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Alexander Pho and Benjamin A. White respond to Nicolas Dixon's critique of mixed martial arts (MMA) through a 'companions in innocence' argument. Taking up a counterexample that Dixon is quick to dismiss, the authors argue that MMA techniques are on a par with the 'pain-leveraging' tactics used by cyclists and that pressing for a moral distinction between cycling and MMA leads to absurd conclusions about other practices. So, because cycling is morally permissible, MMA is morally permissible. This companions in innocence argument fails. But cycling can be used to develop a better, though only partial, defense of MMA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"The Philosophy of Mixed Martial Arts: Squaring the Octagons" is an academic book that explores philosophical ideas and concepts related to mixed martial arts (MMA) and combat sports. The book covers a wide range of topics, including the history and nature of MMA, ethical aspects, cognitive and aesthetic aspects, violence and constraints in combat sports, and the gender debate in MMA. The authors come from diverse academic backgrounds and include practitioners and former athletes, providing a range of perspectives. While the book primarily focuses on MMA, it also extends to other martial arts and combat sports. It is a valuable resource for understanding the social and moral issues surrounding MMA and boxing, and it can be used for teaching and research purposes in various disciplines. [Extracted from the article]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of contrast heat and cold pressure therapy (CHCP) on muscle tone, elasticity, stiffness, perfusion unit, and muscle fatigue indices after plyometric training consisting of five sets of jumping on a 50-cm high box until exhaustion. A prospective, randomized, controlled single-blind study design was used. Twenty professional MMA fighters were included in the study. The experimental group (n = 10) was subjected to the CHCP protocol (eGR), while the control group (cGR) (n = 10) was subjected to sham therapy. Both protocols consisted of three CHCP sessions performed immediately after plyometric exercise, 24 and 48 h afterwards. Measurements were taken at the following time points: 1) at rest; 2) 1 min post-exercise; 3) 1 min post-CHCP therapy; 4) 24 h post-CHCP therapy; 5) 48 h post-CHCP therapy. The results of the eGR compared to the cGR showed significantly higher perfusion at time point 5 (p < 0.001), higher muscle tone at time points 1, and 3-5 (p < 0.001 for all), higher stiffness at time points 1, 3-5 (p < 0.001 for all) and a higher pain threshold at time points 1 and 5 (p < 0.001 for all). This study suggests a positive effect of CHCP therapy on muscle biomechanics, the pain threshold, and tissue perfusion, which may contribute to increasing the effectiveness of post-exercise muscle recovery in MMA athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The strike force in combat sports strongly depends on the protective material's mechanical properties and energy absorption capacity. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the effect of the protective layer thickness and repeated loading on the net force in a falling weight impact test. A falling 8-kg weight dropped from 15 cm, 25 cm, and 50 cm was used to simulate impact peak forces in an upper limb strike. Transfer linear regression functions were identified for three layers of different thickness (1.8 cm, 3.6 cm, and 5.4 cm) between the measured force and undamped force that would be measured if no protective layer was used. A decrease in damping performance under repetitive loading was assessed for the same amount of energy (30 J) absorbed by the specimens. There were 36 specimens examined in 126 tests. When the measuring apparatus was covered with one, two or three layers of Trocellen foam, the undamped force was approximately 2.8, 6.1, and 11.1 times higher, respectively (p < 0.05, R2 = 0.95), than the force measured in the kinetic design. This allows researchers to select the number of layers according to the individual needs in terms of safety and injury prevention. A single layer of Trocellen foam used in this study may be insufficient to ensure the safety of athletes in upper limb strike experiments due to possible compaction of the foam structure for deformations exceeding 80% compression and forces exceeding 5 kN, although no injury was previously observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Participation in Brazilian jiu-jitsu and mixed martial arts has increased over the last three decades. These sports feature submission attacks, including strangles. These strangles, termed “chokes” in this context, primarily limit blood flow to the brain via compression of neck vasculature. There has been discussion in literature of the possibility of measurable cognitive effects following transient choking episodes. The present study used the King-Devick test (KDT) platform, a tablet-based reaction time and accuracy task designed to measure participants’ number recognition, cognition, and verbal expression. This task requires functional vision, saccadic eye movements, comprehension, and expression. Methods: Volunteer participants were