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After parturition, a rapid transition occurs from the intrauterine to the extrauterine milieu, exposing neonates to physiological circumstances characterized by oxidative conditions that instigate the generation of reactive oxygen species. These free radicals play pivotal roles in physiological processes; however, an imbalance between their production and the removal of antioxidants can result in severe cellular damage. The main objective of this study was to compare the oxidative and antioxidant profiles in mule and horse neonates immediately post-parturition, as well as at subsequent time points (1, 6, 12, and 24 h, 7 and 30 days) during their extrauterine existence. The parameters assessed included the systemic concentrations of Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) and carbonyl groups; the activities of the antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx); and the levels of the total, indirect, and direct bilirubin. Our results showed no interaction effect between the neonatal groups and the assessed time points for the variables under investigation. Notably, the concentrations of TBARS, as a marker of lipid peroxidation, and bilirubin were consistently lower in the mules, whereas the glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity exhibited higher levels in this group. The bilirubin levels were notably reduced in the mule neonates. The TBARS demonstrated a progressive decrease over the observation period in both groups, while the GPx activity remained relatively stable from birth to 7 days, with a substantial increase evident at the 30-day mark. Protein oxidation was not affected by the group and time, while for the SOD values, all times were statistically similar, except for the lower activity at T1h. Consequently, our findings lead us to the conclusion that neonatal mules and horses manifest distinct patterns of oxidative activity and antioxidant capacity during the initial month of their extrauterine existence, potentially indicative of different adaptation mechanisms to the extrauterine environment.

Background: West Nile virus (WNV) infection, caused by a flavivirus, emerged in Europe and America in the past two decades. The etiological agent causes asymptomatic to life-threatening infection in humans and in some animal species. The objective of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of WNV among donkeys and mules in Bulgaria. Methods: A total of 200 archived serum samples were tested by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Positive samples were additionally analyzed by virus neutralization assay. Results: Seroprevalence of 7% (14/200) was established among tested animals by ELISA. Two samples were subsequently verified for the presence of virus neutralizing antibodies; thus, the seroprevalence against WNV was determined to be 1% (2/200 [confidence interval = 0.12–3.61]). Positive results among mules included in the study were not found. Conclusion: The findings in the present research demonstrate that donkeys are exposed to WNV infection and seroconvert, which adds to the understanding of virus circulation among donkeys in settlements in north and south Bulgaria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Objective: To review the economic and social importance of donkeys and mules and their current situation in Mexico. Design/Methodology/Approach: Donkeys and mules have contributed to human development for thousands of years, mainly as pack animals, helping in the development of trade and the transportation of people. These strong, hardy, and long-lived animals can easily adapt to different environmental conditions, are resistant to diseases, and tolerate heavier loads than horses. Study Limitations/Implications: These animals are mainly found in developing countries, where they are used for transportation, as beasts of burden, and for agricultural work. Unfortunately, their welfare is threatened as their basic needs (e.g., feeding, health, and housing) are not met, despite their undeniable usefulness, especially in rural conditions. Findings/Conclusions: Donkeys and mules have played a major role and made an undeniable contribution to human civilizations. Currently, they mainly support people in developing countries, helping them carry out their daily chores and earn income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study described the prevalence and factors associated with the seropositivity for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies in working equids in the semiarid regionofnortheastern Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 322 equids (76 horses, 155 mules and 91 donkeys). The Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) was used as a screening method. Samples that were reactive in the RBPT were tested for confirmation using 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) and the standard tube agglutination test (STAT). Overall, 7.1% (23/322) of the samples were positive according to the RBPT. After confirmatory tests, the prevalence of brucellosis was found to be 6.5% (21/322). Among these cases, 33.3% (7/21) were horses, 42.8% (9/21) were mules and 23.9% (5/21) were donkeys. In the multivariate analysis, age over 10 years was considered to be a factor associated with the seropositivity (OR: 17.17; 95% CI: 2.582-164.7, P = 0.006) for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies. The significant prevalence of anti-Brucella spp. antibodies found in working equids and the wide distribution of positive animals demonstrates a worrying epidemiological situation regarding brucellosis in the study region. Age over 10 years was a risk factor associated with the seropositivity for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies in animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equids can be infected by Neospora spp., and its infection is associated with neurological and reproductive disorders. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the prevalence of anti-Neospora caninum antibodies in horses, donkeys and mules worldwide between 2012 and 2022. Five scientific databases were consulted: MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, PubMed, LILACS and SciELO, using the descriptors “protozoan” or “neospora” AND “horses” or “donkeys” or “mules”. A total of 1909 studies were screened, and 25 studies met the inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of Neospora spp. infection in equids, based on a total of 11,076, was 8.34% (95% CI: 4.78–14.17%). Further analysis by species revealed no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of Neospora spp. infection across equids: 8.5% (95% CI 5.03–13.99%) in horses, 7.36% (CI 2.08–22.94%) in donkeys and 6.07% (95% CI 0.71–36.83%) in mules. Regarding diagnostic tests, the prevalence of Neospora spp. infection determined by the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) was 8.08% (95% CI: 3.74–16.61%), by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was 7.91% (95% CI: 3.71–16.08%), and by the modified agglutination test (MAT) was 20% (95% CI: 15.37–25.60%). This meta-analysis provided valuable and comprehensive insights into the prevalence of Neospora spp. infection in horses, donkeys, and mules using serological detection methods. The results highlight the wide distribution of Neospora spp. infection in equids across all continents, indicating the importance of this infection. Transmission of the parasite can occur both horizontally (directly between animals) and vertically (from mother to offspring), further emphasizing the significance of understanding and managing this infection in equid populations.

