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El presente estudio busca comprobar las propiedades psicométricas del Major Depression Inventory (MDI) en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios colombianos, incluyendo un nuevo ítem, debido a la necesidad de adaptar y validar instrumentos para esta población. Participaron 341 estudiantes de Medicina y Promoción de la Salud con edades entre 18 a 38 años (M = 21.3; SD = 3.04; 65.7% mujeres). Se encontraron evidencias de validez de contenido por juicio de expertos y prueba piloto, de validez de constructo con análisis factorial exploratorio y confirmatorio, y de validez comparada con la prueba Positive and Negative Suicidal Ideation (PANSI). Se confirmó la calidad psicométrica de la prueba, incluyendo un ítem más para actualizar su estructura unifactorial en coherencia con el DSM-5.

La adicción a redes sociales es un fenómeno de creciente interés; su ocurrencia tiene impactos negativos sobre los adolescentes, sugiriendo la necesidad de contar con instrumentos idóneos de evaluación. El objetivo fue validar el cuestionario de Adicción a Redes Sociales–ARS a través de la revisión de expertos y el análisis de sus propiedades psicométricas con una muestra incidental de 421 adolescentes (50.8% mujeres) de Pasto, Colombia (11-19 años; M = 15.63; SD = 1.34). Se logró una adecuada adaptación lingüística y óptima validez de contenido y consistencia interna; el análisis factorial confirmatorio y de invarianza evidenciaron validez estructural para tres componentes: obsesión por las redes sociales, falta de control personal y uso excesivo de las redes sociales. Se reconoció adecuada validez comparada frente al Internet Addiction Test-IAT. El cuestionario ARS es el primer instrumento validado en Colombia en beneficio de los procesos clínicos y los programas de prevención e intervención de esta conducta.

Este estudio se presentan los resultados de la implementación de un programa de intervención para prevenir y mitigar el bullying, a partir del fortalecimiento de habilidades socioemocionales, desarrollado en una institución educativa oficial del municipio de San Juan de Pasto, sur de Colombia. Se aplicó un diseño mixto, el abordaje cuantitativo se desarrolló a través de un diseño cuasi experimental de medidas pre-pos test y el cualitativo mediante la sistematización de experiencias desde una perspectiva etno- educativa. Se contó con la participación de 31 estudiantes entre los 12 y los 15 años de edad, quienes cursaban séptimo grado de Educación Secundaria. El programa estuvo constituido por ocho sesiones, que incluyeron actividades individuales y grupales dirigidas al fortalecimiento de las habilidades socioemocionales. Los resultados cuantitativos sugieren una mayor disminución en la prevalencia del rol de agresor y agresor-victimizado, en comparación a un menor cambio en el rol de victimización, a su vez los resultados cualitativos evidencian un incremento en el reconocimiento de la dinámica del acoso escolar y un mayor uso de las habilidades socioemocionales por parte de los participantes en el contexto educativo, lo cual da cuenta del mejoramiento de las relaciones interpersonales entre los estudiantes y de la promoción de una sana convivencia.

The study's objective was to develop and validate the psychometric properties of two brief pictorial scales to evaluate the roles of bystanders and victims of bullying. A sample of 910 students was considered (49.6%, boys; 50.4%, girls) between the ages of 7 and 13 (M = 10, SD = 1.4). Both instruments present nine pictorial items representing two dimensions: physical bullying (items 1 to 4) and psychological bullying (items 5 to 9). An additional measure of anxiety was used to assess convergent validity. The Confirmatory Factorial Analysis shows that the two-dimensional oblique model, physical bullying and psychological bullying, presents a better fit to the bystander scale data (RMSEA = .040; CFI = .984; SRMR = .033) and in the victim scale (RMSEA = .051; CFI = .978; SRMR = .040) in comparison to other competitor models. From the perspective of the Item Response Theory (IRT), it was found that the items adequately discriminate the levels of the latent variable; therefore, items 1 (physical bullying) and 7 (psychological bullying) are the most accurate on the bystander scale, and items 3 (physical bullying) and 7 (psychological bullying), on the victim scale. It was also found that the degree of difficulty on both scales is lower for the psychological bullying dimension than for the physical bullying dimension. Both instruments demonstrated good psychometric properties; therefore, they can detect school bullying in classrooms.

