype relationships. This may change the diagnostic work-up into a time-consuming, costly and not always rewarding task. In this overview, the Childhood Ataxia and Cerebellar Group of the European Pediatric Neurology Society (CACG-EPNS) presents a diagnostic algorithm for EOAc patients. In seven consecutive steps, the algorithm leads the clinician through the diagnostic process, including EOA identification, application of the Inventory of Non-Ataxic Signs (INAS), consideration of the family history, neuro-imaging, laboratory investigations, genetic testing by array CGH and Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). In children with EOAc, this algorithm is intended to contribute to the diagnostic process and to allow uniform data entry in EOAc databases. (C) 2019 European Paediatric Neurology Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Sequencing-based studies have identified novel risk genes for rare, severe epilepsies and revealed a role of rare deleterious variation in common epilepsies. To identify the shared and distinct ultra-rare genetic risk factors for rare and common epilepsies, we performed a whole-exome sequencing (WES) analysis of 9,170 epilepsy-affected individuals and 8,364 controls of European ancestry. We focused on three phenotypic groups; the rare but severe developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEE), and the commoner phenotypes of genetic generalized epilepsy (GGE) and non-acquired focal epilepsy (NAFE). We observed that compared to controls, individuals with any type of epilepsy carried an excess of ultra-rare, deleterious variants in constrained genes and in genes previously associated with epilepsy, with the strongest enrichment seen in DEE and the least in NAFE. Moreover, we found that inhibitory GABAA receptor genes were enriched for missense variants across all three classes of epilepsy, while no enrichment was seen in excitatory receptor genes. The larger gene groups for the GABAergic pathway or cation channels also showed a significant mutational burden in DEE and GGE. Although no single gene surpassed exome-wide significance among individuals with GGE or NAFE, highly constrained genes and genes encoding ion channels were among the top associations, including CACNA1G, EEF1A2, and GABRG2 for GGE and LGI1, TRIM3, and GABRG2 for NAFE. Our study confirms a convergence in the genetics of common and rare epilepsies associated with ultra-rare coding variation and highlights a ubiquitous role for GABAergic inhibition in epilepsy etiology in the largest epilepsy WES study to date.

Aim: To determine the prevalence of muscular dystrophy (MD) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) in Croatia by use of multiple epidemiological tools. ----- Methods: This epidemiological study collected data from three national patient registries and one database of a non-governmental organization (NGO) of MD and SMA patients. The study involved all individuals who either had undergone hospital treatment for MD or SMA, had consulted their primary health care providers for MD- and SMA-related symptoms, were listed as disabled due to MD or SMA, or were members of the mentioned NGO in 2016. In order to prevent double entries, we created a new database of all living individuals, each with a unique identification number. The prevalence rates for 2016 were calculated by age and sex groups. ----- Results: There were 926 patients diagnosed with MD (544 men). Most men diagnosed with MD were in the age group 10-19, whereas most women were in the age group 50-59. MD prevalence in Croatia was 22.2 per 100 000 population. There were 392 patients diagnosed with SMA (198 men). Most men with SMA were in the age group 50-59, whereas most women were in the age group 60-69. SMA prevalence in Croatia was 9.3 per 100 000 population. ----- Conclusion: SMA prevalence rate in Croatia is similar to SMA prevalence worldwide. However, MD prevalence rate is higher than worldwide estimates. This difference could be attributed to the fact that we could not confirm whether every patient registered in these databases actually met the diagnostic criteria for MD and SMA.

Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis (CSVT) is an uncommon, but extremely dangerous condition which may have lethal consequences if not recognized on time. The incidence is estimated at 0,6/100 000/year. Clinical presentation is often nonspecific and age-related, including depressed mental status, headache, vomiting, cranial nerve palsy and neonatal seizures. Diagnosis is primarily radiologic with MRV being the gold standard. Most common specific treatment is systematic anticoagulation. A 13-year-old boy presented with diplopia, bilateral 6th cranial nerve palsy and neck pain. He had an episode of acute gastroenteritis recently. Contrast-enhanced MRV revealed an intraluminal filling defects of sagittal, transversal and sigmoid sinus with partial interruption of flow, which was deemed to be an extensive thrombosis. Right mastoid showed inflammatory content, suggesting the potential etiology of the thrombosis. Ophthalmologic assessment documented papilledema. Enoxaparine was initiated and titrated to a therapeutic range. Due to inflammatory finding of the right mastoid, he was given ceftriaxone IV. Control MRV revealed partial recanalization of the sinuses after 28 days of hospitalization. After discharge, he will continue with oral anticoagulant therapy with minimum of 6 months. Mastoiditis is common cause of CSVT in pediatric population. Clinician should keep that in mind when thinking about differential diagnosis for child with sudden neurological deficit and history of acute otitis. Role of thrombolytic therapy is yet to be established. Around 90% of children with well-timed therapy have complete or partial recanalization. There is no clear correlation between recanalization and long-term prognosis.

We report two siblings with infantile onset seizures, severe developmental delay and spastic paraplegia, in whom whole genome sequencing revealed compound heterozygous mutations in the AP4S1 gene, encoding the sigma subunit of the adaptor protein complex 4 (AP-4). The effect of the predicted loss-of-function variants (p.Gln46Profs*9 and p.Arg97*) was further investigated in a patient's fibroblast cell line. We show that the premature stop mutations in AP4S1 result in a reduction of all AP-4 subunits and loss of AP-4 complex assembly. Recruitment of the AP-4 accessory protein tepsin, to the membrane was also abolished. In retrospect, the clinical phenotype in the family is consistent with previous reports of the AP-4 deficiency syndrome. Our study reports the second family with mutations in AP4S1 and describes the first two patients with loss of AP4S1 and seizures. We further discuss seizure phenotypes in reported patients, highlighting that seizures are part of the clinical manifestation of the AP-4 deficiency syndrome. We also hypothesize that endosomal trafficking is a common theme between heritable spastic paraplegia and some inherited epilepsies.

Autoimune encefalopatije (AE) klinički se manifestiraju znakovima limbičkog ili difuznog encefalitisa, a prema etiologiji se mogu podijeliti u paraneoplastične i neparaneoplastične. Simptomi i znakovi autoimunog encefalitisa su vrlo varijabilni i najčešće uklju- čuju glavobolju, epileptičke napadaje i nerijetko epileptički status, poremećaje kretanja (ataksiju, diskinezije, koreju, distoniju i tremor), poremećaje pamćenja, ponašanja, psihoze te različite stupnjeve poremećaja svijesti. Autonomna disfunkcija, poremećaji spavanja i hipoventilacija često su dio kliničke slike. Razvoj autoimunih encefalopatija mogu osim tumorskih potaknuti i virusni antigeni, no najčešće okidači ostaju neidentifi cirani. Prema lokalizaciji antigena na koje je autoimunosni proces usmjeren, autoimune se encefalopatije dijele u one uzrokovane protutijelima na intracelularne antigene (Ma2, Hu), a koje su češće u odraslih, paraneoplastičke su etiologije i slabo reagiraju na imunoterapiju te na one uzrokovane protutijelima na površinske, odnosno sinaptičke antigene (N-metil-diaspartatni receptor (NMDAR), kompleks naponom reguliranih kalijevih kanala VGKC /LGI1) koje dobro reagiraju na imunoterapiju. Protutijela u autoimunim encefalopatijama dokazuju se u serumu i cerebrospinalnom likvoru. U cerebrospinalnom se likvoru nalazi blaga pleocitoza i/ili oligoklonske vrpce, a nerijetko je nalaz u likvoru normalan. EEG pokazuje difuzne encefalopatske spore disritmičke promjene ili tzv. „ekstremne delta četke“ te žarišne epileptogene promjene, odnosno paroksizmalna izbijanja u limbičkom encefalitisu. MR mozga u bolesnika s NMDAR protutijelima u pravilu je normalan ili pokazuje prolazne subkortikalne T2 hiperintenzitete, no posebno je značajan za dijagnozu limbičkog encefalitisa udruženog s kompleksom protutijela VGKC/LGI1. Rano prepoznavanje AE-a, kao i poznavanje njegove potencijalne etiologije od izuzetnog je značenja zbog poduzimanja cjelovitog dijagnostičkog postupka i pravodobne primjene odgovarajuće terapije., Autoimmune encephalopathies are clinically manifested as limbic or diff use encephalitis. According to the etiology, they are classifi ed as paraneoplastic and non-paraneoplastic. Signs and symptoms of autoimmune encephalitis are variable. The symptomatology commonly includes headache and epileptic attacks often progressing to epileptic status, movement disorders (ataxia, dyskinesias, chorea, dystonia and tremor), behavior changes, cognitive impairments, psychoses and various degrees of disorders of consciousness. Faciobrachial dystonic seizures can precede the development of limbic encephalitis. Autonomic dysfunction, sleep disorders and hypoventilation are often present. The development of autoimmune encephalopathies can be induced by either tumor or viral antigens. However, in a signifi cant number of cases, disease triggers remain unidentifi ed. According to the localization of target antigens, autoimmune encephalopathies can be divided into those caused by antibodies against intracellular antigens (Ma2,Hu) and those caused by antibodies against cell surface antigens, i.e. synaptic antigens (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), voltage-gated potassium channel complex/LGI1). The former are paraneoplastic in origin, more often in adults and respond poorly to immunotherapy. The latter ones can aff ect children as well, and are usually-responsive to immunotherapy. Antibodies can be detected in both cerebrospinal fl uid and serum. Mild pleocytosis and/or oligoclonal bands can be found in cerebrospinal fl uid but in some patients the cerebrospinal examination fi ndings can be completely normal. The electroencephalography fi nding consists of diff use, slow dysrhythmic encephalopathic changes or so-called extreme delta brushes and focal epileptogenic changes, i.e. paroxysmal bursts in case of limbic encephalitis. Magnetic resonance image fi nding of the brain is usually normal or presents transient sub/cortical hyperintensities in T2-weighted images but is signifi cant for the diagnosis of limbic encephalitis. Early recognition of autoimmune encephalopathy is of utmost importance because of the need of proper diagnostic procedure and timely introduction of appropriate therapy.

