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Animals with altered freerunning periods are valuable in understanding properties of the circadian clock. Understanding the relationship between endogenous clock properties, entrainment, and influence of light in terms of parametric and non-parametric models can help us better understand how different populations adapt to external light cycles. Many clinical populations often show significant changes in circadian properties that in turn cause sleep and circadian problems, possibly exacerbating their underlying clinical condition. BTBR T+Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) mice are a model commonly used for the study of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Adults and adolescents with ASD frequently exhibit profound sleep and circadian disruptions, including increased latency to sleep, insomnia, advanced and delayed sleep phase disorders, and sleep fragmentation. Here, we investigated the circadian phenotype of BTBR mice in freerunning and light-entrained conditions and found that this strain of mice showed noticeably short freerunning periods (~22.75 h). In addition, when compared to C57BL/6J controls, BTBR mice also showed higher levels of activity even though this activity was compressed into a shorter active phase. Phase delays and phase advances to light were significantly larger in BTBR mice. Despite the short freerunning period, BTBR mice exhibited normal entrainment in light-dark cycles and accelerated entrainment to both advanced and delayed light cycles. Their ability to entrain to skeleton photoperiods of 1 min suggests that this entrainment cannot be attributed to masking. Period differences were also correlated with differences in the number of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide–expressing cells in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Overall, the BTBR model, with their unique freerunning and entrainment properties, makes an interesting model to understand the underlying circadian clock.

The chronobiology community advocates ending the biannual practice in many countries of adjusting their clocks to observe Daylight Saving Time (DST). Many governments are actively considering abandoning this practice. While sleep and circadian experts advocate the adoption of year-round standard time, most jurisdictions are instead considering permanent DST. In guiding advocacy, it is useful to understand the factors that lead governments and citizens to prefer the various options. In October 2021, the Canadian province of Alberta conducted a province-wide referendum on adopting year-round DST, in which more than 1 million valid votes were cast. As this referendum was tied to province-wide municipal elections, the results of the referendum were reported at the community level, allowing a geospatial analysis of preference for permanent DST. While the referendum proposal was narrowly defeated (49.8% in favor), a community-level analysis demonstrated a significant East-West gradient, with eastern communities more strongly in favor and western communities more strongly opposed to the year-round DST. Community size and latitudinal position also contributed to preference, with smaller and more northern communities showing more preference for year-round DST. These findings help identify how geospatial location can influence how citizens feel about the various time options and can further help guide public advocacy efforts by the sleep and circadian communities.

While circadian rhythms in physiology and behavior demonstrate remarkable day-to-day precision, they are also able to exhibit plasticity in a variety of parameters and under a variety of conditions. After-effects are one type of plasticity in which exposure to non–24-h light-dark cycles (T-cycles) will alter the animal’s free-running rhythm in subsequent constant conditions. We use a mathematical model to explore whether the concept of synaptic plasticity can explain the observation of after-effects. In this model, the SCN is composed of a set of individual oscillators randomly selected from a normally distributed population. Each cell receives input from a defined set of oscillators, and the overall period of a cell is a weighted average of its own period and that of its inputs. The influence that an input has on its target’s period is determined by the proximity of the input cell’s period to the imposed T-cycle period, such that cells with periods near T will have greater influence. Such an arrangement is able to duplicate the phenomenon of after-effects, with relatively few inputs per cell (~4-5) being required. When the variability of periods between oscillators is low, the system is quite robust and results in minimal after-effects, while systems with greater between-cell variability exhibit greater magnitude after-effects. T-cycles that produce maximal after-effects have periods within ~2.5 to 3 h of the population period. Overall, this model demonstrates that synaptic plasticity in the SCN network could contribute to plasticity of the circadian period.

Fetal BPA exposure, even below safe regulatory limits, disrupts the developing hypothalamus and affects behavior and activity., Critical physiological processes such as sleep and stress that underscore health are regulated by an intimate interplay between the endocrine and nervous systems. Here, we asked how fetal exposure to the endocrine disruptor found in common plastics, bisphenol A (BPA), causes lasting effects on adult animal behaviors. Adult mice exposed to low-dose BPA during gestation displayed notable disruption in circadian activity, social interactions, and associated neural hyperactivity, with some phenotypes maintained transgenerationally. Gestational BPA exposure increased vasopressin+ neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the region that regulates circadian rhythms, of F1 and F3 generations. Mechanistically, BPA increased proliferation of hypothalamic neural progenitors ex vivo and caused precocious neurogenesis in vivo. Co-antagonism of both estrogen and androgen receptors was necessary to block BPA’s effects on hypothalamic neural progenitors, illustrating a dual role for these endocrine targets. Together, gestational BPA exposure affects development of circadian centers, with lasting consequences across generations.

Chronic maternal stress during pregnancy can have long-term, detrimental consequences for the offspring. An understanding of the mechanisms responsible for mediating these effects is essential for devising therapeutic interventions. Here, we examined whether serotonin 1A receptor (5-HT1AR) mediates the effects of maternal stress on the behavioral outcomes of the offspring as adults. Heterozygous (HET) mouse dams were bred with HET males and were randomly assigned to stress or control groups. Pregnant dams in the stress group were exposed to a regime of chronic unpredictable stress from embryonic day 7 to 18. At two months of age, groups of male and female wildtype (WT), HET, and knockout (KO) offspring underwent a comprehensive behavioral test battery that included tests of social behavior, memory, aggression, anxiety, sensorimotor information processing, and exploratory and risk assessment behaviors. Independent of genotype, prenatal stress resulted in a change in locomotor activity and fear memory in male mice and a change in prepulse inhibition in female animals. 5-HT1AR KO affected anxiety in male mice, and fear memory and prepulse inhibition in female mice. 5-HT1AR genotype moderated the effects of maternal prenatal stress exposure on social behavior of male offspring and on activity levels of female offspring. Our findings indicate that 5-HT1A receptor availability can affect outcomes of the offspring resulting from maternal prenatal stress exposure, and that these effects are sex-specific.

