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Mars-analogous and relevant terrestrial- and orbit-based remote sensing datasets were gathered and used for both an in and out of simulation geological assessment of a pre-selected “landing site” for the CanMars, Mars Sample Return Analogue Deployment (MSRAD), and Mars Utah Rover Field Investigation (MURFI) analogue missions. The analogue mission site is situated in the Henry Mountains Basin just outside of Hanksville, Utah. The results of a comprehensive multispectral analysis based on Landsat 8 and ASTER of the landing site, landing ellipse area, and surrounding region, were synthesized with other datasets providing information on the morphology and basic physical properties of the spectrally-defined surface units. The synthesis yielded insights into the geologic materials present, the sampling opportunities for the analogue rover available at the site and the geologic history of the site. The datasets provided to the in-simulation science team were determined to be sufficient to generally identify ∼88% of the geologic units previous mapped in the field. The area was determined to be dominated by clastic sedimentary rocks (a high-silica/quartz- and Fe-oxide-bearing geologic materials), but also include a variety of aqueous alteration phases consistent with a complex climate, environmental, and water-rock history. Positive identification of additional phases from orbit include: Al-smectite clay-, gypsum- and carbonate-bearing rocks or deposits. An association between these components with fine-scale layered bedrock exposures and sinuous ridges, consistent with inverted channels, provide evidence of a viably Mars-analogous “landing site”, which yeilds diverse samples for in-situ analysis and sampling by the CanMars and MURFI analogue missions.

This contribution provides and overview of the documentation process for the CanMars Mars Sample Return rover mission conducted in partnership between the Canadian Space Agency and the University of Western Ontario (Western). Documentation is a key component of planetary science missions in improving the value of data through contextualization, as well as providing lasting information on the design and outcome for post-mission analysis. Documentation of this analogue mission aimed to capture key decisions and better understand the decision-making process related to science interpretation, planning, and sample selection. In this paper we present evidence-based observations on challenges related to effective documentation in analogue and planetary science missions. Based on a review of documentation data and debrief sessions between documentarians, team leads, mission operations mangers, and primary investigators, we conclude with recommendations for future missions’ use of documentation.

The CanMars Mars sample return (MSR) analogue mission was conducted as a field and operational test for the Mars 2020 sample cache rover mission and was the most realistic known MSR rover analogue mission to-date. A rover — similar in scale to that of rover planned for NASA's Mars 2020 mission — was deployed to a scientifically relevant Mars-analogue sedimentary field site with remote mission operations conducted at the University of Western Ontario, Canada; the mission aim was to inform on best practices and optimal approaches for sample acquisition modeled on the Mars 2020 rover mission. The daily operational procedures of the CanMars Science Team were modeled on those of current missions (i.e., Mars Science Laboratory tactical operations), serving as a study of known operational workflows and as a testbed for new approaches. This paper reports on the operational results of CanMars with best-practice recommendations. CanMars was designed as a Mars 2020 mock mission and thus carried similar science objectives; these included (1) advancing the understanding of the habitability potential of a subaqueous sedimentary environment through identifying, characterizing, and caching drilled samples containing high organic carbon (as a proxy for preserved ancient biosignatures) and (2) advancing the understanding of the history of water at the site. The in situ science investigations needed to address these science objectives were guided by the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group goals. Effective and efficient Science Team operational procedures were developed – and many lessons were documented – through daily tactical planning and science investigations employed to meet the sample acquisition goals. In addition to the documentation of the CanMars operational procedures, this paper provides a brief summary of the science results from CanMars with a focus on recommendations for future analogue missions and planetary sample return flight missions, providing specific value to operational procedures for the Mars 2020 rover mission.