We investigated potential diagnostic usefulness of serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of chemokines CXCL10, CXCL11, and CXCL13 in pediatric patients with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) (n = 23), non-polio enterovirus aseptic meningitis (NPEV AM) (n = 20), and neuroborreliosis (NB) (n = 21) and children with acute infectious diseases with neurological symptoms but with excluded neuroinfection/neuroinflammation (controls, n = 20). CSF levels of CXCL10 and CXCL11 were higher in patients with NPEV AM than those in other children, and CXCL10 levels showed a high discriminative potential (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, ROC, 0.982) with high specificity and sensitivity (both 95%). CSF levels of CXCL13 were higher in NB patients than those in other children ; however, discriminative potential (area under ROC curve 0.814) and diagnostic properties were moderate (sensitivity 67%, specificity 97%). Data suggest usefulness of chemokine quantification as a diagnostic aid in children with suspected ADEM, NPEV AM, or NB.

Background: Recent short-term clinical trials in patients with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) have indicated greater disease variability in terms of progression than expected. In addition, as average life-expectancy increases, reliable data is required on clinical progression in the older DMD population. Objective: To determine the effects of corticosteroids on major clinical outcomes of DMD in a large multinational cohort of genetically confirmed DMD patients. Methods: In this cross-sectional study we analysed clinical data from 5345 genetically confirmed DMD patients from 31 countries held within the TREAT-NMD global DMD database. For analysis patients were categorised by corticosteroid background and further stratified by age. Results: Loss of ambulation in non-steroid treated patients was 10 years and in corticosteroid treated patients 13 years old (p = 0.0001). Corticosteroid treated patients were less likely to need scoliosis surgery (p < 0.001) or ventilatory support (p < 0.001) and there was a mild cardioprotective effect of corticosteroids in the patient population aged 20 years and older (p = 0.0035). Patients with a single deletion of exon 45 showed an increased survival in contrast to other single exon deletions. Conclusions: This study provides data on clinical outcomes of DMD across many healthcare settings and including a sizeable cohort of older patients. Our data confirm the benefits of corticosteroid treatment on ambulation, need for scoliosis surgery, ventilation and, to a lesser extent, cardiomyopathy. This study underlines the importance of data collection via patient registries and the critical role of multi-centre collaboration in the rare disease field. This work was supported by TREAT-NMD operating grants, FP6 LSHM-CT-2006-036825, 20123307 UNEW FY2013 and AFM 16104. Further support came from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement No. 305444 (RD-Connect) and 305121 (Neuromics) and Medical Research Council UK (reference G1002274, grant ID 98482). Sí