The article focuses on commanders deployed thousands of these animals as mounts for cavalry troops and pack and wagon trains to move heavy military equipment, ammunition, supplies, and rations. It mentions the Civil War, in a concerted effort to shrink the size of the U.S. Army and mules were important service animals in the U.S. Army. It also mentions mules inherited characteristics of both parents, including long ears, slender legs, hoofs of the donkey.

Equids can be infected by Neospora spp., and its infection is associated with neurological and reproductive disorders. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the prevalence of anti-Neospora caninum antibodies in horses, donkeys and mules worldwide between 2012 and 2022. Five scientific databases were consulted: MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, PubMed, LILACS and SciELO, using the descriptors "protozoan" or "neospora" AND "horses" or "donkeys" or "mules". A total of 1909 studies were screened, and 25 studies met the inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of Neospora spp. infection in equids, based on a total of 11,076, was 8.34% (95% CI: 4.78–14.17%). Further analysis by species revealed no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of Neospora spp. infection across equids: 8.5% (95% CI 5.03–13.99%) in horses, 7.36% (CI 2.08–22.94%) in donkeys and 6.07% (95% CI 0.71–36.83%) in mules. Regarding diagnostic tests, the prevalence of Neospora spp. infection determined by the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) was 8.08% (95% CI: 3.74–16.61%), by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was 7.91% (95% CI: 3.71–16.08%), and by the modified agglutination test (MAT) was 20% (95% CI: 15.37–25.60%). This meta-analysis provided valuable and comprehensive insights into the prevalence of Neospora spp. infection in horses, donkeys, and mules using serological detection methods. The results highlight the wide distribution of Neospora spp. infection in equids across all continents, indicating the importance of this infection. Transmission of the parasite can occur both horizontally (directly between animals) and vertically (from mother to offspring), further emphasizing the significance of understanding and managing this infection in equid populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: The present study described the prevalence and factors associated with the seropositivity for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies in working equids in the semiarid regionofnortheastern Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 322 equids (76 horses, 155 mules and 91 donkeys). The Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) was used as a screening method. Samples that were reactive in the RBPT were tested for confirmation using 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) and the standard tube agglutination test (STAT). Overall, 7.1% (23/322) of the samples were positive according to the RBPT. After confirmatory tests, the prevalence of brucellosis was found to be 6.5% (21/322). Among these cases, 33.3% (7/21) were horses, 42.8% (9/21) were mules and 23.9% (5/21) were donkeys. In the multivariate analysis, age over 10 years was considered to be a factor associated with the seropositivity (OR: 17.17; 95% CI: 2.582-164.7, P = 0.006) for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies. The significant prevalence of anti-Brucella spp. antibodies found in working equids and the wide distribution of positive animals demonstrates a worrying epidemiological situation regarding brucellosis in the study region. Age over 10 years was a risk factor associated with the seropositivity for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies in animals.