The return of samples from known locations on Mars is among the highest priority goals of the international planetary science community. A possible scenario for Mars Sample Return (MSR) is a series of 3 missions: sample cache, fetch, and retrieval. The NASA Mars 2020 mission represents the first cache mission and was the focus of the CanMars analogue mission described in this paper. The major objectives for CanMars included comparing the accuracy of selecting samples remotely using rover data versus a traditional human field party, testing the efficiency of remote science operations with periodic pre-planned strategic observations (Strategic Traverse Days), assessing the utility of realistic autonomous science capabilities to the remote science team, and investigating the factors that affect the quality of sample selection decision-making in light of returned sample analysis. CanMars was conducted over two weeks in November 2015 and continued over three weeks in October and November 2016 at an analogue site near Hanksville, Utah, USA, that was unknown to the Mission Control Team located at the University of Western Ontario (Western) in London, Ontario, Canada. This operations architecture for CanMars was based on the Phoenix and Mars Exploration Rover missions together with previous analogue missions led by Western with the Mission Control Team being divided into Planning and Science sub-teams. In advance of the 2015 operations, the Science Team used satellite data, chosen to mimic datasets available from Mars-orbiting instruments, to produce a predictive geological map for the landing ellipse and a set of hypotheses for the geology and astrobiological potential of the landing site. The site was proposed to consist of a series of weakly cemented multi-coloured sedimentary rocks comprising carbonates, sulfates, and clays, and sinuous ridges with a resistant capping unit, interpreted as inverted paleochannels. Both the 2015 CanMars mission, which achieved 11 sols of operations, and the first part of the 2016 mission (sols 12–21), were conducted with the Mars Exploration Science Rover (MESR) and a series of integrated and hand-held instruments designed to mimic the payload of the Mars 2020 rover. Part 2 of the 2016 campaign (sols 22–39) was implemented without the MESR rover and was conducted exclusively by the field team as a Fast Motion Field Test (FMFT) with hand-carried instruments and with the equivalent of three sols of operations being executed in a single actual day. A total of 8 samples were cached during the 39 sols from which the Science Team prioritized 3 for “return to Earth”. Various science autonomy capabilities, based on flight-proven or near-future techniques intended for actual rover missions, were tested throughout the 2016 CanMars activities, with autonomous geological classification and targeting and autonomous pointing refinement being used extensively during the FMFT. Blind targeting, contingency sequencing, and conditional sequencing were also employed. Validation of the CanMars cache mission was achieved through various methods and approaches. The use of dedicated documentarians in mission control provided a detailed record of how and why decisions were made. Multiple separate field validation exercises employing humans using traditional geological techniques were carried out. All 8 of the selected samples plus a range of samples from the landing site region, collected out-of-simulation, have been analysed using a range of laboratory analytical techniques. A variety of lessons learned for both future analogue missions and planetary exploration missions are provided, including: dynamic collaboration between the science and planning teams as being key for mission success; the more frequent use of spectrometers and micro-imagers having remote capabilities rather than contact instruments; the utility of strategic traverse days to provide additional time for scientific discussion and meaningful interpretation of the data; the benefit of walkabout traverse strategies along with multi-sol plans with complex decisions trees to acquire a large amount of contextual data; and the availability of autonomous geological targeting, which enabled complex multi-sol plans gathering large suites of geological and geochemical survey data. Finally, the CanMars MSR activity demonstrated the utility of analogue missions in providing opportunities to engage and educate children and the public, by providing tangible hands-on linkages between current robotic missions and future human space missions. Public education and outreach was a priority for CanMars and a dedicated lead coordinated a strong presence on social media (primarily Twitter and Facebook), articles in local, regional, and national news networks, and interaction with the local community in London, Ontario. A further core objective of CanMars was to provide valuable learning opportunities to students and post-doctoral fellows in preparation for future planetary exploration missions. A learning goals survey conducted at the end of the 2016 activities had 90% of participants “somewhat agreeing” or “strongly agreeing” that participation in the mission has helped them to increase their understanding of the four learning outcomes.

Approaches to rover mission operations were investigated in the framework of the CanMars Mars Sample Return (MSR) analogue mission deployments. Improving the efficiency of operations is a necessity for future planetary missions, including Mars 2020, which seek to combine sample targeting with in situ investigations in the fixed amount of time available in primary science operations and with increasingly high public and science community expectations for results. Analogue missions provide an important opportunity to experiment with mission operation strategies and learn lessons that can be incorporated in future missions. Improving the efficiency of operations was a key objective of the 2015 and 2016 CanMars mission deployment. The mission overall operations organisation for CanMars is described with comparison to current implementation of Mars Exploration Rover and Mars Science Laboratory missions. Approaches being tested included 3-sol plan sequences with increased use of waypoints for teach and return as part of a global Walkabout approach, use of Strategic Observation days to focus the Science Team's efforts, and consideration to improvements in how information is exchanged tactically and strategically in operations.

