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The Oirats were key supporters of the Mongol enterprise and helped to bring Chinggis Khan to power. Chinggis and his family intermarried with the royal lineage of the Oirats who were descended from Qutuqa Beki. As these marriages continued throughout Mongol history, descendants of Qutuqa Beki and Chinggis's daughter Checheyigen became key supporters of various successor khanates. In the Ilkhanate of Iran, one of their relatives, Tanggiz Küregen, and his family were intimately connected with the ruling house. The importance of Oirat military support for the Ilkhanid government was to such an extent that he and his descendants were regularly pardoned for treasonous acts. While other elite lineages such as the Juvainīs, the family of Arghun Aqa, and the Chupanids all had had great power and influence, they met violent ends at the hands of their Ilkhanid rulers. Tanggiz and his descendants however, were not only not overly punished for their acts of lèse-majesté , but in fact outlived the Ilkhanid Dynasty itself. This culminated in the government of ʿAlī Pādshāh, who ruled much of the former Ilkhanid realm through a puppet khan for a short period in 1336. This article investigates how Oirat power was both central to the Ilkhanid regime and helped cause its downfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People's use of animals for various needs dates back to ancient times. Although nutrition is the primary need, their scope of use has begun to expand over time. Animals were used as an element of superiority in the struggles of people. Animals have various emotions. One of these emotions is fear. Over time, animals' sense of fear has been turned into a weapon by humans. The most striking example of this was the siege of Beijing, which the Mongols conducted between 1211 and 1214. This event is described in detail in at work written by Mongolian author Saghang Sechen in 1662. According to this work, while the Mongols were besieging Beijing, the Jin Emperor made a peace offer to Chinggis Khagan on the advice of his advisors. Therefore, Chinggis Khagan stated that he would lift the siege if 10,000 swallows and a thousand cats were given to him. The Jin Emperor accepted this request. However, the Mongols tied cotton to the feet of the swallows and wrapped cotton around the tails of the cats. Then they set the flammable materials on fire. The animals ran for their lives toward their nests in the city. Thus, they caused the wooden structures there catch fire. After this incident, the city surrendered. As a result, the Jin Emperor gave his daughter to Chinggis Khagan and established a friendship with him. This study focuses on the confirmation of this event in Saghang Sechen's work through historical chronicles and their psychological aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the fifteenth-century Ming diplomat Chen Cheng's travel accounts by situating them against the backdrop of Islamic and Mongol history. The first part of the article presents Chen Cheng's travels and his reports in the context of Ming-Timurid relations and comprehensively studies the existing editions of Chen's writings. The second part of the article provides a complete, critical, and annotated translation of Chen's travel narrative, the Xiyu fanguo zhi , and a selection of his poems that describe the Timurid and eastern Chaghatayid regions through which the ambassador traveled. The translation is based on the text from Chen's personal literary collection, the Chen Zhushan wenji , which has not yet been adequately utilized in English scholarship. Incorporating information from contemporary sources, the annotated translation contextualizes Chen's accounts in Islamic history of Western and Central Asia. Finally, the article supplements the translation with a biography of Chen Cheng and information extracted from his itinerary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Babaī Rebellion was a religious, political, and social uprising stirred up in Anatolia in 1240 by Bābā Ilyās-i Khurāsānī and Baba Isḥāq, one of his caliphs, against the Seljuk rule due to its mismanagement. This uprising, which lasted for centuries, was the biggest Turkmen uprising in Anatolian Seljuk history and caused the Anatolian Seljuk State to fall under the yoke of the Mongol Empire. The rebellion, which constitutes an important place in the political and social history of Anatolia, is also a starting point in terms of analysing and understanding the popular movements in the history of Turkey and especially Alevism and Bektashism, which are discussed today, with a decent approach [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of the article is to present the process of creating Rusia's dependence on the Mongols following the invasion of Batu Khan from 1236 to 1242 and characteristics of Horde yoke. The author presents selected examples of various forms of Rusia' dependence on the Tatars, starting from the khans' subordination of Rusian princes to the presentation of the tax system and administration introduced by the Mongols in various Rusian principalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article establishes that the tümens which took part in Jebe and Sübedei's Raid to Europe were not merely conducting a reconnaissance mission, as it is usually described. The campaign was part of Chinggis Khan's conquering strategy aimed at the complete subjugation of the Kipchak and the conquest of the steppe territories not only in Asia but also in Europe. The task of implementing this strategic plan was given to Prince Jochi as the ruler of the western ulus of the Mongol Empire. Jochi was to bring his main military force to