After parturition, a rapid transition occurs from the intrauterine to the extrauterine milieu, exposing neonates to physiological circumstances characterized by oxidative conditions that instigate the generation of reactive oxygen species. These free radicals play pivotal roles in physiological processes; however, an imbalance between their production and the removal of antioxidants can result in severe cellular damage. The main objective of this study was to compare the oxidative and antioxidant profiles in mule and horse neonates immediately post-parturition, as well as at subsequent time points (1, 6, 12, and 24 h, 7 and 30 days) during their extrauterine existence. The parameters assessed included the systemic concentrations of Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) and carbonyl groups; the activities of the antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx); and the levels of the total, indirect, and direct bilirubin. Our results showed no interaction effect between the neonatal groups and the assessed time points for the variables under investigation. Notably, the concentrations of TBARS, as a marker of lipid peroxidation, and bilirubin were consistently lower in the mules, whereas the glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity exhibited higher levels in this group. The bilirubin levels were notably reduced in the mule neonates. The TBARS demonstrated a progressive decrease over the observation period in both groups, while the GPx activity remained relatively stable from birth to 7 days, with a substantial increase evident at the 30-day mark. Protein oxidation was not affected by the group and time, while for the SOD values, all times were statistically similar, except for the lower activity at T1h. Consequently, our findings lead us to the conclusion that neonatal mules and horses manifest distinct patterns of oxidative activity and antioxidant capacity during the initial month of their extrauterine existence, potentially indicative of different adaptation mechanisms to the extrauterine environment.

Mules and hinnies are the hybrids between donkeys (Equus asinus) and horses (Equus caballus). For centuries, mankind has used them for agrarian purposes, the military, or recreation. Contrasting literature with behavioral observations, we seek a better behavioral understanding andthus comprehensive solutions for their welfare enhancement. Over the past 6 years, we have assessed physical and behavioral welfare in over 900 mules by surveying owners from Egypt, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Mexico, and the U.S. These mules participated in shows, brick kiln work, cart-pulling, packing, tourism, and cattle herding. Observations are discussed alongside facts from the literature. Unfortunately, their behavior has been misunderstood by many, and harsh treatment and equipment has been used to control them. Few studies have attempted to define or use learning theory to understand how and why mules and hinnies behave as they do. Hence, understanding their health considerations, natural behavior, and training theory is crucial for those who work with them.Solutions to welfare improvement partially lie in an individual's ability to handle mules and hinnies from birth, and to proceed slowly through training. Conclusively, this review sets forth a clearer understanding of these hybrids' behaviors and promotes positive handling, allowing their access to more routine healthcare and ultimately, a higher welfare standard.

Mules found working in Egyptian brick kilns are often faced with poor welfare from being over worked, overloaded, having multiple lesions from ill-fitted harnesses, poor body scores, and receiving aversive treatment by handlers. Reports have frequently revealed aggressive responses by mules toward their handlers. The main goal of this study was to investigate whether mule aggression is an innate act toward people or is a reactive response to rough handling procedures by their handlers. A total of 374 mules from 50 different kilns were assessed and their handlers were interviewed. The handler's questionnaire recorded the following parameters: handler's age, experience, and common beliefs about the aggression of brick kiln mules, and also data regarding load weights, working hours, and husbandry procedures carried out by the handlers were collected. The data were analyzed and correlations between parameters were tested using SPSS 17.1. Handlers’ data showed that 79% of participants believed that mules are inherently difficult to handle, 65% used nose ropes/metal chain for driving their mules, and 67% responded that mules must be beaten to work properly. Behavioral assessment revealed that 66% of mules were alert. Approach tests indicated that 30% of the mules exhibited signs of aggression (e.g., bite threat) when approached by an unfamiliar handler and only 16% showed signs toward their handlers (familiar). The assessment of body lesions showed that mistreatment-induced lesions (42%) were more predominant than other categories of body lesions. Significant correlations (P ≤ 0.05) were found between mules’ aggressive responses toward observers and the following parameters; body condition score (rs = 0.42), along with the handler's age (rs = −0.53), level of experience (rs = −0.34), handler's common beliefs about mule aggression (rs = 0.64), and the nature of the work they were involved with at the kilns (work hours, rs = −0.63; load weight, rs = 0.38). Based on the results of this study, we concluded aggressive interactions exhibited by mules were most likely initiated by harsh, violent handling.