The aim of this study was to examine team functioning within the context of the AMADEE 18 Mars analog project, which took place in Oman in the winter of 2018. Five "Analog Astronauts" participated in this study. Each completed measures of individual-level variables, including demographics and personality, before the simulated Mars mission began. At several time points during the mission, and once at the end, participants completed measures of individual stress reactions, and teamwork-related variables, including several types of team conflict, citizenship behavior, in-role behavior, counterproductive behavior, and social loafing. Each participant also reported how well he or she felt the team performed. The results indicate an overall positive, successful teamwork experience. Factors including measurement issues, psychological simulation fidelity, and qualities of the team likely influenced these results. Measuring important team- and individual-level variables during additional space analog events, while considering factors related to psychological fidelity, will allow for the compilation of data to better understand the factors affecting teams in these unusual contexts.

IntroductionIn almost every planetary surface investigation, the characterization from a camera is a common initial step [1]. Mission Control is developing a science autonomy system called Autonomous Soil Assessment System: Contextualizing Rocks, Anomalies and Terrains in Exploratory Robotic Science (ASAS-CRATERS). It can enable automated surface characterization on planetary missions, which can benefit a wide range of science investigations and rover navigation alike. It can perform terrain classification and novelty detection using convolutional neural networks, and data aggregation to produce relevant data products for supporting science operations. Built on cutting-edge algorithms and off-the-shelf computing components, it offers low-cost ways to speed up tactical decision-making in next-generation commercial lunar missions.Background and MotivationAutonomy in Science OperationsSeveral factors are increasingly driving the need for autonomy in science operations. In traditional Mars rover operations, visual surface characterization and subsequent analysis and decision-making takes place in day-long tactical cycles [2]. Upcoming commercial lunar rover missions will have reduced latency, short lifetimes, and constrained bandwidth shared across several payloads. This will result in a need for rapid tactical decision-making processes with limited data, leaving little time for analysis, target identification, and making decisions. Payload operators may not receive data in a timely fashion, or worse, may not receive some data at all. Autonomous onboard terrain classification offers a way to downlink light-weight data products and reduce the bottleneck in scientific terrain assessment. Autonomous classification and novelty detection increase the chances of detecting novel/sparse features (e.g., lunar outcrop or pyroclasts) that may otherwise be missed or not downlinked when driving and other mission needs are prioritized.Application to Lunar GeologyWhile dedicated science instruments that reveal mineralogical and elemental composition improve our understanding of geological processes, a rover’s navigation sensors can document the morphology, morphometry, and composition of surface materials, regardless of primary investigation goals. High-resolution colour images and 3D data from stereo cameras provide information such as the size-frequency distribution and physical characteristics of craters and rocks, and regolith properties. All this offers valuable insight into the geologic setting. To provide a practical output as a science support tool for several types of missions, a classification scheme is being developed that segments a surface image into geological features that are visually distinct based on morphology, tone, and texture. This will be adapted for specific missions. See Figure 1 for a hand-labelled example.Figure 1: Hand-labelled lunar terrain classification example. Letters indicate crater degradation; P: Pristine; S: Semi-Degraded; G: Ghost. Right: original Yutu-1 image. Credit: CNSA.TechnologyAlgorithms and SoftwareASAS-CRATERS comprises three algorithms. First, the terrain classifier consists of a deep-learning encoder-decoder style network which classifies each image pixel into semantic terrain labels. Second, the novelty detector uses a semi-supervised convolutional neural network architecture with an autoencoder module and a binary classifier that work in series. Third, a data aggregator will combine the outputs on map tiles that are useable by onboard algorithms, lightweight for more efficient downlink, and enables faster backroom analysis and integration into GIS tools. See Figure 2 for a conceptual