The mammalian circadian clock is synchronized to the day : night cycle by light. Serotonin modulates the circadian effects of light, with agonists inhibiting response to light and antagonists enhancing responses to light. A special class of serotonergic compounds, the mixed 5-HT1A agonist/antagonists, potentiates light-induced phase advances by up to 400% when administered acutely. In this study, we examine the effects of one of these mixed 5-HT1A agonist/antagonists, BMY7378, when administered chronically. Thirty adult male hamsters were administered either vehicle or BMY7378 via surgically implanted osmotic mini pumps over a period of 28 days. In a light : dark cycle, chronic BMY7378 advanced the phase angle of entrainment, prolonged the duration of the active phase and attenuated the amplitude of the wheel-running rhythm during the early night. In constant darkness, chronic treatment with BMY7378 significantly attenuated light-induced phase advances, but had no significant effect on light-induced phase delays. Non-photic phase shifts to daytime administration of a 5-HT1A/7 agonist were also attenuated by chronic BMY7378 treatment. qRT-PCR analysis revealed that chronic BMY7378 treatment upregulated mRNA for 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors in the hypothalamus and downregulated mRNA for 5-HT1A and monoamine oxidase-A in the brainstem. These results highlight adaptive changes of serotonin receptors in the brain to chronic treatment with BMY7378 and link such up- and downregulation to changes in important circadian parameters. Such long-term changes to the circadian system should be considered when patients are treated chronically with drugs that alter serotonergic function.

Opiates are essential for treating pain, but termination of opiate therapy can cause a debilitating withdrawal syndrome in chronic users. To alleviate or avoid the aversive symptoms of withdrawal, many of these individuals continue to use opiates. Withdrawal is therefore a key determinant of opiate use in dependent individuals, yet its underlying mechanisms are poorly understood and effective therapies are lacking. Here, we identify the pannexin-1 (Panx1) channel as a therapeutic target in opiate withdrawal. We show that withdrawal from morphine induces long-term synaptic facilitation in lamina I and II neurons within the rodent spinal dorsal horn, a principal site of action for opiate analgesia. Genetic ablation of Panx1 in microglia abolished the spinal synaptic facilitation and ameliorated the sequelae of morphine withdrawal. Panx1 is unique in its permeability to molecules up to 1 kDa in size and its release of ATP. We show that Panx1 activation drives ATP release from microglia during morphine withdrawal and that degrading endogenous spinal ATP by administering apyrase produces a reduction in withdrawal behaviors. Conversely, we found that pharmacological inhibition of ATP breakdown exacerbates withdrawal. Treatment with a Panx1-blocking peptide (10panx) or the clinically used broad-spectrum Panx1 blockers, mefloquine or probenecid, suppressed ATP release and reduced withdrawal severity. Our results demonstrate that Panx1-mediated ATP release from microglia is required for morphine withdrawal in rodents and that blocking Panx1 alleviates the severity of withdrawal without affecting opiate analgesia.

Zinc is a trace element that is essential for a large number of biological and biochemical processes in the body. In the nervous system zinc is packaged into synaptic vesicles by the ZnT3 transporter, and synaptic release of zinc can influence the activity of postsynaptic cells, either directly through its own cognate receptors, or indirectly by modulating activation of receptors for other neurotransmitters. Here, we explore the anatomical and functional aspects of zinc in the circadian system. Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells in the mouse retina were found to colocalize ZnT3, indicating that they can release zinc at their synaptic targets. While the master circadian clock in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) was found to contain, at best, sparse zincergic input, the intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) of hamsters and mice were found to have prominent zincergic input. Levels of zinc in these areas were not affected by time of day. Additionally, IGL zinc staining persisted following enucleation, indicating other prominent sources of zinc instead of, or in addition to, the retina. Neither enhancement nor chelation of free zinc at either the SCN or IGL altered circadian responses to phase-shifting light in hamsters. Finally, entrainment, free-running, and circadian responses to light were explored in mice lacking the ZnT3 gene. In every aspect explored, the ZnT3 knockout mice were not significantly different from their wildtype counterparts. These findings highlight the presence of zinc in areas critical for circadian functioning but have yet to identify a role for zinc in these areas.

Zinc is a trace element that is essential for a large number of biological and biochemical processes in the body. In the nervous system zinc is packaged into synaptic vesicles by the ZnT3 transporter, and synaptic release of zinc can influence the activity of postsynaptic cells, either directly though its own cognate receptors, or indirectly by modulating activation of receptors for other neurotransmitters. Here, we explore the anatomical and functional aspects of zinc in the circadian system. Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells in the mouse retina were found to colocalize ZnT3, indicating that they can release zinc at their synaptic targets. While the master circadian clock in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) was found to contain, at best, sparse zincergic input, the intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) was found to have prominent zincergic input. Levels of zinc in these areas were not affected by time of day. Additionally, IGL zinc staining persisted following enucleation, indicating other prominent sources of zinc instead of, or in addition to, the retina. Neither enhancement nor chelation of free zinc at either the SCN or IGL altered circadian responses to phase-shifting light in hamsters. Finally, entrainment, free-running, and circadian responses to light were explored in mice lacking the ZnT3 gene. In every aspect explored, the ZnT3-KO mice were not significantly different from their wildtype counterparts. These findings highlight the presence of zinc in areas critical for circadian functioning but have yet to identify a role for zinc in these areas.HighlightsThe synaptic zinc transporter ZnT3 is found in melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells.While zinc input to the hamster SCN was found to be sparse at best, prominent zincergic staining was found throughout the IGL.Zinc levels in the SCN and IGL did not change between the night and day.Neither increasing nor decreasing zinc levels in either the SCN or IGL had an influence on circadian responses to light.Mice lacking the ZnT3 transporter did not differ from wildtype mice on a wide variety of circadian measures.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a well-characterized endocrine disruptor known to act via multiple steroid signaling pathways. Previously we have shown that the hypothalamus, a key regulator of neuroendocrine activity, is particularly susceptible to endocrine disruption by BPA, with low-dose gestational exposure resulting in accelerated neurogenesis and altered behavior, including hyperactivity, in both zebrafish and mice. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus is the regulator of the circadian clock, and we hypothesize a link between altered SCN function and the observed hyperactivity in BPA exposed animals. Here we present the effects of low-dose, environmentally relevant gestational BPA exposure on circadian rhythms in mice. We characterized mice exposed to BPA (50 μg/kg via diet) in utero by measuring their activity levels during a normal 12:12 light/dark (l/d) cycle, followed by entrainment to a 24h dark (d/d) period. We observed significant alterations in circadian rhythms as a result of gestational BPA exposure. BPA mice were significantly more active than control mice in l/d conditions, specifically in the late stages of the dark phase when control mice had usually completed their daily bouts of activity. BPA-exposed mice also exhibited less of an anticipatory onset of activity just prior to the start of the dark phase, and we observed a slight, female-specific increase in circadian period (tau). BPA-mediated disruptions of circadian rhythms were exaggerated under d/d conditions. BPA mice again showed significantly higher activity than control mice, and both male and female mice exhibited a significant decrease in tau. Finally, we observed that BPA-exposed mice appear to entrain more quickly to new conditions, both in the shift from l/d to d/d, and in response to short-term light exposure during the d/d testing. Overall, we conclude that low-dose gestational BPA exposure alters circadian rhythms under various conditions, the first such finding in a mammalian model in vivo, and that this may be a contributing factor to the observed hyperactivity in BPA-exposed mice.