Mules found working in Egyptian brick kilns are often faced with poor welfare from being over worked, overloaded, having multiple lesions from ill-fitted harnesses, poor body scores, and receiving aversive treatment by handlers. Reports have frequently revealed aggressive responses by mules toward their handlers. The main goal of this study was to investigate whether mule aggression is an innate act toward people or is a reactive response to rough handling procedures by their handlers. A total of 374 mules from 50 different kilns were assessed and their handlers were interviewed. The handler's questionnaire recorded the following parameters: handler's age, experience, and common beliefs about the aggression of brick kiln mules, and also data regarding load weights, working hours, and husbandry procedures carried out by the handlers were collected. The data were analyzed and correlations between parameters were tested using SPSS 17.1. Handlers’ data showed that 79% of participants believed that mules are inherently difficult to handle, 65% used nose ropes/metal chain for driving their mules, and 67% responded that mules must be beaten to work properly. Behavioral assessment revealed that 66% of mules were alert. Approach tests indicated that 30% of the mules exhibited signs of aggression (e.g., bite threat) when approached by an unfamiliar handler and only 16% showed signs toward their handlers (familiar). The assessment of body lesions showed that mistreatment-induced lesions (42%) were more predominant than other categories of body lesions. Significant correlations (P ≤ 0.05) were found between mules’ aggressive responses toward observers and the following parameters; body condition score (rs = 0.42), along with the handler's age (rs = −0.53), level of experience (rs = −0.34), handler's common beliefs about mule aggression (rs = 0.64), and the nature of the work they were involved with at the kilns (work hours, rs = −0.63; load weight, rs = 0.38). Based on the results of this study, we concluded aggressive interactions exhibited by mules were most likely initiated by harsh, violent handling.

ABSTRACT: The study aimed to describe the clinicopathological aspects of 37 cases of pythiosis, 34 in horses and three in mules, from properties located in the Amazon biome of Pará, Brazil. The clinical signs observed in the animals were weakness, poor-to-regular nutritional status, pale mucous membranes, itching at the lesion site, and lameness when the limbs were affected. The lesions were located on the lips, nostrils, rib region, thoracic and abdominal walls, scapular, distal limbs, foreskin, perineum and udder. Macroscopically, ulcerative and granulation-tissue-like masses were observed, with fistulous tracts filled with yellowish and foul-smelling serosanguinous discharges. In the biopsy, it was possible to visualize white and firm areas with foci of yellowish necrotic material and hardened masses, called kunkers. The histopathological examination showed a pyogranulomatous inflammatory reaction with the presence of Pythium insidiosum hyphae, which were impregnated with black, confirming the diagnosis of pythiosis in equids in the Amazon biome, being the first report of the disease in mules in the region.

Healthy eyes with good vision were important to any animal, to safely exist in their environments, for quality of life, and to successfully compete for food. The aim of present study was to set normal values for biometric intraocular dimensions in healthy mules for the right and left eyes in males and females. The study was conducted on clinically healthy mules (n=40) which were classified into two groups; male (n=20) and female mules (n=20). Complete clinical examination and ultrasonographic characterization of ocular structures were carried out for all clinically healthy mules. Biometric intraocular dimensions of the right eye and the left eye included anterior chamber depth (ACD), axial globe length (AGL), central lens thickness (CLT), lens pole diameter (LPD) and vitreous chamber depth (VCD), were described using ocular ultrasonography. It also showed normal intraocular structures of the right eye and the left eye that included, anterior chamber (AC), cornea (C), iris (I), lens (L), optic disk (OD), optic nerve (ON), retinochoroid unit (RCU), retrobulbar fat (RF), retrobulbar muscles (RM) and vitreous body (VB). Ocular ultrasonography reported no significant variations for biometric intraocular dimensions of the eye between male and female mules as well as between right and left eyes either in male mules or in female mules. The study reported normal values for ultrasonographic biometric intraocular dimensions of the right and left eyes in clinically healthy male and female mules.

