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The objective of the present study was to characterize and compare the differences in gene expression associated with innate immune response of blood monocytes (Mos) between healthy subclinically PCV2-infected and PCV2-free pigs prior to and after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation in vitro by relative quantitative real-time PCR (q-rt-PCR). Genes coding for 24 innate molecules, including toll-like receptors (TLRs), interferon-regulatory factors (IRFs), nuclear factor kappa-light chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and pro-inflammatory cytokines were evaluated. When compared with PCV2-free pigs, Mos from subclinically PCV2-infected pigs showed significantly lower mRNA expression levels in TLR-9, IRF-3, IRF-6, IRF-7, IL-6, IL-12p35, IL-12p40 and IFN-α under no further stimulation. Following LPS stimulation in vitro, a broad and/or obvious reduction in TLRs, IRFs, IL-12 and IFN-α along with increase in IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and/or TNF-α were seen in both PCV2-free and subclinically PCV2-infected pigs; when compared with PCV2-free pigs, the subclinically PCV2-infected pigs had significantly higher expression levels in TLR-10 and IRF-1 but lower expression levels in IRF-6, IL-1α and IL-12p40. On the contrary, the expression level of NF-κB was consistently higher in subclinically PCV2-infected pigs than in PCV2-free pigs with or without LPS stimulation. The changes seen in the present study suggest that the subclinically PCV2-infected pigs may look healthy clinically, but their innate immunity has become dis-regulated or is in an improper status. The adverse condition may become even worse when exposed to certain bacterial products such as endotoxin. Such alterations in the innate immune system may make the subclinically PCV2-infected pigs more vulnerable to the secondary infection and subsequent PCV2-associated disease development.

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infection has been suggested as an acquired immunodeficiency disorder. However, the immunopathogenesis of PCV2 infection is still not fully clarified. In the present study, 35 inguinal lymph nodes (LNs) with different levels of PCV2 load obtained from postwaening multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS)-affected pigs and 7 from healthy subclinically PCV2-infected pigs were selected. The LNs were subsequently ranked by their PCV2 loads to mimic the progression of PCV2 infection-associated lesion development. The expressions of 96 selected immune genes in these LNs were assessed by the integration of several reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction experiments. Hierarchical cluster analysis of the gene expression profiles resulted in 5 major clusters (A, B, C, D, and E). Different clusters of immune gene expression profiles were compatible with the divergent functions of various immune cell subpopulations. 61 out of 96 selected genes belonged to cluster C and were mainly involved in the activation of dendritic cells and B and T lymphocytes. The expression levels of these genes were generally up-regulated in the LNs obtained from PMWS-affected pigs with relatively lower PCV2 loads. However, the up-regulated level tended to reduce or turned into down-regulation as the PCV2 load increased. Genes belonging to cluster B, involved in T cell receptor signaling, became silenced as the PCV2 load increased. The expression profiles of macrophage-associated genes were either independent from or positively correlated with the PCV2 load, such as those in clusters A and E and in cluster D, respectively. In addition, the principle component analysis of the expression of the 96 selected genes in the 42 inguinal LNs revealed that 53.10% and 72.29% of the total data variants could be explained by the top-3 and top-7 principle components, respectively, suggesting that the disease development of PCV2 infection may be associated with a few major and some minor factors. In conclusion, assessment of immune gene expression profiles in LNs supports a close interaction between immune activation and suppression during the progression of PMWS development.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen presenting cells cooperating with other immune cells for the activation of innate and adaptive immune responses. The objective of the present study was to investigate the replication activity of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) in DCs and/or lymphocytes during their cross talk and its possible mechanism. Two models were set, herein. Swine blood monocyte (Mo)-derived DCs (MoDCs) or peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) were inoculated with PCV2 prior to their co-cultivation. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and concanavalin A (Con A) were used to stimulate MoDCs and PBLs, respectively. During 6 days of cultivation, a high PCV2 antigen-containing rate without detectable intranuclear signals and a slight but significant increase in the copy number of PCV2 genome were detected in PCV2-inoculated MoDCs. The presence of LPS alone or PCV2-free PBLs, however, had no effect on the location of PCV2 antigens or copy number of PCV2 genome in PCV2-inoculated MoDCs. On the contrary, active PCV2 replication occurred in Con A-stimulated PCV2-inoculated PBLs. When compared with blood Mos, MoDCs induced significantly higher cell proliferation and intensified PCV2 replication in Con A-stimulated PCV2-inoculated PBLs, for which direct contact between MoDCs and lymphocytes was required. Among the cytokines secreted by Con A-activated PBLs, interleukin (IL)-2, but not IL-4 or interferon-γ, could induce cell proliferation and PCV2 replication in PCV2-inoculated PBLs. The findings suggest that although MoDCs support only limited PCV2 replication in themselves, their accessory cell function is required for cell proliferation and PCV2 replication in PCV2-infected lymphocytes.