Ubiquitination is a posttranslational modification that regulates many cellular processes including protein degradation, intracellular trafficking, cell signaling, and protein-protein interactions. Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), which reverse the process of ubiquitination, are important regulators of the ubiquitin system. OTUD6B encodes a member of the ovarian tumor domain(OTU)-containing subfamily of deubiquitinating enzymes. Herein, we report biallelic pathogenic variants in OTUD6B in 12 individuals from 6 independent families with an intellectual disability syndrome associated with seizures and dysmorphic features. In subjects with predicted loss-of-function alleles, additional features include global developmental delay, microcephaly, absent speech, hypotonia, growth retardation with prenatal onset, feeding difficulties, structural brain abnormalities, congenital malformations including congenital heart disease, and musculoskeletal features. Homozygous Otud6b knockout mice were subviable, smaller in size, and had congenital heart defects, consistent with the severity of loss-of-function variants in humans. Analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from an affected subject showed reduced incorporation of 19S subunits into 26S proteasomes, decreased chymotrypsin-like activity, and accumulation of ubiquitin-protein conjugates. Our findings suggest a role for OTUD6B in proteasome function, establish that defective OTUD6B function underlies a multisystemic human disorder, and provide additional evidence for the emerging relationship between the ubiquitin system and human disease.

Pediatric arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) is a relatively rare disorder with multifactorial etiology. A variety of incompletely investigated genetic polymorphisms may cause hypercoagulability and lead to ischemic lesion formation in different parts of brain. As correlation between neuroimaging finding and genetic risk factors might be helpful for further therapeutic decisions, we investigated the significance of inherited prothrombotic gene polymorphisms in different pediatric AIS subtypes according to time of onset and lesion location. Eleven polymorphisms (FV Leiden, FV HR2, FII G20210A, β-fibrinogen −455G>A, FXIII-A Val34Leu, PAI-1 4G/5G, HPA-1, MTHFR C677T, MTHFR A1298C, ACE I/D, apoE ε2-4) were genotyped using a multilocus CVD Strip assay (ViennaLab, Austria) in DNA extracted from blood samples of 112 children (46 girls, 66 boys) with perinatal (N = 51) and childhood AIS (N = 61), and 110 sex- and age-matched controls. FV Leiden (OR: 4.24 ; 95% CI: 1.16–15.46, p = 0.015) and ACE I/D (OR: 1.90 ; 95% CI: 1.01–3.55, p = 0.044) were found to be associated with AIS. Stroke localization data collected from patient medical records and magnetic resonance imaging results indicated cortical stroke in 69 children (39 with perinatal ; 30 with childhood AIS) and subcortical stroke in 43 children, being more frequent in childhood (N = 31), compared to perinatal AIS (N = 12). Cortical and subcortical strokes differed in β- fibrinogen −455G>A genotype distributions (p = 0.026), −455AA genotype was identified in cortical stroke only. Difference in PAI-1 4G/5G genotype distributions was found between childhood and perinatal subcortical stroke (p = 0.028), yielding to a 4.80-fold increased risk for childhood subcortical stroke (95% CI: 1.16– 19.92). Obtained results corroborate previously reported FV Leiden association with AIS (Coen Herak et al. Clin Appl Thromb/Hemost, in press) with additional ACE I/D association. Exclusive associations of β-fibrinogen −455AA genotype with cortical stroke and PAI-1 4G/5G with childhood subcortical stroke support the assumption that specific polymorphisms may contribute to location dependant lesion formation.