Latin American women play a key role in the international cocaine business as couriers or mules. Beginning from theoretical perspectives that explain the relationship between criminality and gender, we analyze why women without a criminal background become criminals, how they become involved in trafficking, their positions and functions in the criminal organization, and the risks and benefits of their participation. Qualitative fieldwork was carried out based on in-depth interviews with fifty-one female inmates and twenty members of prison staff from nine Spanish prisons. A thematic analysis has been carried out based on this data. The results reveal that the prevalent profile among Latin women traffickers is that of heads of household. There is a relationship between their social and geographical contexts of origin and cocaine trafficking, which determines their criminal behavior. They occupy the most exposed and lowest-paid positions in the criminal structure. We found through their discourses, how they are recruited, how they transport cocaine and the money they obtain. We conclude that cocaine trafficking is a resource that women use to escape situations of exclusion and that allows them to avoid other options, such as prostitution and migration. Despite the risks of trafficking, the economic benefits they obtain from it leads them to commit the crime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of anti-T. gondii and anti-N. caninum antibodies in equids that carry out traction work in Northeastern Brazil, and to establish the potential risk factors associated with seropositivity for these agents. Blood samples were collected from 322 traction equids (horses, donkeys and mules) in urban areas of 16 municipalities in the State of Paraíba, Brazil. The samples were sent for serological diagnosis using the Immunofluorescence Antibody Test (IFAT). Epidemiological questionnaires were given to the owners to assess the possible risk factors associated with infections. It was observed that 13.7% (44/322, CI: 10.9–16.5) of the equids tested positive for anti-T. gondii antibodies and 5% (16/322, CI: 2.6–7.4) tested positive for anti-N. caninum antibodies. Conducting traction work for over four years was considered a risk factor associated with T. gondii infection (odds ratio: 6.050; CI: 4.38–8.54, p = 0.025). There were no risk factors associated with N. caninum infection. It was concluded that traction equids have a significant prevalence of anti-T. gondii and anti-N. caninum antibodies in urban areas in the State of Paraíba, with an identified risk factor for seropositivity for anti-T. gondii as conducting traction work for more than four years.

In order to investigate and create an ethogram of the rolling behavior of mules (Equus caballus × Equus asinus) in comparison to that of horses (Equus caballus), we observed a domestic free-range, mixed group of 17 horses and 11 mules for two consecutive days (12 h/day), filming all the rolling events. From these footages, we were able to register the occurrence of specific behaviors that characterize the rolling: sniffing the ground prior to lie down; tail swishing; resting in recumbence; scratching and shaking. Moreover, we also observed two social dimensions that are possibly involved with the rolling behavior: 1) Social facilitation - once an animal started to roll, others in the group copied its behavior and 2) Demarcation - animals tended to return to roll in the same dust patches. In this equine group, mules rolled more frequently than horses and also exhibited more of the specific behaviors tail swishing, resting and scratching. Moreover, in the rolling events exhibited by the mules, the social facilitation and demarcation occurred more than in the horses. As a preliminary study, we pointed some important differences between the rolling behavior of horses and mules. Considering the lack of knowledge in this regards such findings could be useful to spread ideas for future studies concerning the mules behavior and to improve the welfare conditions of these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Healthy eyes with good vision were important to any animal, to safely exist in their environments, for quality of life, and to successfully compete for food. The aim of present study was to set normal values for biometric intraocular dimensions in healthy mules for the right and left eyes in males and females. The study was conducted on clinically healthy mules (n=40) which were classified into two groups; male (n=20) and female mules (n=20). Complete clinical examination and ultrasonographic characterization of ocular structures were carried out for all clinically healthy mules. Biometric intraocular dimensions of the right eye and the left eye included anterior chamber depth (ACD), axial globe length (AGL), central lens thickness (CLT), lens pole diameter (LPD) and vitreous chamber depth (VCD), were described using ocular ultrasonography. It also showed normal intraocular structures of the right eye and the left eye that included, anterior chamber (AC), cornea (C), iris (I), lens (L), optic disk (OD), optic nerve (ON), retinochoroid unit (RCU), retrobulbar fat (RF), retrobulbar muscles (RM) and vitreous body (VB). Ocular ultrasonography reported no significant variations for biometric intraocular dimensions of the eye between male and female mules as well as between right and left eyes either in male mules or in female mules. The study reported normal values for ultrasonographic biometric intraocular dimensions of the right and left eyes in clinically healthy male and female mules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A discussion on modern shoes is limited on account of the scarcity of sources provided by archaeological research. This gap is to a certain extent filled by museum collections and iconography. This is why it is so important to publish new finds as one can only initiate discussion on isolated artefacts of open-back shoes based on such publications. Such a pair was found in the southern crypt of the Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Piaseczno. These are unique objects as it is possible to identify all their elements and to determine the quality of leather, which was rather thick. Their general state of preservation is good. The condition of the leather on the soles, heels, and uppers indicates that the shoes were intensively used when their owner was alive. There is no difference in cut between the left and the right shoe, however, deformations resulting from wearing allow to say which shoe was worn on which foot. The pair of shoes found in Piaseczno and described above represents a valuable contribution to the discussion on open-back shoes. When interpreting such finds, the basic difficulty is the determination of their function. In specific circumstances, functions of overshoes and home shoes could to a certain extent overlap. However, it seems that in the modern era separate pairs of shoes were made to serve these different purposes. Unfortunately, the only evidence that would allow to lean towards one of the options involves the categories of massiveness and size of the shoes, and the diversity of the materials used. The paper uses a number of names for open-back shoes (pattens, mules, chopines, slippers, pantables) to reflect the linguistic richness. There is no doubt that different designs used to have individual names, however, the scarcity of accounts makes it very difficult to reconstruct the linguistic reality of old.