screened for exclusion (prior brain injury) criteria and survey information before testing. Athletes were tested with the KDT immediately before a Brazilian jiu-jitsu training session, again immediately after succumbing to either a choke (“Choke” arm) or nonchoke (“Non-Choke” arm) submission while sparring, and again after a 10-min rest period following the postsubmission test. Analysis was done on test failures, total test times, and individual difference scores between baseline and subsequent testing. Results: Sixty-two (32 Choke, 30 Non-Choke) participants were analyzed. There was no significant difference between Choke and Non-Choke in test failures (χ 2 (1,62) = 1.25, P = 0.263), total times (t(60) = 0.62, P = 0.540; 95% CI, −3.44 to 6.51), and individual difference scores (t(60) = 0.29, P = 0.776; 95% CI, −2.41 to 3.21). Conclusions: There were no significant differences between study arms in any of the three analyzed measures. This suggests that cognitive functioning, as measured by the KDT, is not affected by transient choking episodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated objective brain vital signs derived from event-related potentials (ERPs) for mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes and matched controls (N = 24). Brain vital sign scans were acquired from 9 MMA athletes and 15 age-and sex-matched controls. Our analysis specifically compared differences in brain vital signs between MMA athletes and controls at baseline. We predicted that MMA athletes would show significant differences relative to controls due to their ongoing exposure to repetitive head impacts. Participants were scanned to extract three well-established ERPs: N100 for auditory sensation; P300 for basic attention; and N400 for cognitive processing. Scans were verified using automated reports, with N100, P300, and N400 amplitudes and latencies manually identified by a blinded reviewer. Brain vital signs were compared across groups with a Kruskal-Wallis H-test for independent samples, with FDR correction for multiple comparisons. We identified significant differences between MMA athletes and controls. Specifically, there were significant N400 amplitude reductions, indicating that exposure to repetitive head impacts in MMA may be associated with changes in brain function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses and explains how the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) acquired and retains monopoly and monopsony power over Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) in a complex political, legal, regulatory, and financial context. A qualitative and interpretive approach to research underpins a thematic analysis of social media and journalistic content alongside a review of a limited academic literature. It is found that the UFC has acquired and retained monopoly and monopsony power in a context of weak regulation, limited competition, ineffective legal and political intervention, and an absence of unionisation. The three key strategies employed by the UFC to sustain power over MMA were found to be 1. control of athlete labour via restrictive contracts; 2. acquisition of competitor promotions, expertise, and commercial contracts; and 3. building reputation and legitimacy via public relations and lobbying activities. The UFC has employed a combination of legitimate, referent, reward, expert, informational, and coercive power to become the dominant organisation in MMA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The book review discusses Amit Singh's ethnography, "Fighting Identity: An Ethnography of Kickboxing in East London," which explores the convivial and improvised anti-racisms that arise in a kickboxing gym in East London. The review highlights Singh's ability to navigate the complexities of multiracial working-class habituation, avoiding simplifications and empty platitudes about diversity. Singh's analysis focuses on the cultural form of kickboxing itself and how it shapes participation, generates social affordances, and fosters mutualist, empathetic openness. The review acknowledges the messy and clumsy political attitudes of the individuals in the gym but emphasizes the potential for conviviality and anti-racist flickers that emerge through shared activities. The review concludes by noting the importance of studying culture for glimpses of transgressive life beyond the limitations of race and nation, and the potential for collective attachments necessary for meaningful social change. [Extracted from the article]

