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In guanine-rich DNA strands, base-base interactions among guanines allow the conformational shift from the B-form DNA to the non-canonical quadruplex or G4 structure. The functional significance of G4 DNA in vivo is largely dependent on the interaction with protein factors, many of which contain the arginine–glycine–glycine or RGG repeat and other consensus G4-binding motifs. These G4-interacting proteins can significantly modulate the effect of G4 DNA structure on genome maintenance, either preventing or aggravating G4-assoicated genome instability. While the role of helicases in resolving G4 DNA structure has been extensively discussed, identification and characterization of protein factors contributing to elevation in G4-associated genome instability has been relatively sparse. In this minireview, we will particularly highlight recent discoveries regarding how interaction between certain G4-binding proteins and G4 DNA could exacerbate genome instability potentiated by G4 DNA-forming sequences.

A significant increase in genome instability is associated with the conformational shift of a guanine-run-containing DNA strand into the four-stranded G-quadruplex (G4) DNA. The mechanism underlying the recombination and genome rearrangements following the formation of G4 DNA in vivo has been difficult to elucidate but has become better clarified by the identification and functional characterization of several key G4 DNA-binding proteins. Mammalian nucleolin (NCL) is a highly specific G4 DNA-binding protein with a well-defined role in the transcriptional regulation of genes with associated G4 DNA-forming sequence motifs at their promoters. The consequence of the in vivo interaction between G4 DNA and nucleolin in respect to the genome instability has not been previously investigated. We show here that the yeast nucleolin Nsr1 is enriched at a G4 DNA-forming sequence in vivo and is a major factor in inducing the genome instability associated with the cotranscriptionally formed G4 DNA in the yeast genome. We also show that Nsr1 results in impeding replication past such a G4 DNA-forming sequence. The G4-associated genome instability and the G4 DNA-binding in vivo require the arginine-glycine-glycine (RGG) repeats located at the C-terminus of the Nsr1 protein. Nsr1 with the deletion of RGG domain supports normal cell growth and is sufficient for its pre-rRNA processing function. However, the truncation of the RGG domain of Nsr1 significantly weakens its interaction with G4 DNA in vivo and restores unhindered replication, overall resulting in a sharp reduction in the genome instability associated with a guanine-rich G4 DNA-forming sequence. Our data suggest that the interaction between Nsr1 with the intact RGG repeats and G4 DNA impairs genome stability by precluding the access of G4-resolving proteins and impeding replication.

시위는 유권자들의 선거참여를 독려하나? 시위와 선거참여는 제도적 · 비제도적 정치참여 방식의 대표적 유형이다. 하지만 시위와 선거에 대한 연구는 비교정치에서 독자적으로 발전되어오며 이 둘의 관계에 대한 이론적 논리와 경험적 연구가 아직 체계적으로 발전되지 못한 상태이다. 시위와 선거 연구의 학술적 소통을 증진시키는 노력의 일환으로서 본 논문은 시위가 투표율에 미치는 영향을 규명하고자 한다. 특히 본 논문은 시민들의 정치관심과 정치효능감이 대규모 시위에 의해 영향을 받으며 시민들을 보다 적극적으로 투표에 참여하게 한다는 점을 이론화하였다. 이를 검증하기 위해 미국에서 수집한 시위 자료와 설문조사 자료를 결합해 분석한 결과, 규모가 큰 시위는 유권자의 정치적 관심을 향상시켜 투표에 보다 적극적으로 참여하게 했다는 것이 통계적으로 유의미함을 확인할 수 있었다.

G4 DNA is a non-canonical DNA structure consisting of a stacked array of Gquartets held together by base pairing between guanine bases. The formation of G4 DNA requires a cluster of guanine-runs within a strand of DNA. Even though the chemistry of this remarkable DNA structure has been under investigation for decades, evidence supporting the biological relevance of G4 DNA has only begun to emerge and point to very important and conserved biological functions. This review will specifically focus on the interplay between transcription and G4 DNA and discuss two alternative but interconnected perspectives. The first part of the review will describe the evidence substantiating the intriguing idea that a shift in DNA structural conformation could be another layer of non-genetic or epigenetic regulator of gene expression and thereby an important determinant of cell fate. The second part will describe the recent genetic studies showing that those genomic loci containing G4 DNA-forming guanine-rich sequences are potential hotspots of genome instability and that the level and orientation of transcription is critical in the materialization of genome instability associated with these sequences.