Background: Currently, various zoonotic diseases are classified as emerging or reemerging. Because equids have a direct relationship with various vectors, they are possibly more frequently exposed to zoonotic agents than are humans. The undeniable importance of diseases such as human granulocytic anaplasmosis, spotted fever, and leishmaniasis for both public and animal health, as well as the possibility of equids acting as sources, reservoirs, or even sentinels for these pathogens, justifies the detection of their frequency and factors associated with infection in equids from northeastern Brazil. Methods: Blood samples were collected from 569 equids (528 horses, 33 donkeys, and 8 mules), 516 from a rural area and 53 from an urban area. Pathogen detection was carried out as follows: Borrelia spp. and Rickettsia spp., serological analysis; Leishmania spp., serological analysis and polymerase chain reaction (PCR); Anaplasma phagocytophilum, PCR. Determination of associated factors was carried out through generalized linear models. Results: The frequencies of positivity for the pathogens observed in equids were as follows: Borrelia spp., 13.9% (79/569); Leishmania spp., 3.5% (20/569); Rickettsia spp. 33.4% (190/569). Regarding factors associated with infection, male sex was associated with protection against Borrelia spp.; donkeys and mules were associated with protection against Rickettsia spp., while a younger age was a risk factor. The infection of A. phagocytophilum was not detected in the sampled population. Co-infection was detected in 5.1% (29/569) of the animals. Conclusions: Most of the studied pathogenic agents are present in the prospected area, indicating a possible risk for both human and animal health. This demonstrates that equids can be considered important sentinels in the assessment of pathogens with zoonotic potential in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: In ultrasonography, the bi-dimensional mode (B-mode) allows the morphological and morphometric evaluation of several types of organs and tissues, while the Doppler mode allows the hemodynamic evaluation. In humans, the Doppler evaluation is routinely used in the assessment of important arteries and veins, such as the carotid arteries and jugular veins, with significant differences between genres and sides. However, in veterinary medicine, this diagnostic method is not yet well established in the evaluation of the carotid arteries, with only few reports in domestic horses. This study aims to compare the right and left common carotid arteries of domestic horses and mules using bi-dimensional and Doppler ultrasound evaluation. The common carotid arteries from 10 domestic horses (five males and five females) and 10 mules (five males and five females) were evaluated. The following variables were measured at three different portions (cranial, middle and caudal): diameter, intima-media thickness (IMT), resistivity index (RI), pulsatility index (PI), peak of systolic velocity (pSV) and final diastolic velocity (fDV). No significant differences were observed in the bi-dimensional variables (diameter and IMT) between the common carotid arteries of horses and mules, regardless of gender (p>0.05). In Doppler mode, there were no significant differences between carotid values in male and female horses (p> 0.05). In the mules, it was only possible to observe differences between the RI and PI values (p