Dravet syndrome is a severe epilepsy syndrome characterized by infantile onset of therapy-resistant, fever-sensitive seizures followed by cognitive decline. Mutations in SCN1A explain about 75% of cases with Dravet syndrome; 90% of these mutations arise de novo. We studied a cohort of nine Dravet-syndrome-affected individuals without an SCN1A mutation (these included some atypical cases with onset at up to 2 years of age) by using whole-exome sequencing in proband-parent trios. In two individuals, we identified a de novo loss-of-function mutation in CHD2 (encoding chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 2). A third CHD2 mutation was identified in an epileptic proband of a second (stage 2) cohort. All three individuals with a CHD2 mutation had intellectual disability and fever-sensitive generalized seizures, as well as prominent myoclonic seizures starting in the second year of life or later. To explore the functional relevance of CHD2 haploinsufficiency in an in vivo model system, we knocked down chd2 in zebrafish by using targeted morpholino antisense oligomers. chd2-knockdown larvae exhibited altered locomotor activity, and the epileptic nature of this seizure-like behavior was confirmed by field-potential recordings that revealed epileptiform discharges similar to seizures in affected persons. Both altered locomotor activity and epileptiform discharges were absent in appropriate control larvae. Our study provides evidence that de novo loss-of-function mutations in CHD2 are a cause of epileptic encephalopathy with generalized seizures. publisher: Elsevier articletitle: De Novo Loss-of-Function Mutations in CHD2 Cause a Fever-Sensitive Myoclonic Epileptic Encephalopathy Sharing Features with Dravet Syndrome journaltitle: The American Journal of Human Genetics articlelink: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.09.017 content_type: article copyright: Copyright © 2013 The American Society of Human Genetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. ispartof: American Journal Of Human Genetics vol:93 issue:5 pages:967-975 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Cyclosporine A-associated neurotoxicity has been reported mainly after organ transplantation. Only a small number of children with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome and cyclosporine A-associated neurotoxicity have been reported. We report three children, aged 4, 11, and 15, with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome and cyclosporine A-associated neurotoxicity. In two of the patients, primary diagnosis was idiopathic nephrotic syndrome, and in one it was IgA nephropathy. Magnetic resonance with diffusion-weighted imaging, combined with quantification of apparent diffusion coefficient values, showed lesions caused by cytotoxic edema indicating irreversible brain damage. Nonetheless, the patients fully recovered clinically and radiologically after prompt discontinuation of cyclosporine A. Neurotoxic effects should be suspected in any child with nephrotic syndrome treated with cyclosporine A in whom sudden neurological symptoms occur. Cytotoxic edema is a rare finding in pediatric patients. However, even in such cases with seemingly irreversible brain damage, full recovery without permanent neurological sequels is possible with prompt cyclosporine A discontinuation and supportive therapy.

Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are a rare heterogeneous group of inherited neuromuscular disorders associated with distinctive clinical, electrophysiological, ultrastructural and genetic abnormalities. These genetic defects either impair neuromuscular transmission directly or result in secondary impairments, which eventually compromise the safety margin of neuromuscular transmission. In this report we will explore the significant progress made in understanding the molecular pathogenesis of CMS, which is important for both patients and clinicians in terms of reaching a definite diagnosis and selecting the most appropriate treatment.

The clinical and molecular data on triple A syndrome in two siblings (girl 3.5 years and boy 5.5 years at presentation) with early onset of neurological dysfunction are described. Both patients showed delayed developmental milestones and neurological dysfunctions (motor and sensory demyelinating neuropathy, marked hyperreflexia, calves hypothrophy, pes cavus, gait disturbance) in early childhood, when erroneously diagnosed with hereditary polyneuropathy, most likely Charcot- Marie-Tooth disease. After a severe adrenal crisis in the younger sister at the age of 3 years, the older brother aged 5.5 years was also evaluated and latent adrenal insufficiency was discovered. As both of the siblings had alacrima, hyperkeratosis of palms, cutis anserina, and nasal speech, diagnosis of triple A syndrome was considered. Sequencing of the AAAS gene detected a compound heterozygous mutation consisting of a novel mutation p.Ser296Tyr (c.887C>A) in exon 9 and a previously described p.Ser263Pro (c.787T>C) missense mutation in exon 8 in both siblings. In conclusion, triple A syndrome should be considered in patients presenting with early neurological dysfunction and developmental delay. Alacrima as the earliest and most consistent clinical sign should be investigated by Schirmer test. Patients should be regularly tested for adrenal dysfunction to prevent life-threatening adrenal crises.