Daily exposure to light synchronizes the circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), to external day/night cycles. These responses to light can be modified by serotonergic drugs, such as serotonin 5HT1B receptor agonists. Triptans are specific 5HT1B agonists prescribed to treat migraines. Here, we examined the effects of two triptans (zolmitriptan and sumatriptan) on photic phase resetting in Syrian hamsters. Pre-treatment with intra-SCN sumatriptan significantly attenuates, and at higher doses completely blocks, phase advances to light during the late night. Pre-treatment with systemic zolmitriptan significantly attenuates both light-induced phase advances and phase delays. Neither of these drugs, nor their vehicles, causes phase shifts on their own. Pre-treatment with zolmitriptan also significantly reduces the expression of light-induced c-fos in the SCN. Neither zolmitriptan nor vehicle alone induces significant c-fos expression in the SCN. Finally, pre-treatment with zolmitriptan does not attenuate phase shifts to intra-SCN N-methyl-d-aspartate injections, indicating that the mechanism of action for zolmitriptan is likely to be through activation of presynaptic 5HT1B receptors on retinal terminals, thereby decreasing light-induced neurotransmitter release. As triptans are commercially available medications, there is potential for their use in blocking unwanted photic phase shifting during shift-work or jet-lag. Additionally, triptans may also affect the circadian clock in patients receiving them regularly for migraines. Finally, our results may hint at the mechanism by which triptans can alleviate the photophobia that frequently accompanies migraines, namely by activating 5HT1B receptors on retinal terminals elsewhere in the brain, and thereby diminishing visually-evoked neurotransmitter signalling in those areas.

The 5-HT1A mixed agonist/antagonist BMY7378 has been shown to greatly potentiate photic phase advances in hamsters. The underlying mechanism and intracellular changes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) by which this potentiation is accomplished have yet to be fully determined. Here, we examine the effect of BMY7378 on temporal activation patterns of a number of proteins and enzymes in the SCN following light exposure in the late subjective night. BMY7378 administration increased the amount of several photo-inducible proteins in the SCN at specific time points following light exposure in the late subjective night. Relative to animals given saline before a light pulse, the number of cells immunoreactive for cFos, JunB and PER1 was all significantly greater 360 min following the light pulse in BMY7378 pretreated animals, indicating an extended action of these light-induced proteins in the SCN following BMY7378 pretreatment. Aside from a modest, nonsignificant increase in P-ERK levels at 60 min, BMY7378 did not affect light-induced P-ERK levels. The levels of light-induced P-CREB were similarly unaffected by BMY7378. Also unaffected by BMY7378 treatment were cFos expression and JunB expression at 120 and 180 min following light exposure. These findings suggest that BMY7378 may potentiate photic phase shifts at least partly by prolonging the activity of some, but not all, light-induced proteins and biochemical pathways involved in coupling the light signal to the output of the circadian clock, particularly those which are active many hours after the light signal reaches the SCN.

Serotonin (5-HT) is an important regulator of the mammalian circadian system, and has been implicated in modulating entrained and free-running rhythms, as well as photic and non-photic phase shifting. In general, 5-HT appears to oppose the actions of light on the circadian system of nocturnal rodents. As well, 5-HT mediates, at least in part, some non-photic responses. The 5-HT1A, 1B and 7 receptors regulate these acute responses to zeitgebers. 5-HT also regulates some entrained and free-running properties of the circadian clock. The receptors that contribute to these phenomena have not been fully examined. Here, we use 5-HT1A receptor knockout (KO) mice to examine the response of the mouse circadian system to a variety of lighting conditions, including a normal light-dark cycle (LD), T-cycles, phase advanced LD cycles, constant darkness (DD), constant light (LL) and a 6 hour dark pulse starting at CT5. Relative to wildtype mice, the 5-HT1A receptor KO mice have lower levels of activity during the first 8h of the night/subjective night in LD and LL, later activity onsets on transient days during re-entrainment, shorter free-running periods in LL when housed with wheels, and smaller phase shifts to dark pulses. No differences were noted in activity levels during DD, alpha under any light condition, free-running period in DD, or phase angle of entrainment in LD. While the 5-HT1A receptor plays an important role in regulating photic and non-photic phase shifting, its contribution to entrained and free-running properties of the circadian clock is relatively minor.

Serotonergic drugs modify circadian responses to light, with agonists attenuating and some partial agonists or antagonists potentiating photic phase shifts. The anxiolytic buspirone is a 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist. Given that buspirone is used therapeutically to manage generalised anxiety disorder, it would be useful to understand if and how this drug may modify circadian responses to light, not only to help manage side effects, but also to examine its potential use as a chronobiotic. Here we examined behavioral and molecular responses to phase-shifting light in mice and hamsters treated with buspirone. Phase advances to late subjective night light pulses in hamsters and wildtype mice were significantly attenuated by buspirone. 5-HT1A receptor knockout mice exhibited potentiated photic phase shifts when pretreated with buspirone. In wildtype mice, the attenuated phase shifts were accompanied by increased cFos expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, whereas potentiated phase shifts in knockouts were accompanied by increased phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and decreased cFos expression. Attenuated photic phase shifts in buspirone-treated hamsters were accompanied by decreased phosphorylation of ERK and CREB. Chronic buspirone treatment decreased the amplitude of wheel-running rhythms, lengthened the duration of the active phase and advanced the phase angle of entrainment. Buspirone administration at midday produced non-photic phase advances in wildtype but not 5-HT1A receptor knockout mice. These findings suggest that buspirone affected the circadian system in a manner similar to the 5-HT1A/7 agonist (±)-8-Hydroxy-2-dipropylaminotetralin hydrobromide, primarily through the 5-HT1A receptor, and suggest that therapeutic use of buspirone to manage anxiety may impact circadian function.