illustration of how ASAS-CRATERS outputs would be aggregated onto map tiles.Figure 2: Hand-made illustration of aggregating terrain classifier data on orthorectified map tiles.In the near future, additional algorithms will be developed to extend the capabilities of this autonomy system. This primarily includes an autonomous instrument targeting capability so that lunar science instruments, on rovers in particular, can use ASAS-CRATERS to identify and select features for targeting.Sensors and Computing HardwareASAS-CRATERS will be embedded on the Q8S, a high-performance, low-power Xilinx Zynq UltraScale+ System-on-Chip FPGA designed by Xiphos Technologies, which will fly in 2020. The Q8S consumes 3W at minimum and measures 90g and 80x80x22.3mm. Embedded on a flight-ready COTS system, ASAS-CRATERS can be rapidly integrated onto payload suites, rovers, and landers, offering low-cost advanced computing capabilities.Concept of OperationsPrior to deployment on a mission, ASAS-CRATERS’ machine learning algorithms will require training using relevant expert-labelled images from lunar and analogue datasets. Once a mission begins, the algorithms will be updated with images collected in situ. ASAS-CRATERS can then be used to classify terrain and detect features during nominal rover operations. The science team can integrate ASAS-CRATERS data products into their terrain analysis and make decisions on whether specific features merit deeper investigation using onboard instruments.Use Cases and BenefitsASAS-CRATERS can benefit science missions in several ways. First, it can support science operations in tactical cycles. Novelty detection can aid scientists that may miss features or spend valuable time in looking for them. The terrain classifier data products are low-dimensional representations which optimizes downlink. The classification itself can speed up scientific analysis in rapid tactical cycles and this becomes increasingly more useful in complex scenes diverse in mineralogy and lithology. Second, for high-priority features, onboard algorithms can perform instrument targeting and data triage for downlink prioritization. Third, as a semantically useful terrain representation, it can be used by advanced robotics algorithms to enable autonomous and intelligent navigation. Fourth, in human exploration architectures, ASAS-CRATERS can be embedded with crewed systems to provide autonomous capabilities that can support astronauts in geological field excursions.Field Tests and DemonstrationsThe terrain classifier was first developed by Mission Control under the Autonomous Soil Assessment System project [3]. In 2019, it was used to classify eight Mars-relevant terrain types in real-time at ~15 FPS (see Figure 3 for an example). This was a part of tests in Iceland under SAND-E (Semi-Autonomous Navigation for Detrital Environments), a NASA PSTAR funded project led by Dr. Ryan Ewing at Texas A&M University.Figure 3: Classifier output overlaid on one camera image during a SAND-E traverse in Iceland field tests.While ASAS-CRATERS is a multi-mission payload, near-term demonstrations are targeted for upcoming lunar missions in 2022 and 2023.AcknowledgementsThe authors would like to thank the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) for funding the development of ASAS-CRATERS and previous technology developments.References[1] Francis R. et al. (2014) SpaceOps. DOI: 10.2514/6.2014-1798. [2] Gaines D. et al. (2016) PlanRob, 115-125. [3] Faragalli M. et al. (2018) i-SAIRAS.

A temperature-controlled sample stage with an operational range of ~60 °C above or below ambient laboratory temperature (~ −35 to 85 °C) was constructed for in situ X-ray diffraction of minerals and materials using a Bruker D8 Discover diffractometer with θ-θ geometry. The stage was primarily designed for characterizing mirabilite-bearing samples from a Mars analog High Arctic perennial cold spring at an in situ temperature. Operation of the stage was demonstrated through the analysis of a synthetic sample of the hydrated sodium sulfate, mirabilite (Na 2 SO 4 ·10H 2 O). Mirabilite was held at −25 °C for approximately two hours without significant dehydration and then incrementally warmed to ambient laboratory temperature at 5 °C intervals, during the acquisition of in situ diffraction data. At ambient laboratory temperature, the mirabilite dehydrated and only polycrystalline thenardite (Na 2 SO 4 ) remained. Preliminary analysis of the cold spring precipitates demonstrates that when mirabilite is present in the sample the dehydration reaction is occurring between collection and analysis at ambient laboratory temperature. This temperature-controlled stage was designed for versatility and ease of X-ray access, with applications that can extend to many geological and planetary settings, including Mars analog environments.