Hereditary neuropathies form a heterogeneous group of disorders for which over 40 causal genes have been identified to date. Recently, dominant mutations in the transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 gene were found to be associated with three distinct neuromuscular phenotypes: hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy 2C, scapuloperoneal spinal muscular atrophy and congenital distal spinal muscular atrophy. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 encodes a cation channel previously implicated in several types of dominantly inherited bone dysplasia syndromes. We performed DNA sequencing of the coding regions of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 in a cohort of 145 patients with various types of hereditary neuropathy and identified five different heterozygous missense mutations in eight unrelated families. One mutation arose de novo in an isolated patient, and the remainder segregated in families. Two of the mutations were recurrent in unrelated families. Four mutations in transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 targeted conserved arginine residues in the ankyrin repeat domain, which is believed to be important in protein-protein interactions. Striking phenotypic variability between and within families was observed. The majority of patients displayed a predominantly, or pure, motor neuropathy with axonal characteristics observed on electrophysiological testing. The age of onset varied widely, ranging from congenital to late adulthood onset. Various combinations of additional features were present in most patients including vocal fold paralysis, scapular weakness, contractures and hearing loss. We identified six asymptomatic mutation carriers, indicating reduced penetrance of the transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 defects. This finding is relatively unusual in the context of hereditary neuropathies and has important implications for diagnostic testing and genetic counselling. © The Author (2010).

Summary Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) is the most common neuromuscular disorder. It represents a group of clinically and genetically heterogeneous inherited neuropathies. Here, we review the results of molecular genetic investigations and the clinical and neurophysiological features of the different CMT subtypes. The products of genes associated with CMT phenotypes are important for the neuronal structure maintenance, axonal transport, nerve signal transduction and functions related to the cellular integrity. Identifying the molecular basis of CMT and studying the relevant genes and their functions is important to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms of these neurodegenerative disorders, and the processes involved in the normal development and function of the peripheral nervous system. The results of molecular genetic investigations have impact on the appropriate diagnosis, genetic counselling and possible new therapeutic options for CMT patients.

Two Croatian siblings with atypical clinical findings in the presence of SMN1 gene mutations are reported. The girl presented with delayed motor development and weakness in hands and feet in her first year of life. She never stood or walked and developed scoliosis and joint contractures during childhood. Her hands and feet were non-functional when last seen at age 14 years. Her 4-year-old brother was more severely affected and had a clinical picture resembling infantile spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) type 1. He also showed unusual distally pronounced weakness and facial weakness. Both patients had no sensory deficits but gave evidence of a mixed axonal and demyelinating neuropathy with pronounced slowing in the distal nerve segments. Unexpectedly, both siblings showed a compound heterozygous SMN1 mutation (heterozygous deletion and missense mutation c.689C > T ; p.S230L), thus confirming infantile SMA. In addition, next generation sequencing of 52 genes for hereditary neuropathies revealed a heterozygous missense mutation c.505T > C ; p.Y169H in the SH3TC2 gene that was transmitted by the healthy father. Our observations widen the phenotypic consequences of SMN1 gene mutations and support the notion to look for additional genetic factors which may modify the clinical picture in atypical cases.