The Association of Ringside Physicians (ARP) is committed to the concept of fair competition. It advocates for two equally skilled and matched athletes to keep bouts fair, competitive, entertaining, and, most importantly, safe for all combatants. Numerous studies have proven that transgender women may have a competitive athletic advantage against otherwise matched cis-gender women. Likewise, transgender men may suffer a competitive disadvantage against cis-gender men. These differences – both anatomic and physiologic – persist despite normalization of sex hormone levels and create disparities in competitive abilities that are not compatible with the spirit of fair competition. More importantly, allowing transgender athletes to compete against cisgender athletes in combat sports, which already involve significant risk of serious injury, unnecessarily raises the risk of injury due to these differences. Hence the ARP does not support transgender athlete competition against cisgender athletes in combat sports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combat sports, such as boxing and mixed martial arts [MMA], have the unique objective to finish a bout by way of knockout [KO] or technical knockout [TKO]. There are potentially both short- and long-term neurological injuries that can happen as a result of the repeated head trauma sustained in bouts, and thus it is imperative to identify the athletes that are at increased risk. Using an online database of professional boxing bouts [boxrec.com] over a 6-month period, KO/TKO rates were calculated across different states, weight classes, sex, and Fight Exposure Score [FES] categories. There was found to be a significant association between KO/TKO rates and weight class, sex, and FES category with heavyweights, males and FES 0 boxers having higher KO/TKO rates. KO/TKO rates were increased in winless boxers. KO/TKO rates across the states are documented in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the elements of fighter performance that lead an MMA bout to be considered the "best" of the night, using data on UFC Fight of the Night bonus award decisions over 15 years of events. Promoter preferences toward particular bout positions on the event card are also examined as well as the influence of crowds due to the exogenous shock of the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings suggest a meaningful difference between performance factors that generate entertainment value relative to those that tend to score points with the judges. They are also supportive of behavioral influences such as recency bias and crowd effects on promoter decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Concussion and the damage resulting from this event related to brain function have been widely studied; however, little is known about subconcussive impacts, especially in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) fighters, which is a combat and full contact sport in which most blows are aimed at the head. Objective: This study aims to evaluate the biomarker levels associated with subconcussive hits to the head in MMA fighters. Methods: This is an exploratory study in which 30 male subjects (10 MMA fighters, 10 healthy individuals who practice muscle training, and 10 healthy sedentary individuals) aged between 18 and 32 years (25.4 ± 3.8) were evaluated. These individuals underwent blood collection to assess their Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase (UCH-L1), Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) and Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) levels before, immediately after and 72 hours after the sparring session (for the fighters) and were compared between groups. Results: Significant differences were found at baseline between active and healthy fighters in BDNF levels (p = 0.03). A significant reduction of BDNF levels were also observed between the post-immediate and 72h after the sparring session (p = 0.03). No differences were observed in the number or severity of symptoms reported by the fighters. Conclusion: Despite the exploratory approach, the findings of this study may help to understand the influence of repeated subconcussive hits to the head in MMA fighters, as well as to propose preventive interventions which can minimize the effects of the impact of hits, preserving fighters' neuronal integrity and function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios sobre Cuerpos, Emociones y Sociedad is the property of Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios sobre Cuerpos, Emociones y Sociedad and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

No-gi Brazilian jiu-jitsu is a grappling-based combat sport performed without the jiu-jitsu uniform. It's fast-growing popularity has been influenced by the contributions to competitors' performance in mixed martial arts tournaments. This study aimed to analyze the frequency of actions, the transitions between them, and their reward–risk balance—the probability of submitting minus the probability of being submitted—among top-level competitors. Data encompassed all 93 matches (90 competitors) of the World Submission Fighting Championship-2019. Reliability was assessed by two experts (sports scientists, more than 10 years as no-gi Brazilian jiu-jitsu competitors). Data analyses used Bayesian methods for inference. Posterior distributions of the mean frequencies of actions indicate that the main actions (e.g. takedown, sweep, and back-take) tended to occur less than once per competitor in each match, except by the submission attempt (point estimate of 1.03 per match). The highest estimates for the transition probabilities between match actions were within-competitor—a guard pass action to another guard pass action (0.30); between-competitors—a takedown attempt to a submission attempt (0.15). Most of the actions presented positive reward-risk balance, particularly for the back-take, which showed the highest probability of direct