Remote robotic data provides different information than that obtained from immersion in the field. This significantly affects the geological situational awareness experienced by members of a mission control science team. In order to optimize science return from planetary robotic missions, these limitations must be understood and their effects mitigated to fully leverage the field experience of scientists at mission control.\ud \ud Results from a 13-day analogue deployment at the Mistastin Lake impact structure in Labrador, Canada suggest that scale, relief, geological detail, and time are intertwined issues that impact the mission control science team‟s effectiveness in interpreting the geology of an area. These issues are evaluated and several mitigation options are suggested. Scale was found to be difficult to interpret without the reference of known objects, even when numerical scale data were available. For this reason, embedding intuitive scale-indicating features into image data is recommended. Since relief is not conveyed in 2D images, both 3D data and observations from\ud multiple angles are required. Furthermore, the 3D data must be observed in animation or as anaglyphs, since without such assistance much of the relief information in 3D data is not\ud communicated. Geological detail may also be missed due to the time required to collect, analyze, and request data.\ud \ud We also suggest that these issues can be addressed, in part, by an improved understanding of the operational time costs and benefits of scientific data collection. Robotic activities operate on inherently slow time-scales. This fact needs to be embraced and accommodated. Instead of focusing too quickly on the details of a target of interest, thereby potentially minimizing science return, time should be allocated at first to more broad data collection at that target, including\ud preliminary surveys, multiple observations from various vantage points, and progressively smaller scale of focus. This operational model more closely follows techniques employed by\ud field geologists and is fundamental to the geologic interpretation of an area. Even so, an operational time cost/benefit analyses should be carefully considered in each situation, to determine when such comprehensive data collection would maximize the science return.\ud \ud Finally, it should be recognized that analogue deployments cannot faithfully model the time scales of robotic planetary missions. Analogue missions are limited by the difficulty and expense of fieldwork. Thus, analogue deployments should focus on smaller aspects of robotic missions and test components in a modular way (e.g., dropping communications constraints, limiting mission scope, focusing on a specific problem, spreading the mission over several field seasons,\ud etc.).

Surficial deposits of the OH-bearing iron sulfate mineral jarosite have been observed in several places on Mars, such as Meridiani Planum and Mawrth Vallis. The specific depositional conditions and mechanisms are not known, but by comparing martian sites to analogous locations on Earth, the conditions of formation and, thus, the martian depositional paleoenvironments may be postulated. Located in a cold semi-arid desert ∼100 km east of Norman Wells, Northwest Territories, Canada, the Golden Deposit (GD) is visible from the air as a brilliant golden-yellow patch of unvegetated soil, approximately 140 m × 50 m. The GD is underlain by permafrost and consists of yellow sediment, which is precipitating from seeps of acidic, iron-bearing groundwater. On the surface, the GD appears as a patchwork of raised polygons, with acidic waters flowing from seeps in troughs between polygonal islands. Although UV–Vis–NIR spectral analysis detects only jarosite, mineralogy, as determined by X-ray diffraction and inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry, is predominantly natrojarosite and jarosite, with hydronium jarosite, goethite, quartz, clays, and small amounts of hematite. Water pH varies significantly over short distances depending on proximity to acid seeps, from 2.3 directly above seeps, to 5.7 several m downstream from seeps within the deposit, and up to 6.5 in ponds proximal to the deposit. Visual observations of microbial filament communities and phospholipid fatty acid analyses confirm that the GD is capable of supporting life for at least part of the year. Jarosite-bearing sediments extend beneath vegetation up to 70 m out from the deposit and are mixed with plant debris and minerals presumably weathered from bedrock and glacial till. This site is of particular interest because mineralogy (natrojarosite, jarosite, hematite, and goethite) and environmental conditions (permafrost and arid conditions) at the time of deposition are conceivably analogous to jarosite deposits on Mars. Most terrestrial analogues for Mars jarosites have been identified in temperate environments, where evaporation rates are very high and jarosites form along with other sulfates due to rapid evaporation (e.g. Rio Tinto, Spain; Western Australian acidic saline lake deposits). The GD is a rare example of an analogue site where jarosite precipitates under dominant freezing processes similar to those which could have prevailed on early Mars. Thus, the GD offers a new perspective on jarosite deposition by the upwelling of acidic waters through permafrost at Meridiani Planum and Mawrth Vallis, Mars. The GD also demonstrates that martian deposits may show considerably more chemical and mineral variability than indicated by the current remote sensing data sets.