espanolEl bullying discriminatorio a causa de las diferencias en las necesidades educativas especiales o discapacidad amenaza el desarrollo saludable de los adolescentes. El estudio pretende conocer si la autoestima, la empatia y las habilidades sociales son predictoras de este bullying discriminatorio (agresion y victimizacion). Una muestra de 1,640 adolescentes de 11 a 20 anos, 820 de Espana (48.8% hombres y 51.2% mujeres) y 820 de Ecuador (49.3% hombres y 50.7% mujeres), participaron cumplimentando una bateria de cuestionarios de autoinforme. Los resultados de los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales muestran que en ambos paises la autoconfianza predice negativamente la victimizacion y la agresion y el autodesprecio positivamente; la asertividad es un predictor positivo de la agresion y negativo de la victimizacion. Se observan diferencias entre ambos paises en el papel de las habilidades sociales (comunicativas y de resolucion de conflictos) y de la empatia. Se discuten los resultados en relacion con la naturaleza de este bullying discriminatorio y los programas educativos preventivos EnglishDiscriminatory bullying based on differences in special educational needs or disability threatens the healthy development of adolescents. The study aims to find out whether self-esteem, empathy, and social skills are predictors of this discriminatory bullying (aggression and victimization). A sample of 1,640 adolescents aged 11 to 20, of which half are from Spain (48.8% male and 51.2% female) and half from Ecuador (49.3% men and 50.7% women), participated in the study by completing a battery of self-report questionnaires. The results of the structural equation models show that in both countries victimization and aggression are predicted negatively by self-confidence and positively by self-deprecation; assertiveness is a positive predictor of aggression and a negative predictor of victimization. Differences are observed between the two countries in the role of social skills (communication and conflict resolution) and empathy. These results are discussed in relation to the nature of this discriminatory bullying and preventive educational programs.

espanolIntroduccion.Los usuarios de Internet, especialmente adolescentes, pueden experimentar riesgos en linea que pueden afectar su salud mental.Este estudio examino la asociacion entre los riesgos en linea y el apoyo familiar, que ha sido conceptualizadocomo una variable que puede disminuir los riesgos en el uso del Internet entre adolescentes. Metodo.Se aplico una version adaptada a poblacion colombiana de la encuesta Kids onLine. La muestra incluyo 96 participantes entre 11 y 18 anos(F=58.3%),41.6% pertenecian a bajos ingresos familiares y 58.4% pertenecian a ingresos medios, del municipio de Bello, Colombia. (Edad promedio=13.99; DE=2.034).Resultados.Los resultadosconfirmaron la hipotesis de que aquellos adolescentes que perciben apoyo familiar, definido como el conjunto de acciones de acompanamiento, escucha activa, consejos y confianza entre los miembros de la famila, presentan menores riesgos en linea. Discusion y Conclusion: Aunque los resultados de esta investigacion muestran una relacion inversa entre apoyo familiar y riesgos en Internet, no hay una correlacion estadisticamente significativa, que podria explicarse por el hecho de que aunque la familia tiene un rol impor-tante sobre la prevencion de las conductas de riesgo en linea de los adolescentes, esta tambien es limitada, especialmente con adolescentes mayores, quienes pasan mas tiempo con amigos y pueden verse motivados por ellos a involucrarse en actividades riesgosas en general. En este sentido, la figura de apoyo familiar, que involucra a la familia como un todo que trasciende la mediacion centrada en los padres, tiene importantes implicaciones en la comprension y pre-vencion de los riesgos en linea, entanto la union entre los miembros de la familia, basada en una interaccion y comunicacion adecuadas, puede ayudar a mediar en los riesgos y a proveer apoyo a los adolescentes. EnglishIntroduction. Internet users, especially adolescents, may experience online risks that can affect their mental health. This study examined the association between online risks and family support as this has been conceptualized as variable that can prevent the risks in the Internet use among adolescents. Method. We applied an adapted version to Colombian population of the Kids on Line survey. The sample included 96 participants between 11 and 18 years old (F=58.3%), 41.6% of the respondents had low family incomes and 58.4% had middle family incomes from Bello, Colombia, 58.3% were girls (Mean Age=13.99; SD = 2.034). Results. The results confirmed the hypothesis that those adolescents who perceive family support, defined as a set of actions of acompainment, active listening, counseling and trust between family members, present less online risks. Discussion and Conclusion. Although the results of this research show an inverse relationship between family support and risks on the Internet, there is no a statistically significant correlation. This could be explained because although the family has an important role over the prevention of adolescent risk behaviors online, this is also limited, specially with older teenagers, who spend more time with friends and may be encouraged by their friends to involve themselves in general risky behaviors. In this sense, the family support that involves the family as a whole and that transcends the mediation centered on the parental figures has important implications in the understanding and prevention of the online risks, as positive links between family members, based on an adequeate interaction and communication, may help to mediate the risks and provide support to teenagers.