Purpose Our study examined whether mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is noninferior to cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) for the treatment of insomnia in patients with cancer. Patients and Methods This was a randomized, partially blinded, noninferiority trial involving patients with cancer with insomnia recruited from a tertiary cancer center in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, from September 2008 to March 2011. Assessments were conducted at baseline, after the program, and after 3 months of follow-up. The noninferiority margin was 4 points measured by the Insomnia Severity Index. Sleep diaries and actigraphy measured sleep onset latency (SOL), wake after sleep onset (WASO), total sleep time (TST), and sleep efficiency. Secondary outcomes included sleep quality, sleep beliefs, mood, and stress. Results Of 327 patients screened, 111 were randomly assigned (CBT-I, n = 47; MBSR, n = 64). MBSR was inferior to CBT-I for improving insomnia severity immediately after the program (P = .35), but MBSR demonstrated noninferiority at follow-up (P = .02). Sleep diary–measured SOL was reduced by 22 minutes in the CBT-I group and by 14 minutes in the MBSR group at follow-up. Similar reductions in WASO were observed for both groups. TST increased by 0.60 hours for CBT-I and 0.75 hours for MBSR. CBT-I improved sleep quality (P < .001) and dysfunctional sleep beliefs (P < .001), whereas both groups experienced reduced stress (P < .001) and mood disturbance (P < .001). Conclusion Although MBSR produced a clinically significant change in sleep and psychological outcomes, CBT-I was associated with rapid and durable improvement and remains the best choice for the nonpharmacologic treatment of insomnia.

Daily photic resetting of the circadian system relies on the transmission of light information from the retina to retinorecipient cells within the ventrolateral suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) core, and subsequent activation of rhythmic clock cells in the dorsolateral region. Some neurochemicals such as gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) mimic the phase shifting effects of light and induce Ca(2+)-dependent gene expression in the SCN. Activation of the cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) is necessary for Ca(2+)-dependent transcription to occur and accompanies behavioral phase shifting; however, several biochemical cascades are involved in this phenomenon. One pathway that has been implicated in photic responses involves protein kinase A (PKA). It is not known if this pathway participates in mediating phase shifts to GRP. Here we show that preventing PKA activation attenuates both light- and GRP-induced phase shifts in locomotor behavior, but only during the early-subjective night. This finding demonstrates that activation of PKA is an important component in the photic signaling pathway and may mediate GRP output signaling from the SCN core to the shell; however, this effect appears to be temporally dependent.

Sleep and wake states are regulated by a variety of mechanisms. One such important system is the circadian clock, which provides temporal structure to sleep and wake. Conversely, changes in behavioral state, such as sleep deprivation (SD) or arousal, can phase shift the circadian clock. Here we demonstrate that the level of wakefulness is critical for this arousal resetting of the circadian clock. Specifically, drowsy animals with significant power in the 7- to 9-Hz band of their EEGs do not exhibit phase shifts in response to a mild SD procedure. We then show that treatments that both produce arousal and reset the phase of circadian clock activate (i.e., induce Fos expression in) the basal forebrain. Many of the activated cells are cholinergic. Using retrograde tract tracing, we demonstrate that cholinergic cells activated by these arousal procedures project to the circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). We then demonstrate that arousal-induced phase shifts are blocked when animals are pretreated with atropine injections to the SCN, demonstrating that cholinergic activity at the SCN is necessary for arousal-induced phase shifting. Finally, we demonstrate that electrical stimulation of the substantia innominata of the basal forebrain phase shifts the circadian clock in a manner similar to that of our arousal procedures and that these shifts are also blocked by infusions of atropine to the SCN. These results establish a functional link between the major forebrain arousal center and the circadian system.

Background The occurrence of stroke exhibits a strong circadian pattern with a peak in the morning hours after waking. The factors that influence this pattern of stroke prevalence may confer varying degrees of neuroprotection and therefore influence stroke severity. This question is difficult to address in clinical cases because of the variability in the location and duration of the ischemic event. Methods The purpose of this study was to determine if time of day affected the severity of stroke targeting the motor cortex in rats. Strokes were produced using topical application of the vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 to motor cortex of unanesthetized animals at 2 time points: early day and early night. Behavioral deficits were measured using reaching, cylinder, and horizontal ladder tasks, and the volume of the lesion was quantified. Results Behavior on reaching and horizontal ladder tasks were both severely impaired by endothelin-1 treatment compared to vehicle-treated animals, but deficits did not differ according to time of treatment. Similarly, while endothelin-1 produced larger lesions of the motor cortex than did vehicle treatment, the size of the lesion did not differ according to time of treatment. Conclusions These results suggest that while many factors under circadian control can influence the prevalence of stroke, the magnitude of lesion and behavioral deficit resulting from an ischemic event may not be influenced by time of day.

Serotonin has a myriad of central functions involving mood, appetite, sleep, and memory and while its release within the spinal cord is particularly important for generating movement, the corresponding role on cortical movement representations (motor maps) is unknown. Using adult rats we determined that pharmacological depletion of serotonin (5-HT) via intracerebroventricular administration of 5,7 dihydroxytryptamine resulted in altered movements of the forelimb in a skilled reaching task as well as higher movement thresholds and smaller maps derived using high-resolution intracortical microstimulation (ICMS). We ruled out the possibility that reduced spinal cord excitability could account for the serotonin depletion-induced changes as we observed an enhanced Hoffman reflex (H-reflex), indicating a hyperexcitable spinal cord. Motor maps derived in 5-HT1Areceptor knock-out mice also showed higher movement thresholds and smaller maps compared with wild-type controls. Direct cortical application of the 5-HT1A/7agonist 8-OH-DPAT lowered movement thresholdsin vivoand increased map size in 5-HT-depleted rats. In rats, electrical stimulation of the dorsal raphe lowered movement thresholds and this effect could be blocked by direct cortical application of the 5-HT1Aantagonist WAY-100135, indicating that serotonin is primarily acting through the 5-HT1Areceptor. Next we developed a novelin vitroICMS preparation that allowed us to track layer V pyramidal cell excitability. Bath application of WAY-100135 raised the ICMS current intensity to induce action potential firing whereas the agonist 8-OH-DPAT had the opposite effect. Together our results demonstrate that serotonin, acting through 5-HT1Areceptors, plays an excitatory role in forelimb motor map expression.