In recent years evidence for spring deposits on Mars has been mounting. It seems increasingly likely that groundwater upwelling and surfacing as springs may be responsible for some mineral deposits on Mars’ surface. In order to more easily detect and better understand potential spring deposits on Mars, it is pertinent that we gain a better understanding of the distribution of minerals at cold spring systems on Earth. Here, we report on the detailed mineralogy and distribution of precipitates in crusts and sediments of three non-volcanic perennial saline cold spring systems associated with gypsum/anhydrite diapirs on Axel Heiberg Island, Canada: Wolf spring (WS; also known as Lost Hammer), Colour Peak springs (CP), and Gypsum Hill springs (GH). At these sites permafrost, frigid winter temperatures, and arid atmospheric conditions approximate conditions of present-day, as well as past, Mars. Mineralogy of the three springs is dominated by halite (NaCl), calcite (CaCO 3 ), gypsum (CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O), thenardite (Na 2 SO 4 ), mirabilite (Na 2 SO 4 ·10H 2 O), and elemental sulfur (S°). Minerals at WS are more sodium-rich than at the other two sites, and water salinity is much higher, suggesting water flows through halite in the subsurface. Mirabilite is likely deposit at WS during winter months and dehydrates to thenardite during summer months. Elemental sulfur is typically associated with gypsum, and may be related to microbial metabolism. Spring sediments are home to thriving microbial communities in winter and summer months, and presumably year round. If spring systems did exist on the surface of Mars, they may represent environments capable of supporting microbial life. It is not known to what extent mineral crusts in cold saline spring systems on Earth preserve evidence of microbial life, or if they ever did on Mars. Therefore, studying terrestrial saline spring mineral deposits such as those on Axel Heiberg Island may help us to better understand cold spring precipitation on Mars and guide us in the search for minerals that may have been precipitated in spring systems and that may contain evidence of life. Additionally, spectral data from Europa indicates the presence of mirabilite. While the depositional environment on Europa differs from Axel Heiberg Island, the springs may still be a good mineralogical analogue, given the precipitation of mirabilite by the upwelling of cold, salty subsurface water, in a cold, semi-arid desert environment.

In 2007, the Mars Society conducted a 4-month simulated Mars exploration mission at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) on Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada. In addition to an intense mission research profile, the team operated on the Martian sol, (39 minutes longer than the 24-hour Earth day), for over a month. Team members completed questionnaires on stress, coping, and mood on five occasions throughout the mission. Descriptive analyses indicated differences between individual coping styles across time as well as differences in how the genders coped. Stress increased for males while decreasing for females. Males consistently used more avoidant coping while females utilized task coping and social emotional coping. Males also demonstrated higher levels of excitement, tiredness, and loneliness. Simulations situated in environments characterized by prolonged real isolation and environmental challenges appear to provoke true demands for adaptation rather than temporary situational accommodation as has been evidenced by shorter simulations in laboratories or more benign environments.

Anorthosite constitutes a major component of the lunar crust and comprises an important, if not dominant, ingredient of the lunar regolith. Given the need for highland regolith simulants in preparation for lunar surface engineering activities, we have selected an appropriate terrestrial anorthosite and performed crushing trials to generate a particle size distribution comparable to Apollo 16 regolith sample 64 500. The root simulant is derived from a granoblastic facies of the Archean Shawmere Complex of the Kapuskasing Structural Zone of Ontario, Canada. The Shawmere exhibits minimal retrogression, is homogeneous and has an average plagioclase composition of An 78 (bytownite). Previous industrial interest in this calcic anorthosite has resulted in quarrying operations, which provide ease of extraction and access for potential large-scale simulant production. A derivative of the Shawmere involves the addition of olivine slag, crushed to yield a particle size distribution similar to that of the agglutinate and glass components of the Apollo sample. This simulant is referred to as OB-1. The Shawmere and OB-1 regolith simulants are lunar highland analogues, conceived to produce geotechnical properties of benefit to designing and testing drilling, excavation and construction equipment for future lunar surface operations.