Europe while Sübedei, together with Jebe, advanced with their corps to defeat the Kipchak. The Grand Prince of Kiev and other princes of Southern Rus', being allies and relatives of the Kipchak rulers, gave them military support. Therefore, the Mongols retaliated against the Rus'. After defeating the allied Rus' and Kipchak forces at the Kalka River, the Mongols succeeded in crossing the Dnieper and went as far as Kiev. However, the refusal of Jochi to bring his main forces to assist the Mongol vanguard forces nullified the achievements and victories of Jebe and Sübedei. Jochi's reluctance to participate in the Western Campaign of 1221–23 was related to his conflicts with his younger brothers and Chinggis Khan himself, which, in its turn, brought about Jochi's loss of his former status in the empire, a severe illness and untimely death. As a result, Chinggis Khan had to reconsider his general conquest strategy; the conquest of Kipchak and Rus' was postponed for one and a half decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonal settlements of the Mongol rulers fall into the two general classes of temporary and permanent settlements, which were scattered across the territory under their influence. According to historical reports and archaeological documents, permanent settlements were constructed using building materials in certain Yaylaqs (summer quarters) and Qishlaqs (winter quarters) or on the outskirts of urban centers, and were periodically used by Mongol rulers. Historical texts from the Ilkhanid period use three different names of Qarshi, Kushk and Saray to refer to such settlements, highlighting the differing structures of the pertaining settlements. The present study aims to offer a classification for permanent settlements of the Mongol and Ilkhanid rulers via semantically and functionally interpreting the terms Qarshi, Kushk and Saray. To this end, apart from archaeological documents, Chinese terms referring to the permanent settlements of the Mongol rulers are invoked. The results of this analytical-historical research show that in light of the prefixes used in the Persian texts deriving from the Ilkhanid period, the permanent settlements of the Mongol empires and Ilkhans split into two categories: Saray and Kushk. Sarays were a series of ceremonial buildings located mostly in the main cities or important seasonal residences and are comparable to the Gongchengs of the Mongols in China. Kushk mainly denoted a midway residence, where the sole existing building was a single Kushk or Qarshi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historical development of Mongolian wrestling has been studied by numerous researchers. However, differing approaches to the predominant form of wrestling in the twelfth-fourteenth centuries (Mongol Empire) remain. According to historical sources, pre-twelfth and post-fourteenth century depictions and paintings, vertical wrestling was predominant among the Mongols in this period. Mongolian wrestling became a part of the state ceremonies of the Mongol Empire and developed rapidly, with wrestling uniforms made of silk and cloth. Also, the zodog's skirt was open, the shuudag was shortened, and the shoes were longer. There is no evidence that women wrestled in Mongolian wrestling at other times in history, but Marco Polo notes that in the thirteenth century, the royal princess was a successful wrestler. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historians examine the Mongol practice of holding interfaith court debates either with regard to the efforts of religious representatives to convert the khans, or as emblematic of the Mongols' religious pluralism. However, staging interfaith debates had other religious and political purposes as well. The debate was an arena for the religiously and ideologically charged performance of the Mongol khan's own divine-like wisdom and model of sacral, deified kingship. From the Mongol perspective, the objectives of the debate were not only different from those of its religious participants, but the debate further represented an altogether different mode of religiosity. Situating the debate in the context of the Mongol religious world view, this article proceeds to examine it in the Mongol court in medieval Iran (the Ilkhanate) shortly after its conversion to Islam. Muslim interlocutors there identified and exploited the Mongols' religious logic to reinforce the Mongol rulers' conversion. They transformed the debate into a forum for experimenting with a new synthesis of Mongol and Muslim, divinized and righteous, kingship. The continuous role of the debate in the performance of sacral monarchy among the Mongols' successors, especially the Mughals in early modern India, testifies to the enduring impact of Mongol religiosity on the Islamic world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to clarify an obscure passage in Plano Carpini's text, and subsequently in C. de Bridia's one, referring to a crushing defeat of Chinggis Khan, which has so far not been identified with certainty. The record of such a defeat is found in identical terms under the pen of Jūzjānī, and it actually appears that this strange narrative follows the pattern of the Mongol myth of origin, which is also common to the myths of the Türks, of the Kimeks and others. Here the argument is made that these accounts written outside the Mongol territory are therefore not only the result of confusion and distortion, contrary to what has long been thought. They testify to the existence of a legend of Chinggis Khan, built in an imperial propaganda effort directed at all the nomadic subjects of the Mongol Empire, and which placed the birth of the empire and the story of the origins