An 18-year-old male patient with MELAS phenotype and 2 previous episodes of cerebral stroke, recurrent seizures and nephropathy, was treated with creatine monohydrate after the acute onset of psychomental regression and changing states of somnolence and aggressive and agitated behaviour. These symptoms disappeared completely after 4 weeks of treatment with creatine after which the patient regained all his previous mental abilites. Brain (white matter) proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (chemical shift imaging) performed at 6 and 12 months of treatment showed lactic acid (Lac) accumulation and high creatine (Cr) levels in relation to choline-containing compounds (Cho). Urinary creatinine excretion as an indicator of the muscle and brain creatine pool increased upon short-term (12 days) high-dosage creatine supplementation (20 g per day) while plasma creatinine concentrations as possible indicators both of increasing creatine pool and of renal insufficiency increased during the course (28 months) of low-dosage creatine supplementation (5 g per day). Deterioration of renal function was finally indicated by urea retention and by impairment of renal creatinine clearance. These observations suggest that creatine supplementation may have a neuroprotective effect in patients with MELAS and episodes of acute mental deterioration. Adverse effects of creatine supplementation on renal function must be considered especially in patients with preexisting nephropathy.

We conducted a retrospective study at the Department of Paediatric Cardiology of the University Hospital Centre Rebro, Zagreb, over the period from 1988 to 1998, so as to assess the epidemiology of childhood cardiomyopathies. The patients were categorized according to the guidelines of the Task Force on Cardiomyopathies of the World Health Organization and the International Society and Federation of Cardiology. We identified 121 infants, children and adolescents as having cardiomyopathy, giving an average occurrence for all cardiomyopathies of 38.81 for each 10, 000 patients examined in our outpatient clinics for paediatric cardiology. Of the patients, 50 were female (41.3%) and 71 were male (58.7%). The cardiomyopathy was of the dilated variant in 52 patients (42.9%), with 43 patients (35.5%) having hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and 6 patients (4.8%) identified with restrictive cardiomyopathy. We encountered no patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. In nine patients (7.4%), it proved impossible to classify the cardiomyopathy. We placed 11 patients (9.0%) in the group of specific cardiomyopathies. Most of those with dilated cardiomyopathy had been diagnosed prior to the age of 3 years (RR 1.9, 95% CI 1.4-2.47). There were no statistically significant differences in the incidences of dilated as compared to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (Z 0.923, p = 0.1779), but we encountered a significantly lower occurrence of restrictive cardiomyopathy (Z 6.044, p < 0.001). Of those with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 15 patients (34.8%) had the asymmetric variant, while 28 patients (65.2%) exhibited the concentric form. During the period of follow-up, 10 patients died, 4 with dilated cardiomyopathy, 4 with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 1 with restrictive cardiomyopathy, and 1 with a specific cardiomyopathy. We encountered 12 (9.9%) patients who, besides cardiomyopathies, also suffered from neuromuscular disorders. Most of these had dilated cardiomyopathy. Mitochondrial disorders, in contrast, were more frequently found in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

Emerging evidence indicates that epileptic encephalopathies are genetically highly heterogeneous, underscoring the need for large cohorts of well-characterized individuals to further define the genetic landscape. Through a collaboration between two consortia (EuroEPINOMICS and Epi4K/EPGP), we analyzed exome-sequencing data of 356 trios with the "classical" epileptic encephalopathies, infantile spasms and Lennox Gastaut syndrome, including 264 trios previously analyzed by the Epi4K/EPGP consortium. In this expanded cohort, we find 429 de novo mutations, including de novo mutations in DNM1 in five individuals and de novo mutations in GABBR2, FASN, and RYR3 in two individuals each. Unlike previous studies, this cohort is sufficiently large to show a significant excess of de novo mutations in epileptic encephalopathy probands compared to the general population using a likelihood analysis (p = 8.2 × 10(-4)), supporting a prominent role for de novo mutations in epileptic encephalopathies. We bring statistical evidence that mutations in DNM1 cause epileptic encephalopathy, find suggestive evidence for a role of three additional genes, and show that at least 12% of analyzed individuals have an identifiable causal de novo mutation. Strikingly, 75% of mutations in these probands are predicted to disrupt a protein involved in regulating synaptic transmission, and there is a significant enrichment of de novo mutations in genes in this pathway in the entire cohort as well. These findings emphasize an important role for synaptic dysregulation in epileptic encephalopathies, above and beyond that caused by ion channel dysfunction.