DNA strands consisting of multiple runs of guanines can adopt a noncanonical, four-stranded DNA secondary structure known as G-quadruplex or G4 DNA. G4 DNA is thought to play an important role in transcriptional and translational regulation of genes, DNA replication, genome stability, and oncogene expression in eukaryotic genomes. In other organisms, including several bacterial pathogens and some plant species, the biological roles of G4 DNA and G4 RNA are starting to be explored. Recent investigations showed that G4 DNA and G4 RNA are generally conserved across plant species. In silico analyses of several bacterial genomes identified putative guanine-rich, G4 DNA-forming sequences in promoter regions. The sequences were particularly abundant in certain gene classes, suggesting that these highly diverse structures can be employed to regulate the expression of genes involved in secondary metabolite synthesis and signal transduction. Furthermore, in the pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the distribution of G4 motifs and their potential role in the regulation of gene transcription advocate for the use of G4 ligands to develop novel antitubercular therapies. In this review, we discuss the various roles of G4 structures in bacterial DNA and the application of G4 DNA as inhibitors or therapeutic agents to address bacterial pathogens.

Yeast Apn2 is an AP endonuclease and DNA 3'-diesterase that belongs to the Exo III family with homology to the E. coli exonuclease III, Schizosaccharomyces pombe eth1, and human AP endonucleases APEX1 and APEX2. In the absence of Apn1, the major AP endonuclease in yeast, Apn2 can cleave the DNA backbone at an AP lesion initiating the base excision repair pathway. To study the role and relative contribution of Apn2, we took advantage of a reporter system that was previously used to delineate how uracil-derived AP sites are repaired. At this reporter, disruption of the Apn1-initiated base excision repair pathway led to a significant elevation of A:T to C:G transversions. Here we show that such highly elevated A:T to C:G transversion mutations associated with uracil residues in DNA are abolished when apn1∆ yeast cells are grown in glucose as the primary carbon source. We also show that the disruption of Apn2, either by the complete gene deletion or by the mutation of a catalytic residue, results in a similarly reduced rate of the uracil-associated mutations. Overall, our results indicate that Apn2 activity is regulated by the glucose repression pathway in yeast.

Yeast Apn2 is an AP endonuclease and DNA 3’-diesterase that belongs to the Exo III family with homology to theE. coliexonuclease III,Schizosaccharomyces pombeeth1, and human AP endonucleases APEX1 and APEX2. In the absence of Apn1, the major AP endonuclease in yeast, Apn2 can cleave the DNA backbone at an AP lesion initiating the base excision repair pathway. In order to study the role and relative contribution of Apn2, we took advantage of a reporter system that was previously used to delineate how uracil-derived AP sites are repaired. At this reporter, disruption of the Apn1-initiated base excision repair pathway led to a significant elevation of A:T to C:G transversions. Here we show that such highly elevated A:T to C:G transversion mutations associated with uracil residues in DNA are abolished whenapn1Δ yeast cells are grown in glucose as the primary carbon source. We also show that the disruption of Apn2, either by the complete gene deletion or by the mutation of a catalytic residue, results in a similarly reduced rate of the uracil-associated mutations. Overall, our results indicate that Apn2 activity is regulated by the glucose repression pathway in yeast.

International audience; Guanine-rich DNA strands can form secondary structures known as G-quadruplexes (G4-DNA). G4-DNA is important for the regulation of replication and transcription. We recently showed that the expression of Atg7, a gene that is critical for macroautophagy/autophagy, is controlled by G4-DNA in neurons. We demonstrated that the transcription factor SUB1/PC4 and the G4-DNA-specific antibody HF2 bind to a putative G4-DNA motif located in the Atg7 gene. Stabilizing G4-DNA with the G4-ligand pyridostatin (PDS) downregulates Atg7 expression in neurons. Here, we further investigated how G4-DNA in the Atg7 gene is stabilized by PDS. We show that PDS can form 1:1 and 2:1 complexes with the Atg7's G4. We also demonstrate that PDS downregulates the ATG7 protein and the expression of Atg7 in astrocytes as well as in neurons. Together with our previous findings, these data establish a novel G4-DNA-associated mechanism of autophagy regulation at a transcriptional level in neurons and astrocytes.