Information and communication technologies provide a new context for interpersonal relationships, learning and professional activities. Nevertheless, there are several risks related to technology use, including compulsive Internet use. Even though compulsive Internet use has been identified as an important problem behavior in young people, there are still gaps in knowledge regarding its measurement in Spanish-speaking countries. Thus, the objective of this study was to validate the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS) in Spain, Colombia, and Mexico using a sample of 2,090 15-30 year olds. Results showed that the questionnaire has excellent psychometric properties and confirmed its original unidimensional factor structure. Inter-item polychoric correlations showed optimum values that indicated consistency and high quality of the construct. A confirmatory factor analysis showed an excellent model fit for all the subsamples, including Spain, Colombia, and Mexico. A multigroup analysis showed measurement invariance across the studied countries. Given that the CIUS is one of the most popular instruments used to measure excessive Internet use around the world, it can now be used in crossnational comparative studies, including Spain, Colombia, and Mexico, together with other countries. It can also be used to evaluate intervention programs in the studied countries.

Recientes estudios sugieren que el aumento del uso de las TIC y en especial de redes sociales parece estar relacionado con un mayor riesgo de exposición a fenómenos de intimidación en el ciberespacio. El ciber-rumor y el cybergossip son algunos de estos riesgos de gran relevancia en el estudio de la ciberconducta, pues modulan los procesos emocionales y actitudinales que pueden afectar negativamente al bienestar psicológico, así como al contexto social inmediato. Este documento presenta una revisión y reflexión general sobre el avance en el cuerpo teórico del cybergossip, delimita el constructo en comparación con el ciber-rumor y el cyberbullying, presenta un estudio realizado en Colombia desde una perspectiva cross-cultural y ofrece posibles líneas de trabajo futuras desde las ciencias sociales computacionales. Las conclusiones son útiles para los diversos estudios que abordan el estudio de la ciberconducta, particularmente desde la multidisciplinariedad y las ciencias sociales computacionales.

Las relaciones interpersonales entre adolescentes son relevantes en el aprendizaje y la convivencia escolar. Se analizó las dimensiones individuales y contextuales que influyen en las relaciones interpersonales entre adolescentes. Participaron 1084 adolescentes escolarizados (52.8% mujeres) del sur de Colombia, con edades entre 11 y 19 años (M=14.9; SD=1.89). Se analizaron las propiedades psicométricas de las escalas utilizadas. Un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales informó las relaciones e influencias de la empatía, prosocialidad, metas sociales, autoeficacia social y ajuste normativo sobre la calidad de sus relaciones interpersonales (ajuste social). Se encontraron óptimas propiedades psicométricas para las escalas y adecuados ajustes del modelo explicativo-predictivo; éste indicó que la empatía, prosocialidad y autoeficacia social con los compañeros predicen la calidad de las relaciones interpersonales. Resalta la influencia negativa de la autoeficacia social con profesores hacia la calidad de las relaciones, y del ajuste normativo sobre el desempeño social con compañeros. Se discuten orientaciones para el desarrollo de la prosocialidad y empatía.