The immunopathogenesis of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infection in conventional pigs is complicated by various environmental factors and individual variation and is difficult to be completely reproduced experimentally. In the present field-based study, a tissue microarray (TMA) consisting of a series of lymphoid follicles having different PCV2-loads was constructed using formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded superficial inguinal lymph nodes (LNs) from 102 pigs. Using the TMA, a wide range of parameters, including co-infected viral pathogens, immune cell subsets, and cell apoptosis/proliferation activity by immunohistochemical (IHC) staining or in situ hybridization (ISH) were measured, characterized, and compared. The signal location and area extent of each parameter were interpreted by pathologists, semi-quantified by automated image analysis software, and analyzed statistically. The results herein demonstrated a significant negative correlation between PCV2 and CD79a (p < 0.001) and a significant positive correlation between PCV2 and lysozyme (p < 0.001) or TUNEL (p < 0.001) using Pearson correlation analysis. The amount of porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine parvovirus antigens did not correlate with the tissue loads of PCV2 nucleic acid. Multiple regression analysis further predicted that PCV2 contributed major effects on CD79a, lysozyme, and TUNEL but PRRSV showed relatively less effects on these parameters. In addition, the total signal intensity of Ki67 (index of cell proliferation activity) did not change significantly among cases with different PCV2 loads; however, as the loading of PCV2 nucleic acid increased, the main contribution of Ki67 signal gradually shifted from B cells in the germinal center to T cells and macrophages in the interfollicular regions. In the present study, the use of TMA to establish a mathematical model with a wider range of statistical analysis can bring us a step forward to understand the immunopathogenesis of PCV2 infection-associated follicular changes in LNs.

Taking advantage of the high sensitivity of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the cell-localizing ability of in situ hybridization (ISH), an indirect in situ PCR (ISPCR) method was developed for detecting the distribution of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded inguinal lymph nodes obtained from clinically healthy PCV2-carrier pigs and postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS)-affected pigs. Comparisons of the relative sensitivity of indirect ISPCR with other routinely used diagnostic methods for PCV2 indicated that nested PCR was the most sensitive method followed by indirect ISPCR, conventional PCR, ISH, and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining. Although indirect ISPCR, ISH, and IHC staining all revealed a similar signal distribution pattern of PCV2, using indirect ISPCR allowed specific amplification and detection of previously uneasily detected PCV2 signal than by routine ISH or IHC staining, particularly in those cells within the germinal center in clinically healthy PCV2-carrier pigs. Furthermore, six different PCV2 signal expression patterns in conjunction with the correlated lymphoid lesion stages were classified to describe the tissue morphological changes and viral infection. The result indicates that indirect ISPCR is a more effective, cell-based diagnostic tool with good specificity to detect limited PCV2 infection in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissue specimens and it would be a useful tool for further exploring the pathogenesis of PCV2 infection.

Monocyte/macrophage lineage cells are major target cells of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). From tissues of field pigs suffering from postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), both intracytoplasmic and intranuclear PCV2 signals, including antigens and nucleic acid, were easily detected in the monocyte/macrophage lineage cells. However, there was a high incidence of intracytoplasmic PCV2-positive signals, but lack of intranuclear signals and PCV2 replication in these cells in vitro. Concurrent infection with bacteria and activation of immune system are suggested to promote viral replication. In this study, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) were used to stimulate PCV2-inoculated alveolar macrophages (AMs). A decrease in intracytoplasmic but increase in intranuclear PCV2-positive signals, including antigens and nucleic acid, were detected in LPS-treated PCV2-inoculated AMs, but not in PMA-treated cells. Additionally, the replication product corresponding to PCV2 spliced major capsid protein (Cap) mRNA and a significant elevation in PCV2 titer were demonstrated in the LPS-treated PCV2-inoculated AMs. The results imply that Gram-negative bacterial co-infection in PCV2-infected pigs may be an important factor in promoting PCV2 replication and contributing, at least partially, to the full development of PMWS.