A categorized water usage study was undertaken at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station on Devon Island, Nunavut in the High Canadian Arctic. This study was conducted as part of a long duration four-month Mars mission simulation during the summer of 2007. The study determined that the crew of seven averaged 82.07 L/day over the expedition (standard deviation 22.58 L/day). The study also incorporated a Mars Time Study phase which determined that an average of 12.12 L/sol of water was required for each crewmember. Drinking, food preparation, hand/face, oral, dish wash, clothes wash, shower, shaving, cleaning, engineering, science, plant growth and medical water were each individually monitored throughout the detailed study phases. It was determined that implementing the monitoring program itself resulted in an approximate water savings of 1.5 L/day per crewmember. The seven person crew averaged 202 distinct water draws a day (standard deviation 34) with high water use periods focusing around meal times. No statistically significant correlation was established between total water use and EVA or exercise duration. Study results suggest that current crew water utilization estimates for long duration planetary surface stays are more than two times greater than that required.

9 páginas, 4 figuras., The 2005 Mars Astrobiology Research and Technology Experiment (MARTE) project conducted a simulated 1-month Mars drilling mission in the Río Tinto district, Spain. Dry robotic drilling, core sampling, and biological and geological analytical technologies were collectively tested for the first time for potential use on Mars. Drilling and subsurface sampling and analytical technologies are being explored for Mars because the subsurface is the most likely place to find life on Mars. The objectives of this work are to describe drilling, sampling, and analytical procedures; present the geological analysis of core and borehole material; and examine lessons learned from the drilling simulation. Drilling occurred at an undisclosed location, causing the science team to rely only on mission data for geological and biological interpretations. Core and borehole imaging was used for micromorphological analysis of rock, targeting rock for biological analysis, and making decisions regarding the next day's drilling operations. Drilling reached 606 cm depth into poorly consolidated gossan that allowed only 35% of core recovery and contributed to borehole wall failure during drilling. Core material containing any indication of biology was sampled and analyzed in more detail for its confirmation. Despite the poorly consolidated nature of the subsurface gossan, dry drilling was able to retrieve useful core material for geological and biological analysis. Lessons learned from this drilling simulation can guide the development of dry drilling and subsurface geological and biological analytical technologies for future Mars drilling missions.

We present the summary of results of the 2013 EuroMoonMars-B analogue operations mission conducted at the Mars Desert esearch Station (MDRS). The two-week campaign involved a series of operations, human factors, and scientific exploration research towards goals of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG). The primary research objectives revolved around the operations to conduct field geology to identify targets of astrobiological interest, and to provide recommendations for future crewed expeditions for increasing the science return based on improved resource allocation. These activities include assessment of robotic and automation tools for assisting geologists to increase the efficiency of time spent on extra-vehicular activities (EVAs); crowd-sources mapping to identify potential target regions; and habitat-based human factors to reduce stress levels during operations. Secondary objectives towards those goals included a low-bandwidthEarth-Moon time-delayed communications experiment.

A Mission Control Architecture is presented for a Robotic Lunar Sample Return Mission which builds upon the experience of the landed missions of the NASA Mars Exploration Program. This architecture consists of four separate processes working in parallel at Mission Control and achieving buy-in for plans sequentially instead of simultaneously from all members of the team. These four processes were: Science Processing, Science Interpretation, Planning and Mission Evaluation. Science Processing was responsible for creating products from data downlinked from the field and is organized by instrument. Science Interpretation was responsible for determining whether or not science goals are being met and what measurements need to be taken to satisfy these goals. The Planning process, responsible for scheduling and sequencing observations, and the Evaluation process that fostered inter-process communications, reporting and documentation assisted these processes. This organization is advantageous for its flexibility as shown by the ability of the structure to produce plans for the rover every two hours, for the rapidity with which Mission Control team members may be trained and for the relatively small size of each individual team. This architecture was tested in an analogue mission to the Sudbury impact structure from June 6-17, 2011. A rover was used which was capable of developing a network of locations that could be revisited using a teach and repeat method. This allowed the science team to process several different outcrops in parallel, downselecting at each stage to ensure that the samples selected for caching were the most representative of the site. Over the course of 10 days, 18 rock samples were collected from 5 different outcrops, 182 individual field activities - such as roving or acquiring an image mosaic or other data product - were completed within 43 command cycles, and the rover travelled over 2,200 m. Data transfer from communications passes were filled to 74%. Sample triage was simulated to allow down-selection to 1kg of material for return to Earth.