The aim of this study was to determine the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the SOC-13 in Colombian adults. The SOC-13 questionnaire was administered to 489 individuals aged ≥18 years who were in lockdown from March to July 2020 in Nariño County, Colombia. Psychometric properties of the scale were examined using a cross-validation method via exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Additionally, configural and metric invariance were tested. To determine the internal consistency of the questionnaire, McDonald’s omega (ω), Cronbach’s alpha (α), and composite reliability (CR) coefficients were estimated. The EFA determined that a three-factor structure best fit the data (comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness) and CFA confirmed this three-factor model structure showing a good fit (χ2S-B = 188.530, χ2S-B/(62) = 3.615, p = 0.001; NNFI = 0.959; CFI = 0.968; RMSEA = 0.052 (90% CI [0.041–0.063]) and SRMR = 0.052).The invariance analysis indicated the same underlying theoretical structure between genders. Additionally, (ω), (α), and (CR) coefficients confirmed a high internal consistency of the instrument. The SOC-13 scale, reflecting comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness, is a reliable and valid tool for assessing the sense of coherence in Colombian populations.

espanolLas cualidades personales, sociales y emocionales del mediador parecen facilitar la posibilidad de cambiar las dinamicas del conflicto, pues facilitan formas prosociales de solucion que aportan a la construccion de la cultura de paz en la escuela. El presente estudio tiene como objetivo identificar los elementos teoricos que constituyen las habilidades socio-emocionales para la mediacion escolar. Se realizo una revision sistematica cualitativa soportada en el protocolo PRISMA que incluyo 38 documentos academicos. El analisis permitio identificar las dimensiones del constructo, las cuales son habilidades para: 1) la conciencia y regulacion emocional, 2) la comprension y gestion del conflicto y 3) la facilitacion de la comunicacion. El aporte al cuerpo teorico del estudio del conflicto sirve de fundamento para la creacion de instrumentos de medicion, asi como tambien ayuda a conformar el equipo de mediadores y a promover programas de formacion orientados a fortalecer la capacidad de atender con destreza situaciones de incompatibilidad de intereses. EnglishThe personal qualities of the mediator seem to facilitate the possibility of changing the dynamics of the conflict since it facilitates prosocial forms of solution that contribute to the construction of a culture of peace in the school. The present study aims to identify the theoretical elements that constitute socio-emotional skills for school mediation. A systematic qualitative review supported by the PRISMA protocol was carried out which included 38 academic papers. The analysis allowed identifying the dimensions of the construct, which are skills for: 1) emotional awareness and regulation, 2) understanding and managing conflict, and 3) facilitating communication. The contribution to the theoretical body of the study of the conflict serves as the foundation for the creation of measurement instruments, as well as it helps to form the team of mediators and promote training programs for school mediators focused on strengthening the ability to skillfully address situations of incompatibility of interests.

The present study aims to collect data about the prevalence of cyberbullying and the role of self-esteem, empathy, and social skills in predicting cybervictimization and cyberaggression in two different countries: Spain and Ecuador. Additionally, it compares the similarities found in both countries. A wide sample of adolescents from Secondary Education (N =24943; mean age = 13.92; SD = 1.30, girls = 49.9%) from both countries (Spain = 14,206 and Ecuador = 10,737) took part by filling in a set of self-reports. Weighted analyses and structural equation models were used. The results revealed that 8.8% were cybervictims, 3.1% were cyberaggressors and 4.9% cybervictims-cyberaggressors in Spain; whereas 8.7% were cybervictims, 5.1% were cyberaggressors and 14.3% were cybervictims-cyberaggressors in Ecuador. Cybervictimization could be predicted in both countries by means of self-deprecation and social skills, although the meaning of some skills was different depending on the country. Cyberaggression could be predicted in both countries by means of empathy, assertiveness, and conflict-resolution skills, as well as by communicative and relational skills. Self-deprecation was a predictor of cyberaggression only in Spain. These results are discussed, and educational inferences are drawn for prevention.

This systematic review aimed to explore the research papers related to how Internet and social media may, or may not, constitute an opportunity to online hate speech. 67 studies out of 2389 papers found in the searches, were eligible for analysis. We included articles that addressed online hate speech or cyberhate between 2015 and 2019. Meta-analysis could not be conducted due to the broad diversity of studies and measure units. The reviewed studies provided exploratory data about the Internet and social media as a space for online hate speech, types of cyberhate, terrorism as online hate trigger, online hate expressions and most common methods to assess online hate speech. As a general consensus on what is cyberhate, this is conceptualized as the use of violent, aggressive or offensive language, focused on a specific group of people who share a common property, which can be religion, race, gender or sex or political affiliation through the use of Internet and Social Networks, based on a power imbalance, which can be carried out repeatedly, systematically and uncontrollably, through digital media and often motivated by ideologies.