contained in the myth on the same symbolic level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the course of the study, it has been determined that the main reasons that contributed to the emergence of the Mongol empire are related to its rather dynamic and progressive development, which at the same time relied on the traditional institutions of nomadic people. It should be noted that the features of the supreme power of the empire and the ways of its implementation are often associated with the features of its territorial structure, the nature of relations between the central imperial power and peripheries of different status; this emphasizes the specificity of the organization of the Mongol empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mongol conquests and the following dominations have long been the subject of historical reevaluation by the scientific community. The spread and progressive specialization of Mongolian studies of the latest decades have also affected the westernmost of the four khanates resulted from the division of the Empire: the ulus Jochi, better known as Golden Horde. Russia's territorial vastity, its proximity to Western Europe, and its multicultural characters have all attracted the historians' attention to the Mongol era. By retracing the crucial historiographical passages, from nineteenth-century studies to the present day, this article aims to provide a broad and updated perspective of how the scientific debate has developed internationally and its relationship with the macro-levels of the Russian society today: from politics to public opinion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the emergence and development of business partnerships established by the Mongols and their merchant partners, ortoqs, in the Middle Ages. Ortoqs are known to have conducted trade and money-lending with the capital invested by their partners. This study shows that the contractual arrangements of Mongol–ortoq partnerships closely resembled medieval partnership contracts, such as mudharaba, inan, societas and commenda. Sophisticated concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans were developed in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper examines the events that led to the establishment of the Ilkhanate under Hülegü as well as the beginning of the war between the Hülegüids and the Jöchids of the Golden Horde. The article discusses the struggle between the two branches of Chinggis Khan's Golden Lineage during the march of Hülegü through South West Asia. This process reached its apex when Hülegü decided to get rid of the Jöchid contingents in his army together with the princes that headed them. This happened because they were a serious obstacle on the way towards establishing his empire in Iran and the adjacent areas. Hülegü used an accusation in witchcraft as an official pretext to remove fellow Chinggisid prince (or princes). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gift-exchange is the main element of a long-established tradition in Inner Asian diplomatic practice, representing a kind of political discourse. The Mongol Empire, after its rise in the early 13th century, changed the tradition of diplomatic ideology and practice, and established new principles subsequently. This article, according to multi-lingual sources, summarizes the formal and political aspects of gift-exchange during the pre-Mongol period and, furthermore, discusses the innovation and continuity of gift-exchange in the diplomatic practice of the earlier Mongol Empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to its central location the Chaghadaid ulus played a key role in the interregional diplomatic connections in the Mongol period. Unfortunately, comparing to the other three ulus es of the Mongol Empire we have a very limited number of written sources concerning the Chaghadaid realm. The aim of the present paper is to show how the new results of the philological study of the Old Uyghur and Middle Mongolian documents can throw new light upon our knowledge about the diplomatic practices in the Chaghadaid ulus. The paper concentrates on the two most important institutions which facilitated diplomatic relations: the chancelleries and the postal system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mongol Empire is as an early example of the transformative role of mobility, celebrated in the contemporary social sciences. The only way in which the Mongols who by the time of Chinggis Khan numbered less than a million nomads, were able to create and rule their huge empire was by fully mobilizing the resources—both human and material—from the regions under their control. This high measure of mobility fostered robust cross-cultural exchanges in various fields, resulting in a huge expansion of knowledge and connectivity, cultural relativism, and a common imperial culture—political, material, institutional—with regional variants. These developments set the stage for major transformations in world history. The introduction presents the articles included in this special issue, which tackle various case-studies of mobility and transformation while looking at the Mongol Empire in Eurasian perspective, and highlighting the impact of the Mongols' indigenous culture on the proto-global world of the 13th and 14th centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mongol imperial enterprise produced memories and spurred migration on a continental scale among the conquerors, the vanquished, and agents of empire. During the 14th and early 15th centuries, the Ming court of China tried to shape the memory of the Mongol empire to enhance Ming political legitimacy, dampen hopes of a Mongolian revival, and facilitate