The activity of a single subcutaneous injection of ivermectin at dose of 200 mcg/kg of body weight was evaluated against naturally acquired gastro-intestinal parasites in mules. Faecal samples were examined at the time of treatment and weekly thereafter up to 4 weeks. Results indicated that invrmectin was highly effective (100%) against Oxyuries equi, Strongyloides westeri, Tristostronglus axei, Trichhonema spp., and Strongylus spp. as judged one week after ivermectin administration. Complete elimination of Parascaris equorum eggs occurred two weeks after treatment. In contrast, ivermectin was not effective against the tape worms, Anoplocephala spp.. Infected animals had low levels of haemoglobin and red blood cells counts and an elevated packed cell volume, white blood cells and erythrocyte sedimentation rate. These values returned to normal values 21 days post treatment. No adverse reaction was recorded in the treated animals.

Wilderness stream crossings used by mules, horses, and hikers are localized disturbances that may affect habitat immediately downstream, but the potential influence of fords on streams has received little investigation, particularly in terms of possible effects on fauna. Our overall null hypothesis was absence of below-above differences for either benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages or habitat characteristics at such fords. We further sought to determine (1) whether any such differences were present prior to annual use, suggesting longer-term effects, and (2) whether differences were present in late season, after annual use. We examined macroinvertebrates and habitat immediately below and above 2 fords crossing subalpine streams in Yosemite National Park in the Sierra Nevada (California, USA) in earlyand late season and over 2 years. There were both longer-term below-above differences, as well as differences thatbecame apparent in late season, both of which were indicative of below-ford effects. Below fords there was evidence,either as main effects or interactions, of higher silt, sand, and gravel cover; a thicker periphyton layer; a greater Hilsenhoffbiotic index; a higher proportion of tolerant taxa; higher chironomid midge and total densities; and greater speciesrichness, largely a function of chironomid richness. There was also a lower expected number of species, a smaller proportionof sensitive taxa and predators, and lower densities of some sensitive Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and Plecoptera (stoneflies) below fords. Both hikers and stock may contribute to the apparent effects, but management interventions targeting stock may be particularly achievable. Among other approaches, simply halting stock strings briefly before reaching fords should reduce the volume of urine and feces directly entering streams, and handlers can expedite crossings if watering is not necessary.