Resumen El primer objetivo fue adaptar y comprobar las propiedades psicometricas de la escala de bullying: European Bullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (EBIPQ) para Colombia, dada la necesidad de disponer de instrumentos validados y universalmente homologados. Un segundo objetivo busco encontrar la prevalencia de bullying y cyberbullying en una muestra colombiana. El tercero fue analizar el grado de relacion y coocurrencia de los fenomenos. Participaron 1931 adolescentes colombianos, 53% chicas (11-19 anos; M = 14.92; DT = 1.89). Se realizaron analisis aplicados a los items, analisis factoriales confirmatorios y modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. La validacion confirmo la calidad de los items y la estructura factorial de la escala original con optimas propiedades psicometricas para dos factores: victimizacion y agresion. La prevalencia de implicacion en bullying fue del 41.9% y para cyberbullying del 18.7%. El modelo final mostro una influencia directa de la implicacion en agresion de bullying sobre la ciberagresion y de la victimizacion en bullying sobre la cibervictimizacion, evidenciando una alta coocurrencia de bullying y cyberbullying. El modelo explicativo sugiere que el cyberbullying parece ser una extension del bullying tradicional y no a la inversa. Se analizan las repercusiones para el ambito educativo.

International research on the risk and protective factors of cyberbullying focus on individual personality variables and the use of technological devices. However, it is necessary to examine in greater depth the interpersonal context as a factor that may influence cyberbullying and the possible differences between cultures. The objective of this article was to analyze the relationship of influence of two interpersonal variables, multidimensional social competence and social motivation, on cyberaggression and cybervictimization through a cultural study of Spain and Colombia, which will permit generalizing the influence of interpersonal variables on cyberbullying in different cultural settings. The sample consisted of 3,830 secondary school students (50.4% Colombian and 49.6% Spanish). Self-reporting measurement instruments validated with different European samples were used. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were performed. A model of mutual influence revealing the inverse relationship of normative adjustment and the direct relationship of popularity goals in cyberaggression was obtained. Cybervictimization was explained by the direct influence of prosocial behaviors and avoidance goals and the inverse influence of perceived social efficacy, development goals, and social and normative adjustment. As conclusion, this study demonstrates the homogeneity of the Colombian and Spanish models and the important role that the face-to-face context plays in cyberbullying involvement. This article highlights and supports the design of cyberbullying prevention programs, which requires the inclusion of multidimensional social competence and social goals.

Cybergossip is the act of two or more people making evaluative comments via digital devices about somebody who is not present. This cyberbehavior affects the social group in which it occurs and can either promote or hinder peer relationships. Scientific studies that assess the nature of this emerging and interactive behavior in the virtual world are limited. Some research on traditional gossip has identified it as an inherent and defining element of indirect relational aggression. This paper adopts and argues for a wider definition of gossip that includes positive comments and motivations. This work also suggests that cybergossip has to be measured independently from traditional gossip due to key differences when it occurs through ICT. This paper presents the Colombian and Spanish validation of the Cybergossip Questionnaire for Adolescents (CGQ-A), involving 3,747 high school students (M = 13.98 years old, SD = 1.69; 48.5% male), of which 1,931 were Colombian and 1,816 were Spanish. Test models derived from item response theory, confirmatory factor analysis, content validation, and multi-group analysis were run on the full sample and subsamples for each country and both genders. The obtained optimal fit and psychometric properties confirm the robustness and suitability of a one-dimensional structure for the cybergossip instrument. The multi-group analysis shows that the cybergossip construct is understood similarly in both countries and between girls and boys. The composite reliability ratifies convergent and divergent validity of the scale. Descriptive results show that Colombian adolescents gossip less than their Spanish counterparts and that boys and girls use cybergossip to the same extent. As a conclusion, this study confirmes the relationship between cybergossip and cyberbullying, but it also supports a focus on positive cybergossip in psychoeducational interventions to build positive virtual relationships and prevent risky cyberbehaviors.