the transfer of allegiance from the Mongol empire to Ming dynasty. The Ming court also integrated former Yuan personnel, including not just Chinese subjects but hundreds of thousands of Mongols and Jurchens, into the Ming polity. In examining these processes, the essay contributes to the wider discussion of how successor polities throughout Eurasia sought to turn the legacy of the Mongol empire to their own advantage, which had the unintended consequence of keeping memory of the Chinggisid age vital long after the empire's fall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The destruction of the Baghdadi libraries has been a powerful image connected to the Mongol conquest of 1258, often claimed to have precipitated the decline of Muslim civilization. This study, however, challenges this claim by reconstructing the state of libraries in Ilkhanid Baghdad, revealing a thriving intellectual community. Based on a close reading in Arabic biographical dictionaries and analysis of samāʿ and book lists, it elucidates the functions of libraries in Ilkhanid Baghdad, identifies channels of knowledge transmission, and offers a glimpse of the libraries' holdings. Finally, it analyzes the Mongols' role in invigorating local scholarship and the impact their rule had on Baghdad's intellectual life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a variety of literary and archaeological sources, notably the tariff lists produced in Rasulid Yemen, this study reconstructs the trade routes of the Kīsh merchants, demonstrating that the Persian Gulf route—between South and West India (Coromandel, Malabar, and Gujarat) and Iraq via the Persian Gulf—and the Red Sea route—between South and West India and Egypt via the Red Sea—were closely connected in the Mongol period. This not only manifests aspects of the proto-globalization in Mongol Eurasia but also argues against the supposed economic decline of post-1258 Baghdad and the economic centrality of Cairo in the post-Abbasid Muslim world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mongols established an empire that ruled over two thirds of Eurasia. This was achieved, so they believed, by the will of heaven. Therefore, they had a great interest in reading the sky for guiding their earthly activities. Under the patronage of Mongol rulers, astronomers in both Yuan China and the Ilkhanate of Iran developed an extensive scholarly network and the astral sciences in both khanates witnessed their heyday. This paper reconstructs and compares the dynamic networks of astronomers in Ilkhanid Iran and Yuan China. Based on the astronomers' biographies, it analyzes the wider culture of expertise and social settings that shaped the profession of heavenly observation and predictive analysis. The comparative perspective will highlight the continuities and changes of astronomy in China and Iran under Mongol rule. I will also discuss the achievements and limitations of the cross-cultural reading of heaven in Mongol Eurasia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares the process of Islamization in the three westernmost Mongol states: the Chaghadaid Khanate in Central Asia; the Ilkhanate in Iran and Iraq; and the Jochid ulus (the Golden Horde) in the Pontic-Caspian steppes and the Volga region. It explores in greater depth the hallmarks of conversion, the agents of, and the motives for, Islamization and the limitations of its effects on royal policy. In particular, it highlights the tension between Islamic notions and the concept of religious pluralism that was central to the corpus of Mongol law (Yasa) established by Chinggis Khan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first Mongol khans were buried in hidden graves, but later Mongols adopted the Muslim practice of building aboveground domed tombs. This essay examines three domed mausolea typical of the Muslim lands erected in the early to mid-14th century in different Mongol khanates—that built for the Ilkhan Öljeitü at Sultaniyya, a second for the Chaghadaid Buyan Quli Khan outside Bukhara, and a third anonymous tomb at Guyuan, Hebei, in the Yuan territories of north China—to show how different Mongol patrons interpreted the same form and funerary traditions associated with it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ulus is a key concept for understanding the Mongol Empire; the Mongols called the empire they had created the 'Mongol Ulus' or the 'Yeke (= Great) Mongol Ulus.' It was a single huge ulus containing within itself a large number of multilayered smaller uluses. The sizes of these uluses differed. The three large western uluses of Chaghadai, Jochi, and Hülegü were so large that they looked like independent empires, and in fact they were politically quite autonomous from the Qa'an Ulus in the east. However, their enormous size or political independence notwithstanding, to the Mongols of that time they were after all individual uluses comprising part of the Yeke Mongol Ulus. The notion of ulus appears to have been an important basis that enabled the Mongols to retain a sense of unity within their empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kondui Palace is the world-famous archaeological site of the Mongolian Empire's period. However, few people know that the ruins of the palace were used for the construction of the Orthodox Virgin church in the Kondui village in the early nineteenth century. This paper describes the construction of the church with regard to studies of the Mongolian palace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ilkhanid vizier and historian Rashīd al-Dīn's section on China (the History of China) in his world history, the Jāmiʿal-tawārīkh , is the first Persian history of the Chinese