International audience; Guanine-rich DNA sequences can fold into four-stranded G-quadruplex (G4-DNA) structures. G4-DNA regulates replication and transcription, at least in cancer cells. Here, we demonstrate that, in neurons, pharmacologically stabilizing G4-DNA with G4 ligands strongly downregulates the Atg7 gene. Atg7 is a critical gene for the initiation of autophagy that exhibits decreased transcription with aging. Using an in vitro assay, we show that a putative G-quadruplex-forming sequence (PQFS) in the first intron of the Atg7 gene folds into a G4. An antibody specific to G4-DNA and the G4-DNA-binding protein PC4 bind to the Atg7 PQFS. Mice treated with a G4 stabilizer develop memory deficits. Brain samples from aged mice contain G4-DNA structures that are absent in brain samples from young mice. Overexpressing the G4-DNA helicase Pif1 in neurons exposed to the G4 stabilizer improves phenotypes associated with G4-DNA stabilization. Our findings indicate that G4-DNA is a novel pathway for regulating autophagy in neurons.

Non-canonical residue in DNA is a major and conserved source of genome instability. The appearance of uracil residues in DNA accompanies a significant mutagenic consequence and is regulated at multiple levels, from the concentration of available dUTP in the nucleotide pool to the excision repair for removal from DNA. Recently, an interesting phenomenon of transcription-associated elevation in uracil-derived mutations was described in Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome. While trying to understand the variability in mutagenesis, we uncovered that the frequency of uracil incorporation into DNA can vary depending on the transcription rate and that the non-replicative, repair-associated DNA synthesis underlies the higher uracil density of the actively transcribed genomic loci. This novel mechanism brings together the chemical vulnerability of DNA under transcription and the uracil-associated mutagenesis, and has the potential to apply to other non-canonical residues of mutagenic importance. Keyword: DNA repair; Non-canonical nucleotides; Transcription-associated mutagenesis; Uracil dUTPase

Topoisomerase I in eukaryotic cells is an important regulator of DNA topology. Its catalytic function is to remove positive or negative superhelical tension by binding to duplex DNA, creating a reversible single-strand break, and finally religating the broken strand. Proper maintenance of DNA topological homeostasis, in turn, is critically important in the regulation of replication, transcription, DNA repair, and other processes of DNA metabolism. One of the cellular processes regulated by the DNA topology and thus by Topoisomerase I is the formation of non-canonical DNA structures. Non-canonical or non-B DNA structures, including the four-stranded G-quadruplex or G4 DNA, are potentially pathological in that they interfere with replication or transcription, forming hotspots of genome instability. In this review, we first describe the role of Topoisomerase I in reducing the formation of non-canonical nucleic acid structures in the genome. We further discuss the interesting recent discovery that Top1 and Top1 mutants bind to G4 DNA structures in vivo and in vitro and speculate on the possible consequences of these interactions.

2019 Klein et al., Understanding the plasticity of genomes has been greatly aided by assays for recombination, repair and mutagenesis. These assays have been developed in microbial systems that provide the advantages of genetic and molecular reporters that can readily be manipulated. Cellular assays comprise genetic, molecular, and cytological reporters. The assays are powerful tools but each comes with its particular advantages and limitations. Here the most commonly used assays are reviewed, discussed, and presented as the guidelines for future studies., HLK was supported by NIH grant R01-CA146940. AA was supported by the European research Council (ERC2014- ADG669898 TARLOOP), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (BFU2016-75058-P), and the Junta de Andalucía (BIO1238). JLA was supported by NIH grant R35G-GM119788. CHF was supported by NIH grants P01- GM105473 and R01-GM122880. SMG was supported by the Swiss national Science Foundation and the Novartis Research Foundation. DAG was supported by National Institutes of Health (Intramural Research Program Project Z1AES103266. JEH was supported by NIH grants R35- GM127029 and P01-GM105473. GI was supported by NIH grants R01-GM125650 and R01-GM080600. SJ-R was supported by NIH grant R35-GM118077. MCK was supported by National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship DGE-1122492, NIH training grant T32-GM007223 and NIH grant DP20D008429. RDK and CDP were supported by NIH grants R01-GM26017 and R01-GM50006. AK was supported by NIH grant R01-GM073115. SAEL was supported by grants from Agence Nationale de la Recherche ANR-14- CE10-0010-01 and the Foundation pour la Recherche Médicale Equipe FRM DEQ20160334889. SEL was supported by NIH grant R01-GM071011. SMM was supported by NIH grants R01-GM60987 and P01-GM105473. TDP was supported by NIH grant R35-GM118020. SMR was supported by a gift from WM Keck Foundation, NIH Director’s Pioneer Award DP1-CA174424 and NIH grant R35-GM122598. DMF was supported by the Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas, Baylor College of Medicine Comprehensive Cancer Training Program Postdoctoral Fellowship RP160283. RR was supported by NIH grant R35-GM118180 and JM-H was supported by a Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship and the ANR-12-PDOC-0035-01. LSS was supported by NIH grant R35-GM126997. PZ was supported by National Science Centre Poland 2015/19/103859 and FNP First TEAM/2016-1/9. NK was supported by NIH grant R01-GM116007 and the Welch Foundation (AU1875). ML was supported by grants from the Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation, the Villum Foundation and the Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF115). AM was supported by NIH grants R35-GM127006 and R03- ES029306.