Seizures are often followed by sensory, cognitive or motor impairments during the postictal phase that show striking similarity to transient hypoxic/ischemic attacks. Here we show that seizures result in a severe hypoxic attack confined to the postictal period. We measured brain oxygenation in localized areas from freely-moving rodents and discovered a severe hypoxic event (pO2 < 10 mmHg) after the termination of seizures. This event lasted over an hour, is mediated by hypoperfusion, generalizes to people with epilepsy, and is attenuated by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 or L-type calcium channels. Using inhibitors of these targets we separated the seizure from the resulting severe hypoxia and show that structure specific postictal memory and behavioral impairments are the consequence of this severe hypoperfusion/hypoxic event. Thus, epilepsy is much more than a disease hallmarked by seizures, since the occurrence of postictal hypoperfusion/hypoxia results in a separate set of neurological consequences that are currently not being treated and are preventable. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19352.001, eLife digest It has long been known that after an epileptic seizure, individuals often experience an extended period of impairments that affect how the brain works. Because the brain is organized so that specific tasks happen in particular areas, seizures that affect areas of the brain that control movement are often followed by muscle weakness. Likewise, amnesia may follow a seizure that affects brain areas involved in memory. While these events reduce quality of life in people with epilepsy, they have gone untreated because we did not understand what occurs in the brain after seizures. It has been observed that the impairments that follow seizures are similar to those that follow strokes, where for a period of time blood flow to certain areas of the brain is restricted and these areas are starved of oxygen. Following a seizure, is there a local stroke-like event that is responsible for the behavioural and memory impairments? To address this question, Farrell et al. studied blood flow in the brains of mice, rats and human volunteers with epilepsy. The experiments show that after an epileptic seizure, blood vessels become narrower, which reduces blood supply to the areas of the brain involved in the seizure and dramatically reduces oxygen levels in those same areas. Using drugs to block the activity of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase-2 or other proteins called L-type calcium channels prevented both the oxygen shortage and the behavioural impairments that follow seizures. Thus, people with epilepsy are experiencing stroke-like events after seizures that they should be able to avoid with simple medical treatments. In the future, clinical research should determine how effective these treatments are in people with epilepsy. Other experiments should reveal if a shortage of oxygen after a seizure causes noticeable brain damage and the long-term behavioural problems that are often associated with epilepsy. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19352.002

Women of child-bearing age are the population at greatest risk for depression. The stress experienced during pregnancy and the associated antidepressant treatments can both affect fetal development. Fluoxetine (FLX) is among the most common antidepressants used by pregnant women. We have previously demonstrated that perinatal exposure to FLX can alter expression of circadian rhythms in adulthood. Here, we examine the combined effects of maternal stress during pregnancy and perinatal exposure to the antidepressant FLX on the circadian behavior of mice as adults. Mouse dams were exposed to chronic unpredictable stress (embryonic (E) day 7 to E18), FLX (E15 to postnatal day 12), a combination of both stress and FLX, or were left untreated. At 2 months of age, male offspring were placed in recording chambers and circadian organization of wheel running rhythms and phase shifts to photic and non-photic stimuli were assessed. Mice exposed to prenatal stress (PS) had smaller light-induced phase delays. Mice exposed to perinatal FLX required more days to re-entrainment to an 8-h phase advance of their light–dark cycle. Mice subjected to either perinatal FLX or to PS had larger light-induced phase advances and smaller phase advances to 8-OH-DPAT. FLX treatment partially reversed the effect of PS on phase shifts to late-night light exposure and to 8-OH-DPAT. Our results suggest that, in mice, perinatal exposure to either FLX, or PS, or their combination, leads to discernible, persistent changes in their circadian systems as adults.

The mammalian circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a heterogeneous structure. Two key populations of cells that receive retinal input and are believed to participate in circadian responses to light are cells that contain vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP). VIP acts primarily through the VPAC2 receptor, while GRP works primarily through the BB2 receptor. Both VIP and GRP phase shift the circadian clock in a manner similar to light when applied to the SCN, both in vivo and in vitro, indicating that they are sufficient to elicit photic-like phase shifts. However, it is not known if they are necessary signals for light to elicit phase shifts. Here we test the hypothesis that GRP and VIP are necessary signaling components for the photic phase shifting of the hamster circadian clock by examining two antagonists for each of these neuropeptides. The BB2 antagonist PD176252 had no effect on light-induced delays on its own, while the BB2 antagonist RC-3095 had the unexpected effect of significantly potentiating both phase delays and advances. Neither of the VIP antagonists ([d-p-Cl-Phe6, Leu17]-VIP, or PG99-465) altered phase shifting responses to light on their own. When the BB2 antagonist PD176252 and the VPAC2 antagonist PG99-465 were delivered together to the SCN, phase delays were significantly attenuated. These results indicate that photic phase shifting requires participation of either VIP or GRP; phase shifts to light are only impaired when signalling in both pathways are inhibited. Additionally, the unexpected potentiation of light-induced phase shifts by RC-3095 should be investigated further for potential chronobiotic applications.

Circadian rhythms in mammals are regulated by a system of circadian oscillators that includes a light-entrainable pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and food-entrainable oscillators (FEOs) elsewhere in the brain and body. In nocturnal rodents, the SCN promotes sleep in the day and wake at night, while FEOs promote an active state in anticipation of a predictable daily meal. For nocturnal animals to anticipate a daytime meal, wake-promoting signals from FEOs must compete with sleep-promoting signals from the SCN pacemaker. One hypothesis is that FEOs impose a daily rhythm of inhibition on SCN output that is timed to permit the expression of activity prior to a daytime meal. This hypothesis predicts that SCN activity should decrease prior to the onset of anticipatory activity and remain suppressed through the scheduled mealtime. To assess the hypothesis, neural activity in the SCN of mice anticipating a 4-5-h daily meal in the light period was measured using FOS immunohistochemistry and in vivo multiple unit electrophysiology. SCN FOS, quantified by optical density, was significantly reduced at the expected mealtime in food-anticipating mice with access to a running disk, compared to ad libitum-fed and acutely fasted controls. Group differences were not significant when FOS was quantified by other methods, or in mice without running disks. SCN electrical activity was markedly decreased during locomotion in some mice but increased in others. Changes in either direction were concurrent with locomotion, were not specific to food anticipation, and were not sustained during longer pauses. Reduced FOS indicates a net suppression of SCN activity that may depend on the intensity or duration of locomotion. The timing of changes in SCN activity relative to locomotion suggests that any effect of FEOs on SCN output is mediated indirectly, by feedback from neural or systemic correlates of locomotion.