Mars analogue research facilities are excellent tools for advancing comparative planetology scientific research and exploration methodologies, as well as for investigating and devising countermeasures for the challenges astronauts may encounter while exploring the Martian surface. Analogue studies, and more specifically human mission simulations, also play an important role by training the future leaders in space exploration. With this in mind, the Mars Society of Canada (MSC) established the Expedition Mars program to advance the competence (knowledge, expertise and leadership) needed for human exploration of Mars. The program is divided into two distinct, but complementary, Mars analogue expedition series: Expedition Mars Analogue Training Series (ExMATS) and Expedition Mars Analogue Research Series (ExMARS). The ExMATS missions are designed to train and certify researchers, engineers and commanding officers for ExMARS missions which are dedicated to conducting extended Mars analogue research missions for maximum return on scientific research. Through the two series, Expedition Mars has established a systematic and sustainable method of developing and transferring competence within the program, and to the space community.

25 páginas, 13 figuras, 7 tablas.-- et al., The Mars Astrobiology Research and Technology Experiment (MARTE) simulated a robotic drilling mission to search for subsurface life on Mars. The drill site was on Peña de Hierro near the headwaters of the Río Tinto river (southwest Spain), on a deposit that includes massive sulfides and their gossanized remains that resemble some iron and sulfur minerals found on Mars. The mission used a fluidless, 10-axis, autonomous coring drill mounted on a simulated lander. Cores were faced; then instruments collected color wide-angle context images, color microscopic images, visible–near infrared point spectra, and (lower resolution) visible–near infrared hyperspectral images. Cores were then stored for further processing or ejected. A borehole inspection system collected panoramic imaging and Raman spectra of borehole walls. Life detection was performed on full cores with an adenosine triphosphate luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence assay and on crushed core sections with SOLID2, an antibody array-based instrument. Two remotely located science teams analyzed the remote sensing data and chose subsample locations. In 30 days of operation, the drill penetrated to 6 m and collected 21 cores. Biosignatures were detected in 12 of 15 samples analyzed by SOLID2. Science teams correctly interpreted the nature of the deposits drilled as compared to the ground truth. This experiment shows that drilling to search for subsurface life on Mars is technically feasible and scientifically rewarding., MARTE was funded by the NASA Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets (ASTEP) program through NRA 02-OSS-01. Spanish participation in MARTE was funded by the Centro de Astrobiología.

We must increase our understanding of the regolith, as future human missions to both the Moon and Mars will rely on it for insitu resource utilization (ISRU) to produce fuel, water, and other life support and construction materials. ISRU will be more cost effective than shipping required materials from Earth. Because regolith will be the zone of contact for both human and robotic exploration, it is important that we learn how to work with it before returning to the Moon. There are no nat ural lunar regolith analogues on the Earth, and supplies of existing lunar simulants are currently limited or running out. To prepare for upcoming robotic ISRU missions, equipment must be tested on the Earth, in a good physical/mechanical simulant. To date, all major lunar simulants produced have been basalt based, however ~ 80% of the lunar bedrock - including some potential ISRU landing sites - is composed of anorthosite-norite-troctolite (ANT) suite rocks (Heiken et al., 1991). The goal of this study is to develop an anorthosite-based physical/mechanical lunar regolith simulant, to assist Electric Vehicle Controllers (EVC) Ltd. and the Northern Centre for Advanced Technology (NORCAT) Inc. with lunar drilling and excavation equipment design.