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary causative agent of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), a multifactorial disease, in pigs. Monocyte/macrophage lineage cells, including alveolar macrophages (AMs), are the major target cells for PCV2. Swine AMs are essential for the pulmonary defense system against various pathogens. Concurrent infection of lung with opportunistic pathogens in pigs suffered from PMWS is speculated as a feature of immunosuppression. The present study was conducted to characterize the effects of PCV2 inoculation on swine AMs in the in vitro system. The parameters selected for evaluation included PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rate, viability, TUNEL-positive rate, phagocytosis, microbicidal capability, and capacity for production of reactive oxygen species (superoxide anion, O2-, and hydrogen peroxide, H2O2), cytokines, and chemokines. High intracytoplasmic PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rate, absence of intranuclear signals for PCV2 antigen and nucleic acid, and lack of noticeable cell death were seen in PCV2-inoculated AMs. The PCV2-inoculated AMs displayed a transient as well as persistent reduction in the up-take and destruction of Candida albicans, respectively, accompanied by decrease in the production of O2- and H2O2. In PCV2-inoculated AMs, the levels of tumor necrosis-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) were significantly increased; the mRNA expression levels of alveolar macrophage-derived neutrophil chemotactic factors-II (AMCF-II), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), and IL-8 were strongly up-regulated. The reduced phagocytosis and microbicidal capability in conjunction with decreased production of reactive oxygen species in PCV2-inoculated AMs suggest that PCV2-containing AMs may favor the survival and spread of PCV2. It is speculated that the functional alterations observed in PCV2-containing AMs may be potentially harmful to the lung tissue and local pulmonary defense system, especially in those PCV2-infected pigs conditioned by various PMWS development-dependent co-factors.

The Lapinized Philippines Coronel (LPC) vaccine, an attenuated strain of classical swine fever virus (CSFV), is an important tool for the prevention and control of CSFV infection and is widely and routinely used in most CSF endemic areas, including Taiwan. The aim of this study was to investigate whether PCV2 infection affects the efficacy of the LPC vaccine. Eighteen 6-week-old, cesarean-derived and colostrum-deprived (CDCD), crossbred pigs were randomly assigned to four groups. A total of 105.3 TCID50 of PCV2 was experimentally inoculated into pigs through both intranasal and intramuscular routes at 0 days post-inoculation (dpi) followed by LPC vaccination 12 days later. All the animals were challenged with wild-type CSFV (ALD stain) at 27 dpi and euthanized at 45 dpi. Following CSFV challenge, the LPC-vaccinated pigs pre-inoculated with PCV2 showed transient fever, viremia, and viral shedding in the saliva and feces. The number of IgM+, CD4+CD8-CD25+, CD4+CD8+CD25+, and CD4-CD8+CD25+ lymphocyte subsets and the level of neutralizing antibodies against CSFV were significantly higher in the animals with LPC vaccination alone than in the pigs with PCV2 inoculation/LPC vaccination. In addition, PCV2-derived inhibition of the CSFV-specific cell proliferative response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was demonstrated in an ex vivo experiment. These findings indicate that PCV2 infection decreases the efficacy of the LPC vaccine. This PCV2-derived interference may not only allow the invasion of wild-type CSFV in pig farms but also increases the difficulty of CSF prevention and control in CSF endemic areas.

International audience; Granulomatous lymphadenitis is one of the pathognomonic lesions in post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS)-affected pigs. This unique lesion has not been reported in direct association with viral infection in pigs. The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) alone is able to induce functional modulation in porcine monocytic cells in vitro to elucidate its possible role in the development of granulomatous inflammation. It was found that the proliferation activity of blood monocytes (Mo) and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) was significantly enhanced by PCV2. During monocyte-macrophage differentiation, the PCV2 antigen-containing rate and formation of multinucleated giant cells (MGC) were significantly increased in MDM when compared to those in Mo. The MDM-derived MGC displayed a significantly higher PCV2 antigen-containing rate than did the mono-nucleated MDM. Supernatants from PCV2-inoculated MDM at 24 h post-inoculation induced an increased tendency of chemotactic activity for blood Mo. At the same inoculation time period, levels of mRNA expression of the monocytic chemokines, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1, also significantly increased in PCV2-inoculated MDM. The results suggest that PCV2 alone may induce cell proliferation, fusion, and chemokine expression in swine monocytic cells. Thus, PCV2 itself may play a significant role in the induction of granulomatous inflammation in PMWS-affected pigs.

Amoebiasis is one of the most common protozoal diseases of reptiles, but amoebic myositis has not been reported in any animal species. An 11-year-old, male common water monitor lizard (Varanus salvator) was found dead with several subacute ulcerated skin wounds. Gross examination revealed multiple discrete to coalescing, white-yellow to gray, caseous foci scattered in the skeletal muscles and liver. The mucosa of small intestine was thickened, red, and contained many variably sized, dark red ulcers, with depressed and hemorrhagic centers. Histopathologic examination revealed severe necrotizing and granulomatous myositis, hepatitis, and enteritis accompanied by large numbers of intralesional, 10-20-μm diameter, periodic acid-Schiff-positive, amoeboid protozoa. Gene sequence analysis of a 136-bp region of the 18S ribosomal RNA amplified by polymerase chain reaction revealed 98–100% similarity with Entamoeba invadens. Aside from intestinal and hepatic involvement, no other internal organs were affected. The muscular infection by E. invadens likely resulted from a combination of direct invasion of trophozoites via skin wounds and hematogenous spread.