• Epizootic lymphangitis (EL) is a contagious lymphangitis disease in equids. • It causes a significant economic loss along with a decreasing equine population. • The overall pooled prevalence of EL among equids in Ethiopia was 20.24 %. • The highest prevalence was observed in cart horses rather than cart mules. • Sharing harnesses and preexisting wounds were significantly associated with EL. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly in Ethiopia, Epizootic Lymphangitis (EL) is the most prevalent fungal disease of equids, which causes significant economic losses as well as a decrease in equid populations. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis were designed to pool the results of individual studies and estimate the prevalence of EL among equids in Ethiopia. A systematic search of research articles on the prevalence and risk factors of EL among equids in Ethiopia was conducted in registers, databases, and other sources. Cochrane's Q, inverse variance (I2), sensitivity analysis, funnel plot, Begg's, and Egger's regression tests were used to check heterogeneity and publication bias. A random-effects model was used to calculate the pooled burden of EL among equids. For this meta-analysis, a total of 7217 equids were included in the 14 eligible studies. The overall pooled prevalence of EL among equids in Ethiopia was 20.24% (95% CI: 16.27, 24.21). According to the subgroup analysis, the highest prevalence was observed in cart horses (20.98%), the Amhara region (21.46%), and studies conducted using sample sizes of 384 equids or greater (24.67%) and from 2002 to 2018 (25.52%) study periods. Harness-inflicted wounds, sharing stables or yards with harnesses, and the presence of preexisting wounds were identified as factors significantly associated with EL magnitude. Early diagnosis and proper medication, as well as implementing appropriate prevention and control measures, are necessary for the management of EL in equids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Mutator-like elements (MULEs) are a significant superfamily of DNA transposons on account of their: (i) great transpositional activity and propensity for insertion in or near gene sequences, (ii) their consequent high mutagenic capacity, and, (iii) their tendency to acquire host gene fragments. Consequently, MULEs are important genetic tools and represent a key study system for research into host-transposon interactions. Yet, while several studies have focused on the impacts of MULEs on crop and fungus genomes, their evolution remains poorly explored. Results We perform comprehensive bioinformatic and phylogenetic analyses to address currently available MULE diversity and reconstruct evolution for the group. For this, we mine MULEs from online databases, and combine search results with available transposase sequences retrieved from previously published studies. Our analyses uncover two entirely new MULE clades that contain elements almost entirely restricted to arthropod hosts, considerably expanding the set of MULEs known from this group, suggesting that many additional MULEs may await discovery from further arthropod genomes. In several cases, close relationships occur between MULEs recovered from distantly related host organisms, suggesting that horizontal transfer events may have played an important role in the evolution of the group. However, it is apparent that MULEs from plants remain separate from MULEs identified from other host groups. MULE structure varies considerably across phylogeny, and TIR length is shown to vary greatly both within and between MULE groups. Our phylogeny suggests that MULE diversity is clustered in well-supported groups, typically according to host taxonomy. With reference to this, we make suggestions on how MULE diversity can be partitioned to provide a robust taxonomic framework. Conclusions Our study represents a considerable advance in the understanding of MULE diversity, host range and evolution, and provides a taxonomic framework for the classification of further MULE elements that await discovery. Our findings also raise a number of questions relating to MULE biology, suggesting that this group will provide a rich avenue for future study.

Abstract The aim of this study was to determine the frequency and factors associated to Babesia caballi, Theileria equi and Trypanosoma evansi in naturally infected equids from the northeast Brazil. Blood samples from 569 equids (528 horses, 8 mules, and 33 donkeys) were collected and tested for the presence of DNA of each of these protozoan parasites by PCR. Generalized linear models were used to evaluate risk factors associated with the infection. The frequency of T. equi infection was 83.5% (475/569) - 84.3% in horses, and 73.2% in donkeys and mules. The results of the final model indicated that age (senior group) and animal species (mule and donkey group) were protective factors against this pathogen. The frequency of B. caballi infection was 24.3% (138/569) - 23.5% in horses and 34.1% in donkeys and mules. Age (adult and senior group) was considered a protective factor against B. caballi infection whereas animal species (donkey and mule group) were considered a risk factor for the infection. Trypanosoma evansi infection was not detected in any of animals. Our results suggest that equids from the area studied may be infected earlier in life with the etiological agents of equine piroplasmosis and become asymptomatic carriers.

To better understand and manage the population of donkeys and mules, it is essential to know information about its size. In developing countries, these animals are often used as working animals, mainly by poor populations in agricultural and livestock labor, but their use is decreasing in Brazil. Brazilian official data regarding donkeys and mules started to be measured at the agricultural census of 1960 and, from that time, eight agricultural censuses were published. But until the writing of this paper, no scientific paper was dedicated to the analysis of the results of the official agricultural censuses on the population of donkeys and mules in Brazil. Thus, we aim to compile and analyze the official Brazilian data from 1960 until 2017 to enhance the actions of stakeholders, researchers, and decision-makers concerned with Brazilian donkeys and mules.

Equine Herpes Virus-1 (EHV-1) is a widespread viral pathogen in equines causing significant mortality and affections like respiratory disease, abortions and devastating Equine Herpes Myeloencephalitis (EHM). The article presents PCR confirmation of EHV-1from equine keratitis. The affected eye of the animal had nummular keratitis with coin shaped (Nummular) lesions on the corneal stroma. Nummular keratitis a feature of viral kerato-conjunctivitis in humans. More experimental studies are needed to understand the pathogenesis of EHV-1 induced equine ocular infections. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first ever clinical case report of EHV-1 from equine corneal disease from India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]