world. Among other information on China, this text includes accounts of the lives and deeds of the founders of its three major religious and philosophical schools: Buddha, Laozi and Confucius. As a continuation to the first part of the paper, devoted to Rashīd al-Dīn's account on the Buddha, here we focus on the excerpts on Laozi and Confucius, which probably constitute the first discussions of these two figures in the Islamicate world. Reading these excerpts against the background of Chinese sources, striking similarities can be found between Rashīd al-Dīn's accounts and the narratives of Buddhist 'universal histories' of the early Yuan period, belonging to the historiographical production of the Chan school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the periodization and zoning of the burials of the Mongol Khanate period and the Yuan Dynasty and referring to the textual materials of the stone tablets and epitaphs and the different funeral customs, this paper classified these burials into the burials of the Mongol people, the burials of the "Mongolized" people, the burials of the "Semu ren (Miscellaneous aliens)" and that of the Han people, and preliminarily summarized the features of the funeral customs of the tombs of the Mongol people, provided references for identifying the tombs of the Mongol Khanate period and the Yuan Dynasty without inscriptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following the fall of the Mongol Empire (c. 1206-1368) in both East andWest Asia, Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Emperor, r. 1368-1398), the founder of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) in China, Timur (r. 1370-1405), founder of the Timurid Empire (1370-1507) in Central Asia, and their successors used the legacy of the Chinggisid Mongols in different ways to lend an aura of power and legitimacy to their newly established courts. In this paper, I explore the cultural legacy of the Mongol Empire as manifested in the early Ming and Timurid courts, with a special interest in how continuing cultural exchange between the two courts impacted the arts produced in both places. In particular, I highlight how the ongoing incorporation of "foreign" motifs and techniques set the tone for the arts of both courts in the late fourteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thirteenth century scholar and teacher Xu Heng began as a peasant and a refugee from the chaos of war, but rose to the highest levels of the Yuan dynasty court. He helped to facilitate the translation of neo-Confucian ideas for the Mongol rulers, a translation that had to be carried out on multiple levels of language and culture. In particular, he advocated the universality of Confucian models across both ethnicity and class. In so doing, he helped to set a cultural pattern that would persist beyond the Mongol rule and become a foundational aspect of traditional China's legacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Comparativ: Leipziger Beiträge zur Universalgeschichte und Vergleichenden Gesellschaftsforschung is the property of Leipziger Universitaetsverlag GmbH and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this study I examine the presentation of Saladin and the Crusades within the genre of Persian universal histories produced from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. While a number of recent studies have begun to explore the place of the Crusades in the historical memory of the Islamic world, to date little attention has been given to the question of the manner in which the ensuing Mongol conquests affected subsequent Muslim memory of the Crusades. In this article I argue that historiographers of the Mongol and post-Mongol eras largely sought to legitimate the conquests through evocation of heresy and by celebrating the Mongols’ role in combating alleged heretical elements within Muslim society, most notably the Ismā'īlīs. While Saladin is universally remembered today first and foremost for his re-conquest of Jerusalem from the Crusaders, within the context of the agenda of Persian historiography of the post-Mongol era the locus of his significance was shifted to his overthrow of the Ismā'īlī Fatimid dynasty in Egypt, to the almost complete exclusion of his role in the Crusades. This article challenges long-standing assumptions that the figure of Saladin was largely forgotten within the Muslim world until the colonial era, and instead presents an alternative explanation for the supposed amnesia in the Muslim world regarding the Crusades in the pre-modern era. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Subutai [Sübe’etei], often referred to as the greatest of the Mongol Empire’s generals, has increasingly become a topic of popular interest. However, the literature about him continues to rely on secondary sources so that popular and scholarly work alike often contains and perpetuates ahistorical statements regarding his origins and his military career. Based on the assumption that many errors have been perpetuated because Chinese source material has not been sufficiently integrated into available Western literature, this paper aims to offer a two-part corrective to the problem. First, an introductory essay will analyze several aspects of Subutai’s life and career that are often misrepresented. Secondly, complete English translations of the two biographies of Subutai found in the 121st and 122nd chapters of the Yuan Shi are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Central Asiatic Journal: International Periodical for the Languages, Literatures, History & Archaeology of Central Asia is the property of Otto Harrassowitz Verlag and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