Objectives(1) To examine the psychometric properties of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES) with Spanish adolescents, comparing a two and a three-dimensional structure;(2) To analyse the relationship between the three-dimensional empathy and social and normative adjustment in school.DesignTransversal and ex post facto retrospective study. Confirmatory factorial analysis, multifactorial invariance analysis and structural equations models were used.Participants747 students (51.3% girls) from Cordoba, Spain, aged 12–17 years (M=13.8; SD=1.21).ResultsThe original two-dimensional structure was confirmed (cognitive empathy, affective empathy), but a three-dimensional structure showed better psychometric properties, highlighting the good fit found in confirmatory factorial analysis and adequate internal consistent valued, measured with Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega. Composite reliability and average variance extracted showed better indices for a three-factor model. The research also showed evidence of measurement invariance across gender. All the factors of the final three-dimensional BES model were direct and significantly associated with social and normative adjustment, being most strongly related to cognitive empathy.ConclusionsThis research supports the advances in neuroscience, developmental psychology and psychopathology through a three-dimensional version of the BES, which represents an improvement in the original two-factorial model. The organisation of empathy in three factors benefits the understanding of social and normative adjustment in adolescents, in which emotional disengagement favours adjusted peer relationships. Psychoeducational interventions aimed at improving the quality of social life in schools should target these components of empathy.

Cyberbullying is the act of using unjustified aggression to harm or harass via digital devices. Currently regarded as a widespread problem, the phenomenon has attracted growing research interest in different measures of cyberbullying and the similarities and differences across countries and cultures. This article presents the Colombian validation of the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (ECIPQ) involving 3,830 high school students (M = 13.9 years old, standard deviation = 1.61; 48.9 percent male), of which 1,931 were Colombian and 1,899 Spanish. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), content validation, and multigroup analysis were performed with each of the sample subgroups. The optimal fits and psychometric properties obtained confirm the robustness and suitability of the assessment instrument to jointly measure cyber-aggression and cyber-victimization. The results corroborated the theoretical construct and the two-dimensional and universal nature of cyberbullying. The multigroup analysis showed that cyberbullying dynamics are similar in both countries. The comparative analyses of prevalence revealed that Colombian students are less involved in cyberbullying. The results indicate the suitability of the instrument and the advantages of using such a tool to evaluate and guide psychoeducational interventions aimed at preventing cyberbullying in countries where few studies have been performed.

The first objective of this study was to adapt and test the psychometric properties of the Social Achievement Goal Scale (Ryanamp; Shim, 2006) in Spanish adolescent students. The second objective sought to analyse the influence of social goals, normative adjustment and self-perception of social efficacy on social adjustment among peers.A total of 492 adolescents (54.1% females) attending secondary school (12-17 years; M = 13.8, SD = 1.16) participated in the study. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling were performed.The validation confirmed the three-factor structure of the original scale: social development goals, social demonstration-approach goals and social demonstration-avoidance goals. The structural equation model indicated that social development goals and normative adjustment have a direct bearing on social adjustment, whereas the social demonstration-approach goals (popularity) and self-perception of social efficacy with peers and teachers exert an indirect influence.The Spanish version of the Social Achievement Goal Scale (Ryanamp; Shim, 2006) yielded optimal psychometric properties. Having a positive motivational pattern, engaging in norm-adjusted behaviours and perceiving social efficacy with peers is essential to improving the quality of interpersonal relationships.

La reflexión sobre la investigación y los factores que movilizan el deseo, el agrado y la afectividad que, en torno al ejercicio investigativo, es el tema central de la reflexión del presente artí­culo, se propone indagar metódicamente sobre aquellos tejidos intrí­nsecos que influyenen la dinámica de investigar; para ellos e intenta establecer un “puente†mediador epistémico entre la etologí­a, ciencia que estudia los hábitos, costumbres y conductas humanas desde los fundamentos biológicos, evolutivos y funcionales, con la ciencias cognitivas que avalan la importancia de la motivación, la emocionalidad y el aprendizaje a partir del lenguaje y la cultura. Los conceptos centrales de la disertación son la teorí­a del Gen egoí­sta de Richard Dawkins y la Desesperanza Aprendida, en contra posición con la vivencia psico-social-cultural de la investigación en la Educación superior.