Recombination and mutagenesis are elevated by active transcription. The correlation between transcription and genome instability is largely explained by the topological and structural changes in DNA and the associated physical obstacles generated by the transcription machinery. However, such explanation does not directly account for the unique types of mutations originating from the non-canonical residues, uracil or ribonucleotide, which are also elevated at highly transcribed regions. Based on the previous findings that abasic (AP) lesions derived from the uracil residues incorporated into DNA in place of thymine constitute a major component of the transcription-associated mutations in yeast, we formed the hypothesis that DNA synthesis ensuing from the repair of the transcription-induced DNA damage provide the opportunity for uracil-incorporation. In support of this hypothesis, we show here the positive correlation between the level of transcription and the density of uracil residues in the yeast genome indirectly through the mutations generated by the glycosylase that excise undamaged cytosine as well as uracil. The higher uracil-density at actively transcribed regions is confirmed by the long-amplicon PCR analysis. We also show that the uracil-associated mutations at a highly transcribed region are elevated by the induced DNA damage and reduced by the overexpression of a dUTP-catalyzing enzyme Dut1 in G1- or G2-phases of the cell cycle. Overall, our results show that the DNA composition can be modified to include higher uracil-content through the non-replicative, repair-associated DNA synthesis., Author summary Uracil in DNA, a major source of spontaneous mutations, can occur through the deamination of cytosine residues or through the direct incorporation of dUTP by DNA polymerases. Recent studies in yeast have shown that the uracil-associated mutations occur more frequently at highly transcribed regions. Because the reduction in dUTP pool decreased these mutations, it was postulated that the extent of uracil-incorporation into DNA is significantly affected by the local transcription activity. We show here that the higher transcription rate does correlate with the higher uracil-density in the yeast genome. We further provide multiple lines of evidence supporting a model of uracil-incorporation into DNA that is dependent on the repair synthesis of transcription-associated DNA damage.

This research analyzes trends of fashion show window displays, regarding it as a new form of installation art that has the characteristics of contemporary art. Fashion show window displays are more than a physical space for displaying and have emerged as a new space in which creative expressions of arts take place. This research presents the characteristics of contemporary fashion show window displays by analyzing the characteristics of contemporary art. First, recent show window displays have shown "decentralization": various themes, forms, and mediums that are accepted without discrimination. Recent show window displays deviate from conventional methods, constantly pursuing experimental and progressive ideas and also include categories of current art, body art, and live art. Second, show window display has "interactiveness" that enables two-way communication between audiences and art, rather than fixing audiences as receptive viewers. Third, "textuality" can be found in show window displays. Recent show windows are use "objects" to show products as well as to express the meaning and symbols of products. A new directionality and effective strategies are shown to be imperative for the future development of fashion show window displays.

Highly transcribed guanine-run containing sequences, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, become unstable when topoisomerase I (Top1) is disrupted. Topological changes, such as the formation of extended RNA:DNA hybrids or R-loops or non-canonical DNA structures including G-quadruplexes has been proposed as the major underlying cause of the transcription-linked genome instability. Here, we report that R-loop accumulation at a guanine-rich sequence, which is capable of assembling into the four-stranded G4 DNA structure, is dependent on the level and the orientation of transcription. In the absence of Top1 or RNase Hs, R-loops accumulated to substantially higher extent when guanine-runs were located on the non-transcribed strand. This coincides with the orientation where higher genome instability was observed. However, we further report that there are significant differences between the disruption of RNase Hs and Top1 in regards to the orientation-specific elevation in genome instability at the guanine-rich sequence. Additionally, genome instability in Top1-deficient yeasts is not completely suppressed by removal of negative supercoils and further aggravated by expression of mutant Top1. Together, our data provide a strong support for a function of Top1 in suppressing genome instability at the guanine-run containing sequence that goes beyond preventing the transcription-associated RNA:DNA hybrid formation.