transition to submission (0.45). The dynamic analysis of no-gi Brazilian jiu-jitsu matches evidenced some preferential actions' transitions associated with winning. Findings should enhance the accuracy of performance prediction and provide evidence-based recommendations for coaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study delves into the intricate details of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) by examining key variables such as maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 peak), aerobic energy (EAER), anaerobic energy (EAN), and accumulated O2 deficit (DOA). By investigating associations and comparing athletes in the −61 kg bantamweight and −66 kg featherweight weight divisions, we aim to shed light on their physiological characteristics. The sample consisted of 20 male volunteers separated into two paired groups: ten athletes in the category up to 61 kg (age: 27.7 ± 5.9 years old, height: 170.9 ± 3.4 cm, body mass: 72.8 ± 1.4 kg, fat percentage: 9.5% ± 3.0%, professional experience: 7.5 ± 7.1 years) and ten athletes up to 66 kg (age: 27.6 ± 2.9 years old, height: 176.0 ± 5.5 cm, body mass: 77.0 ± 1.5 kg, fat percentage: 7.85% ± 0.3%, professional experience: 5.5 ± 1.5 years). Remarkably, our findings revealed striking similarities between the two weight divisions. Furthermore, we discovered a negative correlation between VO2 peak and the number of MMA fights, indicating a potential impact of professional experience on aerobic capacity (r = −0.65, p < 0.01). Additionally, the number of fights exhibited negative correlations with anaerobic energy (r =−0.53, p < 0.05) and total energy cost (r =−0.54, p < 0.05). These results provide valuable insights for designing training programs in the context of MMA. While training both weight divisions together can be beneficial, it is equally crucial to incorporate specific weight-class-focused training to address each division’s unique physical demands and requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to assess the development trend of organizing sports events based on freak fights in Poland and to identify related marketing activities. Design/methodology/approach: Achieving the objectives of the study was based on a desk research method and required the collection and arrangement of quantitative and qualitative data gathered from combat sports industry portals. The theoretical objectives of the paper included explaining the concept of sports events, identifying sports federations as the organizers of these events and explaining the marketing mix concepts 4P and 4C. Furthermore, the concept of freak fights was described. The paper also identifies and justifies the moment when the first freak fight federation appeared in Poland. Findings: An analysis of the data revealed a growing trend of organizing this type of event on the Polish market. The most active entities in this matter were identified and their marketing activities were described. Research limitations/implications: In acquiring data to assess the developmental trend of the phenomenon, it was noted that there is a lack of academic literature covering freak fights. Data extracted from industry portals was thoroughly selected and transferred to the academic field. Practical implications: The discussion of the results showed a pattern of activities undertaken by the federations, including hiring media persons for the fights, organizing live broadcasts from the arena or carrying out promotional activities especially on the Internet. Originality/value: The value of the paper is its uniqueness on a national scale. It is aimed at those willing to explore the subject of freak fights on the Polish market. It can be a starting point for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The immersive virtual reality (VR) might bring a new reliable approach to diagnosing motor abilities. Therefore, the main goal of this research was to check the intertrial reliability and diagnostic possibility (reaction time, movement time, lateral differences) of VR for upper limb movements in a group of mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes, and to evaluate whether distractors influence the complexity of the whole reaction. Material and methods: Twenty-six MMA athletes (age 27.1 ± 5.4 years, body mass 77.6 ± 9.3 kg, height 179.2 ± 5.7 cm, training experience 6.7±4.3 years) performed two reaction tests for their upper limbs (four tests were made for the ICC calculation) with wireless autonomous VR. Results: The ICC values ranged from 0.751 to 0.872 in simple reaction speed and 0.709 to 0.909 in complex reaction. No significant differences were observed between the reaction of the right and the left upper limbs. Distractors were shown to negatively affect the speed (d = 1.2) and reaction time of complex reactions (d = 1.3). Conclusions: The implemented VR measurement system allows for a reliable assessment of simple and complex reaction speed and its components (reaction time, movement time) for upper limb strikes and covers in MMA athletes. MMA reaction time of upper limbs is laterally balanced in MMA athletes. The disruptor causes a large decrease in reaction speed and prolongs the reaction time. Therefore, a test with a disruptor might have the