The mammalian circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) can be reset by the cholinergic agonist carbachol. In hamsters, intraSCN carbachol produces phase advances during the day. This phenomenon has previously been attributed to the muscarinic receptors, as carbachol-induced phase shifts are blocked by pretreatment with the muscarinic antagonist atropine. The SCN contains all five muscarinic receptors, leaving open the question as to which muscarinic receptors mediate these shifts. Here we test two selective muscarinic agonists, the M1/4 agonist McN-A-343 and the M2/3 agonist bethanechol, in addition to the non-selective cholinergic agonist carbachol. Consistent with previous reports, carbachol produced significant phase advances when injected to the SCN during the mid-subjective day. At the doses used here, McN-A-343, but not bethanechol, also produced significant phase shifts when injected to the SCN during the mid-subjective day. Phase shifts to McN-A-343 were as large as those produced by carbachol, suggesting that activation of the M1/4 receptors alone can fully account for the daytime phase advances produced by cholinergic agonists. Given acetylcholine's role in arousal, and the similarity between phase advances to carbachol/McN-A-343 and to exercise and arousal manipulations, it is possible that acetylcholine may contribute to non-photic resetting of the circadian clock.

Depression is prevalent among women of childbearing age and is frequently treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). As some SSRIs, such as fluoxetine (Flx), can cross the placenta, it is possible that the neurodevelopment of the fetus may be affected, leading to altered behavior in adulthood. In this study, we examined the effects of perinatal Flx exposure on the subsequent expression of circadian rhythms in adult mice. Dams were treated with 25 mg/kg/day Flx in their drinking water from embryonic day 15 to postnatal day 12. Circadian organization of wheel running rhythms and phase shifts to photic and non-photic stimuli were assessed in the offspring starting at 6 weeks of age. We found that perinatal Flx exposure led to larger light-induced phase advances (1.19 ± 0.51 vs. 0.55 ± 0.25 h), smaller phase advances to the serotonin agonist 8-OH-DPAT during the mid-subjective day (0.44 ± 0.15 vs. 0.70 ± 0.17 h), and a shorter free-running period in constant darkness (23.47 ± 0.13 vs. 23.64 ± 0.13 h). These results suggest that perinatal exposure to SSRIs may have consequences for the functioning of the circadian system later in life.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by distinct behavioral and cognitive deficits that differ from those observed in normal aging. Transgenic models of AD are a promising tool in understanding the underlying mechanisms and cause of disease. The triple-transgenic mouse model of AD (3xTg-AD) is the only model to exhibit both Abeta and tau pathology that is characteristic of the human form. The present study characterized the performance of 3xTg-AD mice on several tasks measuring behavioral and cognitive ability. Aged 3xTg-AD females exhibited a higher level of fear and anxiety demonstrated by increased restlessness, startle responses, and freezing behaviors. No differences were observed in muscle strength and visuo-motor coordination. Understanding the behavioral manifestations that occur in this model of AD may aid in the early diagnosis and appropriate treatment of AD symptomology.

Circadian disturbances, including a fragmented sleep-wake pattern and sundowning, are commonly reported early in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). These changes are distinctly different from those observed in non-pathological aging. Transgenic models of AD are a promising tool in understanding the underlying mechanisms and cause of disease. A novel triple-transgenic model of AD, 3xTg-AD, is the only model to exhibit both Abeta and tau pathology, and mimic human AD. The present study characterized changes pertaining to circadian rhythmicity that occur prior to and post-AD pathology. Both male and female 3xTg-AD mice demonstrated alterations to their circadian pacemaker with decreased nocturnal behavior when compared to controls. Specifically, males showed greater locomotor activity during the day and shorter freerunning periods prior to the onset of AD-pathology, and females had a decrease in activity levels during their typical active phase. Both sexes did not differ in terms of their freerunning periods or photic phase shifting ability. A decrease in vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-containing and vasopressin-containing cells was observed in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of 3xTg-AD mice relative to controls. This study demonstrates that abnormalities in circadian rhythmicity in 3xTg-AD mice precede expected AD pathology. This suggests that human studies may wish to determine if similar circadian dysfunction is predictive of early-onset AD.

The circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), receives a major afferent from the median raphe nucleus (MRN). In the Syrian hamster, only about 50% of the cells giving rise to this afferent contain serotonin. There is mixed evidence as to whether the serotonergic portion of this projection is involved in non-photic phase shifting of circadian locomotor rhythms. In order to better characterize the non-serotonergic projections, we conducted retrograde tract tracing using the beta subunit of cholera toxin combined with multi-label immunohistochemistry. Similar to previous findings, almost half of the retrogradely labeled cells contained serotonin. Additionally, approximately 30% of the retrogradely labeled cells contained vesicular glutamate transporter 3 (VGLUT3), but not serotonin. Surprisingly, some dorsal raphe cholera toxin labeling was also noted, particularly in animals with central-SCN injections. To determine if the non-serotonergic projections were important for non-photic phase shifts elicited by MRN stimulation, the MRN was electrically stimulated in animals pretreated with SCN injection of either the serotonin neurotoxin 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine or vehicle control. Intact animals phase advanced to midday electrical stimulation of the raphe while lesioned animals did not. Together, these results show that although some of the non-serotonergic raphe projections to the SCN contain VGLUT3, it is the serotonergic raphe innervation of the SCN that is critical for non-photic phase shifting elicited by MRN stimulation.

The 5-HT mixed agonist/antagonist 1-(2-methoxyphenyl)4-[4-(phthalimido)butyl]-piperazine hydrobromide (NAN-190) has been shown to greatly potentiate photic phase shifts in hamsters. The mechanism of this potentiation has yet to be determined. NAN-190 is believed to act primarily through the 5-HT(1A) receptor, but also binds to several other receptors, making it uncertain as to which receptor underlies its potentiation of photic phase shifts. Also uncertain are the intracellular changes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which are associated with such enhanced phase shifting. Here we examine the role of the 5-HT(1A) receptor as well as the physiological underpinnings, in terms of both gene expression and biochemical activation, in the behavioral responses to photic stimuli following pretreatment with NAN-190. Administration of NAN-190 to wildtype mice significantly potentiated late subjective night photic phase shifts, while mice lacking the 5-HT(1A) receptor (knockouts) exhibited an attenuated behavioral response to light when pretreated with NAN-190. In wildtype mice, the protein product of the immediate-early gene c-fos, induced following photic stimulation, was found to be significantly decreased with NAN-190 pretreatment. Similarly, the levels of phosphorylated CREB protein, involved in a biochemical pathway leading to gene transcription, were also attenuated by NAN-190 in the wildtype mice. However, activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase I/II (ERK) pathway in wildtype mice, following the light pulse, was not affected by NAN-190 pretreatment, nor was the expression of the circadian clock components Period1 and Period2. These findings suggest that the 5-HT(1A) receptor plays a critical role in the potentiation effect observed with NAN-190, and that NAN-190 may potentiate photic phase shifts at least partly by down-regulating the activity of some (but not all) genes and biochemical pathways involved in coupling the light signal to the output of the circadian clock.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) contains the master mammalian circadian pacemaker. It is comprised of several phenotypically distinct cell groups, some of which are situated in the weakly rhythmic retinoresponsive ventrolateral region while others are found in the rhythmic, non-retinoresponsive dorsomedial region. The mechanism by which retinorecipient cells convey photic information to the dorsomedial clock cells is unclear. The ventrolateral SCN core contains a variety of cell phenotypes. Two neuropeptides, namely substance P (SP) and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) extensively colocalize with calbindin D28K, a marker for SCN cells that are strongly light-responsive. Previous studies have implicated these neuropeptides in photic phase shifting of the circadian system. The present study examines how these peptides interact to regulate photic responses of the circadian system. It was observed that 55.5 +/- 9.1% of SP cells colocalized GRP. SP did not enhance GRP-induced phase shifts in the early-subjective night, while it significantly attenuated GRP-induced phase shifts during the late-subjective night. SP induced significant phase shifts that did not resemble light in the early-subjective night, but was not necessary for light-induced phase shifts and Fos expression at this time. SP induced significant Fos expression only in the late subjective night. SP may not be a necessary component in the pathway(s) involved in photic phase shifting during the early-subjective night, but may modulate phase shifts during the late-subjective night. Distinct biochemical mechanisms that underlie behavioral phase shifts may account for the differences observed in the early- vs. late-subjective night.