Topoisomerases manage the torsional stress associated with the separation of DNA strands during transcription and DNA replication. Eukaryotic Topoisomerase I (Top1) is a Type IB enzyme that nicks and rejoins only one strand of duplex DNA, and it is especially important during transcription. By resolving transcription-associated torsional stress, Top1 reduces the accumulation of genome-destabilizing R-loops and non-B DNA structures. The DNA nicking activity of Top1, however, can also initiate genome instability in the form of illegitimate recombination, homologous recombination and mutagenesis. In this review, we focus on the diverse, and often opposing, roles of Top1 in regulating eukaryotic genome stability.

Abasic or AP sites generated by spontaneous DNA damage accumulate at a higher rate in actively transcribed regions of the genome in S. cerevisiae and are primarily repaired by base excision repair (BER) pathway. We have demonstrated that transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway can functionally replace BER to repair those AP sites located on the transcribed strand much like the strand specific repair of UV-induced pyrimidine dimers. Previous reports indicate that Rad26, a yeast homolog of transcription-repair coupling factor CSB, partly mediates strand-specific repair of UV-dimers as well as AP lesions. Here, we report that Def1, known to promote ubiquitination and degradation of stalled RNA polymerase complex, also directs NER to AP lesions on the transcribed strand of an actively transcribed gene but that its function is dependent on metabolic state of the yeast cells. We additionally show that Dst1, a homolog of mammalian transcription elongation factor TFIIS, interferes with NER-dependent repair of AP lesions while suppressing homologous recombination pathway. Overall, Def1 and Dst1 mediate very different outcomes in response to AP-induced transcription arrest.

An Interactive Documentary is web and multimedia documentary with interactivity and user participatory that present non-linear narratives. These features come from that of new media including hypertext, remediation, modulation and interactivity which is combination of cinema and digital technologies. Focused features of new media and interactive documentary are presented and compared. Variant modes of interactive documentary compared to traditional documentary or media are presented. Interactive Documentary is a New media, mostly affected by user related interactions.

G-quadruplex or G4 DNA is a non-B secondary DNA structure consisting of a stacked array of guanine-quartets that can disrupt critical cellular functions such as replication and transcription. When sequences that can adopt Non-B structures including G4 DNA are located within actively transcribed genes, the reshaping of DNA topology necessary for transcription process stimulates secondary structure-formation thereby amplifying the potential for genome instability. Using a reporter assay designed to study G4-induced recombination in the context of an actively transcribed locus in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we tested whether co-transcriptional activator Sub1, recently identified as a G4-binding factor, contributes to genome maintenance at G4-forming sequences. Our data indicate that, upon Sub1-disruption, genome instability linked to co-transcriptionally formed G4 DNA in Top1-deficient cells is significantly augmented and that its highly conserved DNA binding domain or the human homolog PC4 is sufficient to suppress G4-associated genome instability. We also show that Sub1 interacts specifically with co-transcriptionally formed G4 DNA in vivo and that yeast cells become highly sensitivity to G4-stabilizing chemical ligands by the loss of Sub1. Finally, we demonstrate the physical and genetic interaction of Sub1 with the G4-resolving helicase Pif1, suggesting a possible mechanism by which Sub1 suppresses instability at G4 DNA.

Alterations in genome sequence and structure contribute to somatic disease, affect the fitness of subsequent generations and drive evolutionary processes. The crucial roles of highly accurate replication and efficient repair in maintaining overall genome integrity are well-known, but the more localized stability costs that are associated with transcribing DNA into RNA molecules are less appreciated. Here we review the diverse ways in which the essential process of transcription alters the underlying DNA template and thereby modifies the genetic landscape.

This article described relations between knowledge contents for culture contents. Knowledge contents include academic article, research report, digital replica for old books and digital cultural heritages with a high level of abstraction and complexity. The process of digitalization sets up the clearinghouse for information and knowledge of humanities which can be a critical resource for cultural contents development. Knowledge contents are deliverable of knowledge-information hierarchies. The knowledgeinformation resource management plan doing by Korean Studies Advancement Center shows the most of the hierarchies. As a result, this paper shows that the process of knowledge-information development and the process of cultural contents development are in a series of continuous process.With the help of information technology.