potential to recognize performance level and athletes’ reaction abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology is the property of Idokan Poland Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology is the property of Idokan Poland Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The purist/partisan distinction has dominated recent discussions of sport spectatorship and sport aesthetics. The focus of such discussions, however, has been sport in general or, often implicitly, team sports in particular. Here, using mixed martial arts (MMA) as a case study, we argue that specific aspects of the sport in question can significantly affect how the purist/partisan distinction plays out for viewers. MMA's status as an individual combat sport mitigates, in illuminating ways, the partisanship displayed so prominently among fans of team sports. We also examine the role of external attitudes – in both the betting subculture of MMA and purist attitudes toward individual combat sports and martial arts – in shaping MMA spectatorship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Combat-sport athletes commonly undergo rapid weight loss prior to prebout weigh-in and subsequently rapid weight gain (RWG) prior to competition. This investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of RWG and weight differential (WD) between opponents on competitive success. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was performed using data from professional mixed martial arts (MMA) and boxing events held between 2015 and 2019. The primary outcome was RWG (relative and absolute) between weigh-in and competition stratified by bout winners and losers. Binary logistic regression was used to explore the relationships among bout outcome, RWG, and WD between competitors on the day of their bout. Results: Among 708 MMA athletes included, winners regained more relative body mass (8.7% [3.7%] vs 7.9% [3.8%], P <.01) than losers. In 1392 included male boxers, winners regained significantly more relative body mass (8.0% [3.0%] vs 6.9% [3.2%], P <.01) than losers. Each percentage body mass increase resulted in a 7% increased likelihood of victory in MMA and a 13% increase in boxing. The relationship between RWG and competitive success remained significant in regional and male international MMA athletes, as well as boxers. WD predicted victory in international mixed martial artists and boxers. WD predicted victory by knockout or technical knockout in international MMA athletes and regional boxers. Conclusion: This analysis of combat-sport athletes indicates that RWG and WD influence competitive success. These findings raise fair-play and safety concerns in these popular sports and may help guide risk-mitigating regulation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article outlines the results of a study on the concept of “outsider” in English political and sports discourses. The concept’s domain was found to be based on such major subdomains as “foreigner”, “intruder”, and “outcast”. Nevertheless, it also includes some positive associations evoked when negative connotations of the term outsider are not emphasized. In fact, in politics, the lexeme outsider and the concept it captures are often linked to positive attributes. The obtained results are in line with those covering the phenomenon of (self-)marginalization within political rhetoric but appear not to be limited to it. In mixed martial arts discourse, the concept of “outsider” is also vague; yet, due to a growing interest in the triumphs of dark-horse contenders, it is regularly employed by communicators, i.e., athletes and sports commentators.

Medieval combat sport is a form of mixed martial art in which combatants engage in fighting using offensive and defensive equipment while dressed in full armor. The sport is considered extremely taxing, making it nearly impossible to maintain the same level of performance. However, this form of sport has not been thoroughly analyzed, and its impact on human physical response is largely unknown. To address this gap, the study reported here aimed to introduce and test a procedure for analyzing human physical responses within the framework of the sport. To accomplish this, two experienced combatants were asked to engage in a series of strikes, performed in the form of a set duel simulating a professional fight competition. The kinematic aspect of the procedure was examined using motion analysis with the help of an IMU suit, while the physiological aspect was evaluated based on blood lactate levels and heart rate measurements. Furthermore, an ergometer test conducted in a laboratory setting aimed to determine the lactate threshold. The duel results showed noticeable decreases in the kinematic aspects of the strikes, such as the velocity of impact, and a dramatic rise in physiological aspects, such as heart rate and blood lactate levels. During the duel sets, the blood lactate surpassed the threshold level, and at the end, the heart rate exceeded the maximum age-related level. Practicing medieval combat sport has been shown to impose an extreme physical load on the bodies of combatants, noticeably affecting their performance levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Athlete stature and