The neurophysiologic model of Parkinson's disease predicts nigrostriatal dopamine depletion leads to increased inhibitory basal ganglia output resulting in frontal neocortical hypoactivity. The nature of this hypoactivation is not well understood and modeled predominantly by a unilateral representation. Intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) was used to probe topographic movement representations of the left forelimb motor area 2 weeks following sham, unilateral left hemisphere or bilateral intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) infusion and under acute dopamine receptor antagonism with haloperidol in non-lesioned rats. 6-OHDA infusions induced a significant loss of substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) dopamine neurons. Bilateral SNc lesions and haloperidol significantly reduced map area which was preserved in unilateral lesions. All lesion conditions and haloperidol induced significant map reorganization, characterized by increased representation of distal forelimb movements. Results suggest basal ganglia dopamine deficiency can affect the topographic organization of sensorimotor neocortex and lead to significant reduction in the size of motor representations. We conclude that the neurophysiologic model is supported but that bilateral loss of dopamine is required to see a reduction in the size of motor maps.

The ability to anticipate physiological needs and to predict the availability of desirable resources optimizes the likelihood of survival for an organism. The neural basis of the complex behaviors associated with anticipatory responses is now being delineated. Anticipation likely involves learning and memory, reward and punishment, memory and cognition, arousal and feedback associated with changes in internal and external state, homeostatic processes and timing mechanisms. While anticipation can occur on a variety of timescales (seconds to minutes to hours to days to a year), there have been great strides made towards understanding the neural basis timing of events in the circadian realm. Anticipation of daily events, such as scheduled access to food, may serve as a useful model for a more broadly based understanding the neurobiology of anticipation. In this review we examine the historical, conceptual and experimental approaches to understanding the neural basis of anticipation with a focus on anticipation of scheduled daily meals. We also introduce the key topics represented in the papers in this issue. These papers focused on food anticipation, to explore the state of the art in the studies of the neural basis of timing and anticipatory behaviors.

Circadian rhythms in physiological, endocrine and metabolic functioning are controlled by a neural clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). This structure is endogenously rhythmic and the phase of this rhythm can be reset by light information from the eye. A key feature of the SCN is that while it is a small structure containing on the order of about 20,000 cells, it is amazingly heterogeneous. It is likely that anatomical heterogeneity reflects an underlying functional heterogeneity. In this review, we examine the physiological responses of cells in the SCN to light stimuli that reset the phase of the circadian clock, highlighting where possible the spatial pattern of such responses. Increases in intracellular calcium are an important signal in response to light, and this increase triggers many biochemical cascades that mediate responses to light. Furthermore, only some cells in the SCN are actually endogenously rhythmic, and these cells likely do not receive strong direct input from the retina. Therefore, this review also considers how light information is conveyed from the retinorecipient cells to the endogenously rhythmic cells that track circadian phase. A number of neuropeptides, including vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, gastrin-releasing peptide and substance P, may be particularly important in relaying such signals, but other neurochemicals such as GABA and nitric oxide may participate as well. A thorough understanding of the intracellular and intercellular responses to light, as well as the spatial arrangements of such responses may help identify important pharmacological targets for therapeutic interventions to treat sleep and circadian disorders.

The medial frontal cortex (MFC) is involved in the temporal organization of behaviour. It receives timing information from the master circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), and exhibits daily oscillations in gene expression itself. In this study, we evaluate various properties of circadian rhythms of locomotor activity following neonatal or adult MFC aspiration lesions. Mice with neonatal lesions were more active during the day than mice with adult lesions and less active during the early night than both mice with adult lesions and control mice. Compared to controls, mice with neonatal lesions exhibited smaller phase delays to an early-night light pulse and marginally larger phase advances to a late-night light pulse. Mice with adult lesions did not differ from controls on either measure. The results suggest that the timing of behaviour is determined by an interaction between the MFC and the SCN and that injury early in life has a significant effect on the ability of animals to organize such behaviours.

Chronic desynchronization between the mammalian circadian pacemaker and its external environment, such as that observed from shift work or jet lag, can lead to various long-term health consequences. The circadian clock can be reset by exposure to light, although the magnitude of such adjustments is modest. 5-HT modulates the effects of light, and 5-HT 1A mixed agonist/antagonists, such as NAN-190, have been found to potentiate the phase resetting ability of light. The mechanism for this potentiation has yet to be uncovered, although it has been proposed that these drugs inhibit raphe output while simultaneously blocking post-synaptic 5-HT 1A receptors. The current study takes advantage of the heterogeneous network organization of the circadian clock to identify where in the circadian system NAN-190 exerts its influence. Retinorecipient cells in the ventrolateral suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) are activated by glutamate and release either gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) or vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. Application of the glutamate agonist N -methyl- d -aspartic acid (NMDA) or either of these neuropeptides to the SCN mimics the effects of light. We hypothesized that NAN-190 would modify responses to treatments that activate the circadian system upstream, but not downstream, of where NAN-190 is acting. Hamsters were pretreated with NAN-190 or vehicle, followed by one of the neurochemicals 45 min later, during the early- and/or late-subjective night. NAN-190 potentiated NMDA-induced phase advances and delays as well as GRP-induced advances, but attenuated GRP-induced delays. NAN-190 did not potentiate NMDA-induced Fos expression, however greater GRP-induced Fos expression was found within the dorsolateral region of the SCN. These data suggest that NAN-190 acts, in part, by modifying the responsiveness of retinorecipient cells in the circadian clock. An understanding of the neural events that underlie the potentiation of photic phase shifts by NAN-190 could guide the development of novel chronobiotics which could be used to treat a variety of sleep and circadian disorders.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the site of the master circadian clock in mammals, a complex tissue composed of multiple, coupled, single-cell circadian oscillators. Mathematical modeling is now providing insights on how individual SCN cells might interact and assemble to create an integrated pacemaker that governs the circadian behavior of whole animals. In this article, we will discuss the neurobiological constraints for modeling SCN behavior, system precision, implications of cellular heterogeneity, and analysis of heterogeneously coupled oscillator networks. Mathematical approaches will be critical for better understanding intercellular interactions within the SCN.