Non-B DNA structures are a major contributor to the genomic instability associated with repetitive sequences. Immunoglobulin switch Mu (Sμ) region sequence is comprised of guanine-rich repeats and has high potential for forming G4 DNA, in which one strand of DNA folds into an array of guanine quartets. Taking advantage of the genetic tractability of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we developed a recombination assay to investigate mechanisms involved in maintaining stability of G-rich repetitive sequence. By embedding Sμ sequence within recombination substrates under the control of a tetracycline-regulatable promoter, we demonstrate that the rate and orientation of transcription both affect the stability of Sμ sequence. In particular, the greatest instability was observed under high-transcription conditions when the Sμ sequence was oriented with the C-rich strand as the transcription template. The effect of transcription orientation was enhanced in the absence of the Type IB topoiosmerase Top1, possibly due to enhanced R-loop formation. Loss of Sgs1 helicase and RNase H activity also increased instability, suggesting they may cooperatively function to reduce the formation of non-B DNA structures in highly transcribed regions. Finally, the Sμ sequence was unstable when transcription elongation was perturbed due to a defective THO complex. In a THO-deficient background, there was further exacerbation of orientation-dependent instability associated with the ectopically expressed, single-strand cytosine deaminase AID. The implications of our findings to understanding instability associated with potential G4 DNA forming sequences are discussed.

Abasic (AP) sites are potent blocks to DNA and RNA polymerases, and their repair is essential for maintaining genome integrity. Although AP sites are efficiently dealt with through the base excision repair (BER) pathway, genetic studies suggest that repair also can occur via nucleotide excision repair (NER). The involvement of NER in AP-site removal has been puzzling, however, as this pathway is thought to target only bulky lesions. Here, we examine the repair of AP sites generated when uracil is removed from a highly transcribed gene in yeast. Because uracil is incorporated instead of thymine under these conditions, the position of the resulting AP site is known. Results demonstrate that only AP sites on the transcribed strand are efficient substrates for NER, suggesting the recruitment of the NER machinery by an AP-blocked RNA polymerase. Such transcription-coupled NER of AP sites may explain previously suggested links between the BER pathway and transcription.

Highly-activated transcription is associated with eukaryotic genome instability, resulting in elevated rates of mitotic recombination and mutagenesis. The association between high transcription and genome stability is likely due to a variety of factors including an enhanced accumulation of DNA damage, transcription-associated supercoiling, collision between replication forks and the transcription machinery, and the persistence of RNA-DNA hybrids 1. In the case of transcription-associated mutagenesis (TAM), we previously showed that there is a direct proportionality between the level of transcription and the mutation rate in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae2, and that the molecular nature of mutations is affected by highly-activated transcription 2 3. In the work presented here, we find that the accumulation of apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites is greatly enhanced in highly-transcribed yeast DNA. We further demonstrate that most AP sites in highly-transcribed DNA are derived from the removal of uracil, the presence of which is linked to direct incorporation of dUTP in place of dTTP. These results reveal an unexpected relationship between transcription and the fidelity of DNA synthesis, and raise intriguing cell biological issues with regard to nucleotide pool compartmentalization.

A high level of transcription has been associated with elevated spontaneous mutation and recombination rates in eukaryotic organisms. To determine whether the transcription level is directly correlated with the degree of genomic instability, we have developed a tetracycline-regulated LYS2 reporter system to modulate the transcription level over a broad range in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We find that spontaneous mutation rate is directly proportional to the transcription level, suggesting that movement of RNA polymerase through the target initiates a mutagenic process(es). Using this system, we also investigated two hypotheses that have been proposed to explain transcription-associated mutagenesis (TAM): (1) transcription impairs replication fork progression in a directional manner and (2) DNA lesions accumulate under high-transcription conditions. The effect of replication fork progression was probed by comparing the mutational rates and spectra in yeast strains with the reporter gene placed in two different orientations near a well-characterized replication origin. The effect of endogenous DNA damage accumulation was investigated by studying TAM in strains defective in nucleotide excision repair or in lesion bypass by the translesion polymerase Polzeta. Our results suggest that both replication orientation and endogenous lesion accumulation play significant roles in TAM, particularly in terms of mutation spectra.