armspan is anecdotally assumed to provide an advantage in mixed martial arts (MMA), despite an absence of supporting data. In contrast, winners of MMA bouts have been shown to be younger than bouts losers. Whilst absolute measurements of stature, armspan and armspan:stature scale (A:S) have been shown to not distinguish between winners and losers of MMA bouts, relative differences between competitors have not been analysed. This study aimed to analyse 5 years of athlete age and morphological data to replicate and expand previous studies to determine whether absolute and/or relative age and morphological variables effect winning and losing in MMA. MethodsandResults: Bayes factor (BF>3) inferential analyses conducted on the cohort overall (n = 2,229 professional bouts), each year sampled and each individual body mass division found that only absolute (winners = 29.8 ± 4 years; losers = 30.7 ± 4.2 years) and relative age (winners = 0.82 ± 5.3 years younger than losers) differentiates between winners and losers across the whole cohort, in 4 of the 5 years, and in 4 of the 13 divisions sampled. Armspan appears to provide an advantage in heavyweight only (winners = 198.4 ± 6.6cm; losers = 196.1 ± 7.7cm), with greater A:S being a disadvantage (winners = 1.003 ± 0.022cm∙cm−1; losers = 1.010 ± 0.023 cm∙cm−1) in women's strawweight only. No variables had any effect on how bouts were won. Conclusions: These results confirm previous reports that the effect of athlete morphology is greatly overstated in MMA, appearing to be irrelevant in most divisions. Bout winners tend to be younger than losers, particularly in divisions displaying more diverse skill requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Headguard use is appropriate during some combat sports activities where the risks of injury to the face and ears are elevated. Headguards are highly effective in reducing the incidence of facial lacerations in studies of amateur boxers and are just as effective in other striking sports. They should be used in scenarios – especially sparring prior to competitions – where avoidance of laceration and subsequent exposure to potential blood-borne pathogens is important. Headguards are appropriate where avoidance of auricular injury is deemed important; limited data show a marked reduction in incidence of auricular injury in wrestlers wearing headguards. Headguards should not be relied upon to reduce the risk of concussion or other traumatic brain injury. They have not been shown to prevent these types of injuries in combat sports or other sports, and human studies on the effect of headguards on concussive injury are lacking. While biomechanical studies suggest they reduce linear and rotational acceleration of the cranium, changes in athlete behavior to more risk-taking when wearing headguards may offset any risk reduction. In the absence of high-quality studies on headguard use, the Association of Ringside Physicians recommends that further research be conducted to clarify the role of headguards in all combat sports, at all ages of participation. Furthermore, in the absence of data on gender differences, policies should be standardized for men and women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combat sports held a prominent role in ancient Hellenic society for over half a millennium. This study focuses on the hand-strike techniques of the two combat arts that feature them: boxing and pankration. A comprehensive list of terminology has been compiled (for the first time) and includes 14 terms: seven generally related to boxing or hand strikes and seven primary techniques, all found in ancient text. In addition, 140 ancient Hellenic pottery subjects (ca. 600–300 BCE) depicting 218 instances of eight different hand strikes from athletic competitions have been compiled and analysed. The analysis includes counts of each technique, defensive countermeasures, and the stance variations of all combatants. The vases depict a distinct difference between the hand strikes of pankration and boxing, unique guards and defensive postures, and an astounding uniformity in the painting of the subtle, technical elements related to combat over a period of three centuries. Key findings of the pottery analysis show a predominately orthodox stance (80.13%), heightened popularity for hook (27.52% of strikes) and hammerfist (displayed on 37.86% of all vases) techniques, a high success rate of uppercuts (82.35%) and a significant number of ungloved open-hand strikes exclusive to pankration (25.75%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Trunk and shoulder strength are consistently shown to be involved in performance limitations, as well as contributing to stability, power output, and reducing the risk of injury. Although their biomechanical interaction is a critical aspect for athletes, there is limited research on the relationship between trunk and shoulder strength in sports where upper body mechanics are critical for optimal performance. Purpose: This study examined the differences and relationships between trunk rotational strength and shoulder rotational strength among athletes participating in mixed martial arts (MMA), tennis, swimming, and baseball. Methods: Maximal voluntary contraction tests were