By the beginning of the fourteenth century the court histories of the Īl-Khānate had begun to lament that ‘qarachu’ (non-royal) commanders dominated the realm. The same histories report that these qarachu were drawn from the families of the khans’ royal guardsmen (kešik). The fact that these kešik families had come to eclipse, and in some cases threaten, the power of their Chinggisid patrons suggests a much broader transformation of the Īl-Khān polity from the patrimonial government of the khan's household, which characterised the early Mongol Empire, to a quasi-feudal state, dominated by a powerful military aristocracy. The present study will elucidate how this new aristocracy supported their authority through the hereditary transmission of armies, property and, offices, which entrenched their position at the summit of Īl-Khān polity. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In the mid-fourteenth century, the Mongol empire collapsed. People and polities across east Eurasia reconsidered their alliances. For the kingdom of Koryŏ, the collapse of the Yuan dynasty and the rise of the Ming dynasty represented both danger and opportunity. Examining how the Koryŏ court navigated these challenges, this essay argues that Koryŏ's diplomatic recognition of the Yuan and Ming courts was just as important as was their recognition of Koryŏ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viticulture and viniculture play an important role in the life of the people of the Turfan region even today. The first part of the present article introduces the appearance of the grape and the viniculture in the region. The second part describes the viniculture of the Uyghurs, who settled in the region in the middle of the 9th century. The third part discusses the role of the Turfan wine in the Mongol Empire and tries to evaluate the quality of it. In order to gain a better understanding, contemporary narrative sources are examined comparatively with the Old Uyghur (9-14th centuries) and Middle Mongolian (13-14th centuries) documentary (administrative, juridical, economic etc.) sources, unearthed in the Turfan region (today Xinjiang, PRC). The article argues that the Uyghurs found an already flourishing viticulture and viniculture in the region in the middle of the 9th century. Under the West Uyghur Kingdom (9th-12th centuries), viticulture and winemaking played an important role not only in the life of the laic population, but also in the economy of the Manichean and Buddhist monasteries. In the Mongol Period (13th-14th centuries) the Turfan area was one of the most important wine producing regions of the eastern part of the Mongol Empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reason for China to enshrine Chinggis Khan as a national icon is threefold: to foster among the ethnic Mongols a sense of belonging to China by accommodating their cultural identity; to sustain the sense of belonging of Han Chinese to an uninterrupted national identity by depicting the Mongol Empire as a dynasty instead of an alien regime of China; and to justify the rule over other minority regions like Tibet whose unity with China proper was first achieved by the Mongol Empire. On Mongolia's part, the Khalkha-centric ethnic identity and the status of Chinggis Khan as a symbol of national independence make it impossible for Mongolia to share Chinggis Khan with either their ethnic compatriots in Inner Mongolia or their neighbour China. Thus, both countries find themselves in an irreconcilable contention over the legacy of Chinggis Khan because of their respective national identities and domestic political agendas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is devoted to törü—law of the ancient Turks, which later became one of the sources of medieval Mongol law and, eventually, integral to the legal system of the Mongol Empire ruled by Chinggis Khan and his descendants. The post-imperial Chinggisids used törü as a means to reinforce their legitimacy among their Turkic subjects as a ‘privatised’ right to interpret and even create törü regulations. At the same time their Mongolian neighbours used törü mostly as a political (rather than legal) category and did not obtain a monopoly for it, as törü in Mongolia was interpreted as an attribute of supreme power, even when it spread beyond the descendants of Chinggis Khan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the period of Great Indo-Turkish Empire when the art, literature reached the summit, Arabic was used as base to understand Islam religion, Quran and learn it thoroughly and the Persian language was taught to develop the literary features of the individuals. In this period of India, all the Sultans conceding to the throne enjoyed writing poetry, made the authors and poets officers with salaries by employing them in their palaces. While Persian was the official written language of the managers in the management of India sub-continent for nearly 8 centuries, it encouraged the people to do activities in the artistic field. Ghazals, eulogies, quatrains are tadhkira and other branches of the literary arts with the aesthetics and magic of Persian were loved and were uttered with the belief of pantheism regardless of prosody and rhyme sometimes with open expression and sometimes with closed expression of emotions with the themes of Sufism, morals and love theme. The main theme of our research paper consists of poet daughter of Sultan Aurangzeb, her life, her approach to literary works and dewan consisting of the poetry she wrote with secret. In this work, there will be reflections poetry of different religions and beliefs which are marked in the period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]