DNA polymerases incorporate ribonucleoside monophosphates (rNMPs) into genomic DNA at a low level and such rNMPs are efficiently removed in an error-free manner by ribonuclease (RNase) H2. In the absence of RNase H2 in budding yeast, persistent rNMPs give rise to short deletions via a mutagenic process initiated by Topoisomerase 1 (Top1). We examined the activity of a 2-bp, rNMP-dependent deletion hotspot [the (TG)2 hotspot] when on the transcribed or non-transcribed strand (TS or NTS, respectively) of a reporter placed in both orientations near a strong origin of replication. Under low-transcription conditions, hotspot activity depended on whether the (TG)2 sequence was part of the newly synthesized leading or lagging strand of replication. In agreement with an earlier study, deletions occurred at a much higher rate when (TG)2 was on the nascent leading strand. Under high-transcription conditions, however, hotspot activity was not dependent on replication direction, but rather on whether the (TG)2 sequence was on the TS or NTS of the reporter. Deletion rates were several orders of magnitude higher when (TG)2 was on the NTS. These results highlight the complex interplay between replication and transcription in regulating Top1-dependent genetic instability.

The formation of highly stable four-stranded DNA, called G-quadruplex (G4), promotes site-specific genome instability. G4 DNA structures fold from repetitive guanine sequences, and increasing experimental evidence connects G4 sequence motifs with specific gene rearrangements. The human transcription factor 3 (TCF3) gene (also termed E2A) is subject to genetic instability associated with severe disease, most notably a common translocation event t(1;19) associated with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The sites of instability in TCF3 are not randomly distributed, but focused to certain sequences. We asked if G4 DNA formation could explain why TCF3 is prone to recombination and mutagenesis. Here we demonstrate that sequences surrounding the major t(1;19) break site and a region associated with copy number variations both contain G4 sequence motifs. The motifs identified readily adopt G4 DNA structures that are stable enough to interfere with DNA synthesis in physiological salt conditions in vitro. When introduced into the yeast genome, TCF3 G4 motifs promoted gross chromosomal rearrangements in a transcription-dependent manner. Our results provide a molecular rationale for the site-specific instability of human TCF3, suggesting that G4 DNA structures contribute to oncogenic DNA breaks and recombination.

Mutagenesis is a prerequisite for evolution and also is an important contributor to human diseases. Most mutations in actively dividing cells originate during DNA replication as errors introduced when copying an undamaged DNA template or during the bypass of DNA lesions. In addition, mutations can be introduced during the repair of DNA double-strand breaks by either homologous recombination or non-homologous end-joining pathways. Finally, although generally considered to be a very high-fidelity process, the excision repair of DNA damage may be an important contributor to mutagenesis in non-dividing cells. In this review, we will discuss the well-known contributions of DNA replication to mutagenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as well as the less-appreciated contributions of recombination and repair to mutagenesis in this organism.

The frequency of somatic hypermutations of an Ig κ transgene with an artificial test insert, RS, is at least 4-fold higher than that of three related transgenes. The four transgenes differ only in the sequence of a 96 bp insert within the variable region. RS is hypermutable over the total 625 nucleotides of the variable/joining region. The RS insert contains two CAGGTG sequences, potential binding sites for basic helix-loop-helix proteins. Changing CAGGTG to AAGGTG reduces the mutability to that of the non-RS transgenes without altering the mutation pattern. The CAGGTG motif enhances somatic hypermutation without enhancing transcription. A DNA probe containing the two CAGGTG sites, but not AAGGTG, binds E47 and gives rise to two specific EMSA bands with nuclear extracts from mutating cells. Possible actions of this enhancer of somatic hypermutation are discussed.

Somatic hypermutation (SHM) is investigated in related immunoglobulin transgenes that differ in a short artificial sequence designed to vary the content of hotspot motifs and the potential to form RNA or DNA secondary structures. Mutability depends on hotspots, not secondary structure. Hotspot motifs predict about 50% of the mutations; the rest are in neutral and coldspots. Clusters of mutations and the sequential addition of mutations found in cell pedigrees suggest epigenetic attributes of SHM. Sometime in SHM, an essential factor seems to become limiting. Particular error-prone DNA polymerases appear to create mutations in hotspots on the top and bottom DNA strands throughout the target and the SHM process. One transgene is superhypermutable in all regions, suggesting the presence of a cis-element that enhances SHM.

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Somatic hypermutation (SHM) of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes is a highly specific mechanism restricted to B lymphocytes during only a few cell generations. Data presented here suggest that transcription of the target genes is required, but not sufficient for SHM. Presumably,cis–acting elements, such as those present in the Ig enhancers, are required to target a mutator factor (MuF) to Ig and humanBCL–6genes. It is postulated that the MuF travels with the transcribing RNA polymerase and is deposited on the target gene when the polymerase pauses. Point mutations, and rare deletions and insertions, are created by the combined actions of MuF and certain DNA polymerases. A subset of the mutations is corrected during SHM by DNA mismatch repair.