For an organism to be successful in an evolutionary sense, it and its offspring must survive. Such survival depends on satisfying a number of needs that are driven by motivated behaviors, such as eating, sleeping, and mating. An individual can usually only pursue one motivated behavior at a time. The circadian system provides temporal structure to the organism's 24 hour day, partitioning specific behaviors to particular times of the day. The circadian system also allows anticipation of opportunities to engage in motivated behaviors that occur at predictable times of the day. Such anticipation enhances fitness by ensuring that the organism is physiologically ready to make use of a time-limited resource as soon as it becomes available. This could include activation of the sympathetic nervous system to transition from sleep to wake, or to engage in mating, or to activate of the parasympathetic nervous system to facilitate transitions to sleep, or to prepare the body to digest a meal. In addition to enabling temporal partitioning of motivated behaviors, the circadian system may also regulate the amplitude of the drive state motivating the behavior. For example, the circadian clock modulates not only when it is time to eat, but also how hungry we are. In this chapter we explore the physiology of our circadian clock and its involvement in a number of motivated behaviors such as sleeping, eating, exercise, sexual behavior, and maternal behavior. We also examine ways in which dysfunction of circadian timing can contribute to disease states, particularly in psychiatric conditions that include adherent motivational states.

Light serves as the primary stimulus that synchronizes the circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to the external day/night cycle. Appropriately timed light exposure can reset the phase of the circadian clock. Some serotonergic drugs that bind to the serotonin 1A receptor can enhance phase shifts to light. The mechanism by which this potentiation occurs is not well understood. In this study, we examined where one of these drugs, 8-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]-8-azaspiro[4.5]decane-7,9-dione dihydrochloride (BMY7378), might be working in the hamster brain. Systemic (5 mg/kg), intra-dorsal raphe and intra-median raphe (both 15.6 nmol in 0.5 μL), but not intra-SCN (7.8 nmol or 15.6 nmol in 0.5 μL) injections of BMY7378 significantly potentiated phase shifts to light. Potentiation of photic shifts persisted when serotonergic innervation of the SCN was lesioned with infusions of the serotonin neurotoxin 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine into the SCN. Light-induced c-Fos expression in the rostral and caudal intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) was attenuated with systemic BMY7378, suggesting that the IGL may be involved in this response. Both complete IGL lesions and depletion of serotonergic innervation of the IGL prevented systemic BMY7378 from potentiating photic phase shifts. Together, these findings suggest that the mechanism by which BMY7378 enhances photic responses is by changing the activity of the raphe nuclei to influence how the IGL responds to light, which subsequently influences the SCN as one of its downstream targets. Identification of the network that underlies this potentiation could lead to the development of useful therapeutic interventions for treating sleep and circadian disorders.

Our 24-hour day is divided into periods of wake and sleep. Sleep itself is divided into periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-REM sleep. A large collection of brain areas exist to produce wake and the various sleep states. These brain areas are networked together to coordinate switching between these states. Homeostatic and circadian factors also influence these sleep areas so that sleep occurs at optimal times to meet physiological needs.

For an organism to be successful in an evolutionary sense, it and its offspring must survive. Such survival depends on satisfying a number of needs that are driven by motivated behaviors, such as eating, sleeping, and mating. An individual can usually only pursue one motivated behavior at a time. The circadian system provides temporal structure to the organism's 24 hour day, partitioning specific behaviors to particular times of the day. The circadian system also allows anticipation of opportunities to engage in motivated behaviors that occur at predictable times of the day. Such anticipation enhances fitness by ensuring that the organism is physiologically ready to make use of a time-limited resource as soon as it becomes available. This could include activation of the sympathetic nervous system to transition from sleep to wake, or to engage in mating, or to activate of the parasympathetic nervous system to facilitate transitions to sleep, or to prepare the body to digest a meal. In addition to enabling temporal partitioning of motivated behaviors, the circadian system may also regulate the amplitude of the drive state motivating the behavior. For example, the circadian clock modulates not only when it is time to eat, but also how hungry we are. In this chapter we explore the physiology of our circadian clock and its involvement in a number of motivated behaviors such as sleeping, eating, exercise, sexual behavior, and maternal behavior. We also examine ways in which dysfunction of circadian timing can contribute to disease states, particularly in psychiatric conditions that include adherent motivational states.

Wheel running stimulated during the daily rest period can acutely shift circadian rhythms in Syrian hamsters. Spontaneous running, defining the active phase of the circadian rest-activity cycle, can shorten the circadian periodicity in constant light or dark in several nocturnal rodent species. The adaptive significance of these behavioral effects on pacemaker phase and period is unclear. Here we consider a hypothesis that behavioral inputs to the circadian pacemaker serve primarily to enhance the precision of light-dark entrainment and maintain daily activity onset close to lights-off (i.e., dusk) by stabilizing entrainment on a steeper portion of the delay zone of the phase-response curve to light. This hypothesis rests on the evidence that spontaneous activity early in the active period feeds back on the pacemaker to advance its motion. If so, then preventing activity at this time should induce a phase delay shift. Such delay shifts have been reported in Syrian hamsters physically restrained early in the active period. We show here that restraint can induce phase delays but that, using the Aschoff Type 2 procedure for measuring shifts, these delays are very small, are inversely related to behavioral sleep during restraint, and are positively correlated with 'rebound' increases in running following restraint, at a circadian time when stimulated running is known to induce phase delay shifts. Repeated bouts of restraint, to promote habituation, were associated with strong attenuation of 'rebound' running and no significant delay shifts. These results suggest that, in Syrian hamsters, spontaneous activity early at night has little effect on pacemaker motion, and argue against the stated hypothesis.