Information regarding the susceptibility of swine lymphocytes to PCV2 is rather limited. To further explore and characterize the PCV2 infection in swine lymphocytes, an in vitro model using concanavalin A (Con A)-stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) obtained from clinically healthy PCV2-carrier pigs was introduced. It was found that the PCV2 antigen-containing rate was below 2% in PBLs from healthy PCV2-free pigs following treated simultaneously with Con A and PCV2. However, significantly higher PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rates could be seen in Con A-stimulated PBLs from clinically healthy PCV2-carrier pigs. Prior to Con A treatment, both of the PCV2 antigen- and nucleic acid-containing rates in PBLs from healthy PCV2-carrier pigs were less than 1%; however, they reached 22.1 ± 5.7% by flow cytometry and 27.1 ± 6.5% by in situ hybridization, respectively, at 4-day post-incubation with Con A. Phenotyping of PCV2 antigen-containing cells revealed that PCV2-positive cells could be detected in both T and B lymphocyte populations within which IgM-positive B lymphocytes appeared to have a relatively higher positive rate. The Con A-stimulated PBLs also displayed a significantly higher viral load by the measurement of either PCV2 DNA copy number or viral titer when compared with the non-treated PBLs from healthy PCV2-carrier pigs. The results indicate that PBLs, especially IgM-bearing B lymphocytes, are indeed susceptible to PCV2 infection and PCV2 is capable of replicating in dividing lymphocytes. This activation-induced replication may explain in part the pathogenesis of lymphoid depletion in PMWS-affected pigs.

Lymphoid depletion of various lymphoid organs is one of the major lesions in pigs suffering from postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). The co-existence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in PMWS-affected pigs along with the more severe and wider range of lymphocyte depletion of lymphoid organs in PCV2 and PRRSV dually-inoculated pigs imply that PCV2 and PRRSV may interact in the pathogenesis of PMWS. The mechanism for the development of lymphoid depletion in PMWS-affected pigs remains controversial. The objective of the present study was to evaluate and compare the effects of inoculation of both viruses, singularly or in combination, on swine splenic macrophages (SMs) and co-cultured splenic (SLs) and peripheral blood (PBLs) lymphocytes in vitro. A significant reduction in the survival rate and increase in the apoptotic rate of the co-cultured SLs and PBLs and concurrent increase in the expression levels of Fas ligand (FasL) in SMs and Fas in co-cultured SLs and PBLs were demonstrated in PRRSV alone- and PCV2 and PRRSV dually-inoculated groups with the latter more prominent. The increased FasL was proven capable of inducing Fas/FasL-mediated apoptosis in co-cultured FasL-sensitive Jurkat T cells. The de novo expression and production of FasL in PCV2 and PRRSV dually-inoculated SMs and concurrently increased surface expression of Fas in co-cultured lymphocytes may contribute, at least partially, to lymphoid depletion in PMWS-affected pigs with PCV2 and PRRSV dual infection.

Two common viral pathogens of swine, namely, porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), were investigated in regard to their effects on monolayer cultures of swine alveolar macrophages (AMs). The purpose was to identify selected cellular changes and responses potentially associated with the clinical reactions of pigs infected with either or both of these viruses. Measurements included the (1) absolute and relative numbers of infected, viable, and apoptotic cells; (2) distribution of viral antigens; (3) levels of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) produced and their association with the extent of virus-induced cytopathology. Four groups of AMs were studied, including mock-infected, PCV2 alone-infected (PCV2-A), PRRSV alone-infected (PRRSV-A), and PCV2 and PRRSV dually infected (PCV2/PRRSV) groups. The AMs of PCV2-A group had high antigen-containing rate without cell death. There was a marked increase in cell death and apoptosis in PRRSV-A group. However, a lower PRRSV-induced infectious rate, cell death, and apoptosis were seen in PCV2/PRRSV group. High levels of IFN-alpha production were detected in PCV2-infected groups, but not in mock-infected and PRRSV-A groups. The PRRSV-induced cytopathic effect (CPE) on MARC-145 cells or swine AMs was markedly reduced by pre-incubation of the cells with UV-treated or non-UV-treated supernatants of PCV2-infected AMs. In addition, the reduction in CPE was abolished when the supernatants of PCV2-infected AMs were pre-treated with a mouse anti-recombinant porcine IFN-alpha antibody. The results suggest that swine AMs were an important reservoir of PCV2; PCV2 infection reduced PRRSV infection and PRRSV-associated CPE in PCV2/PRRSV AMs; the reduction of PRRSV infection in AMs was mediated by IFN-alpha generated by PCV2 infection. The reduced PRRSV-associated CPE in AMs and increased pro-inflammatory cytokine production may lead to a more severe pneumonic lesion in those dually infected pigs.