Somatic hypermutation of Ig genes is probably dependent on transcription of the target gene via a mutator factor associated with the RNA polymerase (Storb, U., E.L. Klotz, J. Hackett, Jr., K. Kage, G. Bozek, and T.E. Martin. 1998. J. Exp. Med. 188:689–698). It is also probable that some form of DNA repair is involved in the mutation process. It was shown that the nucleotide excision repair proteins were not required, nor were mismatch repair (MMR) proteins. However, certain changes in mutation patterns and frequency of point mutations were observed in Msh2 (MutS homologue) and Pms2 (MutL homologue) MMR-deficient mice (for review see Kim, N., and U. Storb. 1998. J. Exp. Med. 187:1729–1733). These data were obtained from endogenous immunoglobulin (Ig) genes and were presumably influenced by selection of B cells whose Ig genes had undergone certain mutations. In this study, we have analyzed somatic hypermutation in two MutL types of MMR deficiencies, Pms2 and Mlh1. The mutation target was a nonselectable Ig-κ gene with an artificial insert in the V region. We found that both Pms2- and Mlh1-deficient mice can somatically hypermutate the Ig test gene at approximately twofold reduced frequencies. Furthermore, highly mutated sequences are almost absent. Together with the finding of genome instability in the germinal center B cells, these observations support the conclusion, previously reached for Msh2 mice, that MMR-deficient B cells undergoing somatic hypermutation have a short life span. Pms2- and Mlh1-deficient mice also resemble Msh2-deficient mice with respect to preferential targeting of G and C nucleotides. Thus, it appears that the different MMR proteins do not have unique functions with respect to somatic hypermutation. Several intrinsic characteristics of somatic hypermutation remain unaltered in the MMR-deficient mice: a preference for targeting A over T, a strand bias, mutational hot spots, and hypermutability of the artificial insert are all seen in the unselectable Ig gene. This implies that the MMR proteins are not required for and most likely are not involved in the primary step of introducing the mutations. Instead, they are recruited to repair certain somatic point mutations, presumably soon after these are created.

Immunoglobulin (Ig) genes are first modified through the V(D)J (V, variable; D, diversity; J, joining) recombination process in pre–B cells. The Rag1/Rag2-dependent V(D)J recombination generates a large repertoire of B lymphocytes, each expressing a unique antibody molecule. Rearranged Ig genes

Topoisomerase 1 (Top1) resolves transcription-associated supercoils by generating transient single-strand breaks in DNA. Top1 activity in yeast is a major source of transcription-associated mutagenesis, generating a distinctive mutation signature characterized by deletions in short, tandem repeats. A similar signature is associated with the persistence of ribonucleoside monophosphates (rNMPs) in DNA, and it also depends on Top1 activity. There is only partial overlap, however, between Top1-dependent deletion hotspots identified in highly transcribed DNA and those associated with rNMPs, suggesting the existence of both rNMP-dependent and rNMP-independent events. Here, we present genetic studies confirming that there are two distinct types of hotspots. Data suggest a novel model in which rNMP-dependent hotspots are generated by sequential Top1 reactions and are consistent with rNMP-independent hotspots reflecting processing of a trapped Top1 cleavage complex.

The bypass of AP sites in yeast requires the Rev1 protein in addition to the Pol ζ translesion synthesis DNA polymerase. Although Rev1 was originally characterized biochemically as a dCMP transferase during AP-site bypass, the relevance of this activity in vivo is unclear. The current study uses highly sensitive frameshift- and nonsense-reversion assays to monitor the bypass of AP sites created when uracil is excised from chromosomal DNA. In the frameshift-reversion assay, an unselected base substitution frequently accompanies the selected mutation, allowing the relative incorporation of each of the four dNMPs opposite endogenously created AP sites to be inferred. Results with this assay suggest that dCMP is the most frequent dNMP inserted opposite uracil-derived AP sites and demonstrate that dCMP insertion absolutely requires the catalytic activity of Rev1. In the complementary nonsense-reversion assay, dCMP insertion likewise depended on the dCMP transferase activity of Rev1. Because dAMP insertion opposite uracil-derived AP sites does not revert the nonsense allele and hence could not be detected, it also was possible to detect low levels of dGMP or dTMP insertion upon loss of Rev1 catalytic activity. These results demonstrate that the catalytic activity of Rev1 is biologically relevant and is required specifically for dCMP insertion during the bypass of endogenous AP sites.