performed to evaluate strength of 39 professional adult male athletes from disciplines of MMA (n = 6), tennis (n = 11), swimming (n = 11) and baseball (n = 11). Peak force data were used in sports comparison and relationship analysis between trunk and shoulder rotation strength parameters. Results: The findings revealed a complex and significant relationship between trunk and shoulder strength, with unique patterns for each athletic discipline. Tennis players exhibited a strong correlation between trunk bilateral differences and internal shoulder rotation, while other disciplines demonstrated a more balanced use of trunk asymmetry. Swimmers displayed the best interactions between trunk and shoulder overall, emphasizing the aquatic environment's biomechanical demands. In MMA, the strongest correlation was between shoulder internal and external rotation with the trunk, mainly due to the number of defensive movements in addition to offensive ones. Baseball pitchers showed a significant correlation between internal/external shoulder rotation strength ratio and trunk asymmetry. Conclusion: While no differences in peak force variables were found, unique relationships between trunk and shoulder rotational performance were discovered. The results suggest a long-term sport-specific adaptation of the trunk-shoulder interaction in sports that require upper limb power movements. It seems, that the relationship between the various parameters of trunk and shoulder was influenced by the movement stereotype of each sport. Therefore, recognition of sport-specific interactions is critical to the development of effective training programs that enhance performance and potentially reduce injury risk in different sports. Researchers and practitioners should focus on longitudinally monitoring fluctuations in TRS and SRS relationships throughout each sport season and examining potential associations with injury incidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nicholas Dixon's Kantian argument for why mixed martial arts (MMA) is intrinsically immoral has received several critical responses. We offer an additional critical response. Unlike previous responses, ours does not rely on an interpretation of the categorical imperative that Dixon would find tendentious. Instead, we grant that Dixon's views about what makes other sports consistent with the categorical imperative are correct and argue from this assumption that MMA is also consistent with the categorical imperative. Our argument focuses on Dixon's claims about certain cycling tactics, which we call 'pain-leveraging cycling tactics'. We argue that MMA is consistent with the categorical imperative for the same sort of reasons that Dixon claims make pain-leveraging cycling tactics consistent with the categorical imperative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Voyeurism violates dominant moral codes in many societies. Yet, for a number of businesses, including erotic webcam, reality television, slum tourism, and mixed martial arts, voyeurism is an important part of value creation. The success of such businesses that violate dominant moral codes raises questions about value creation that existing theory in management cannot adequately answer. To help advance our understanding, we theorize howbusinesses commercializing voyeurismcreate value for audiences. Conceptualizing voyeurism as a social practice, we identify two dimensions of voyeurism— authenticity and transgression—that help create value by generating desirable emotional responses that facilitate a distinctive experience for audiences. However, we further argue that these same dimensions can also hinder value creation by generating undesirable emotional responses that may lead audiences to disengage fromthe practice. Accordingly, we contend that businesses’ ability to deliver value to audiences hinges on effective emotional optimization—efforts to reduce undesirable emotional responses by dampening the authenticity or transgression in the voyeuristic practice, while reinforcing the associated desirable emotional responses. We contribute to the literature by advancing a novel theory of the commercialization of voyeuristic practice. In doing so, we also enrich our understanding of both authenticity and transgression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise in popularity of combat sports has afforded fighters an enhanced celebrity status, especially across online platforms that provide fans the opportunity to engage with and discuss their favorite athletes. Given this growth, fighters' behaviors, both inside and outside of the arena, can have a strong influence on fans' consumption and social media activity. To evaluate this relationship, this study investigated the effect of combat sports fighters' trash talking on subsequent fans' behaviors by collecting and analyzing 516 fighter responses during prefight press conferences and 32,360 fan tweets on Twitter during Ultimate Fighting Championship events. Results demonstrated that fights featuring polarizing and popular athletes generated the highest pay-per-view numbers, and higher levels of profanity speech during trash talking were associated with higher engagement in pay-per-view consumption and Twitter usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) utilizes a unique pay-per-view (PPV) product distribution structure, and relies heavily on social media to promote its events. Yet, no research has examined how UFC fans' social media motivation influences their consumption. Using uses and gratifications theory and a mixed-method design, this study qualitatively explored the themes of UFC fans' social media motivations and identified five themes (i.e., information, convenience, social interaction, entertainment, and economic). Based on these themes, this study developed the Scale of Social Media Motivation through quantitative analyses and further investigated how Scale of Social Media Motivation factors would affect consumption behavior by incorporating fan identification as a mediator. The findings revealed that the factors were positively associated with purchase intentions when fan identification serves as a partial mediator. Discussions are focused on utilizing the social media motivation factors and nurturing fan identification to promote UFC consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distal rupture of the biceps brachii muscle tendon (DBT) accounts for 3% of biceps ruptures. Diagnosis typically relies on high clinical suspicion and complementary imaging studies, with >90% of cases documented in males between the fourth and sixth decades of life. Reports of DBT ruptures in females are scarce, mostly involving partial and degenerative injuries. Here, we present an unprecedented case of a 28-year-old female professional mixed martial arts athlete with a total traumatic DBT rupture. The athlete underwent surgical repair using anchor reattachment technique. No complications were observed, and the athlete showed satisfactory outcomes, being cleared for physiotherapy after 2 weeks and returning to sports after a 3-month postoperative period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to evaluate the immediate effects of a dry needling (DN) therapy session on biomechanical properties, muscle power, perfusion, and pressure pain threshold of the gastrocnemius muscle with latent trigger points. Twenty mixed martial arts athletes (MMA) were randomly divided into two groups: experimental (eDN, n = 10) and sham (qDN, n = 10) to undergo one session of DN either with a real or a qazi needle. The measurements were taken at rest, 1-5 minutes after the DN (Post1-5min) and 24h after the DN (Post24h). DN significantly increased the muscle perfusion (Post1-5min and Post24h, p < 0.001), reduced its tone (Post1-5min and Post24h, p < 0.001) and stiffness (Post1-5min, p < 0.05; Post24 h, p < 0.001), and improved its elasticity (Post1-5min and Post24h, p < 0.001). DN also caused a significant increase in pressure pain threshold (Post1-5min, p < 0.001; Post24h, p < 0.05) and in muscle power (Post24h, p < 0.01). The DN session increased the blood perfusion and improved the biomechanical properties of the gastrocnemius muscle, which led to improved muscle power. The DN also had an analgesic effect. These effects were maintained at 24 h, which suggests that DN could facilitate muscle recovery in a post-exercise period of MMA athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mixed martial arts (MMA) fighters use their arms and hands for striking with the fists, grappling, and defensive techniques, which puts a high load on the forearms and hand muscles. New methods are needed to decrease the risk of injury and increase the effectiveness of regeneration. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of cryo-compression (CC) therapy of different times (3 and 6 min) on forearm muscles in MMA fighters by investigating muscle pain, stiffness, tension, elasticity strength, and perfusion. Twenty professional male MMA fighters aged 26.5 ± 4.5 years, with training experience of 10.3 ± 5.0 years, were enrolled on an experimental within-group study design. The participants underwent CC therapy at a temperature of 3 °C and compression of 75 mmHg for 3 min and, in the second session, for 6 min. The investigated parameters were in the following order: (1) perfusion in non-reference units (PU), (2) muscle tone (T—[Hz]), (3) stiffness (S—[N/m]), (4) elasticity (E—[arb]), (5) pressure pain threshold (PPT—[N/cm]), and (6) maximum isometric force (Fmax [kgf]) at two time points: (1) at rest—2 min before CC therapy (pre) and (2) 2 min after CC therapy (post). There were significant differences between 3 and 6 min of CC therapy for PU and T. Meanwhile, F, E, PPT, and S were significantly different when comparing pre- to post-conditions. These results provide evidence that CC therapy is a stimulus that significantly affects parameters characterizing muscle biomechanical properties, pain threshold, strength, and tissue perfusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to explore the role emotions play in new sport emergence. A qualitative case study of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) was undertaken, with content analysis employed to identify emergent themes from an archival database of newspaper articles. Negative emotions were institutionalized into the discourse surrounding early MMA that hindered its legitimation; in order to legitimize the sport, discursive institutional work was undertaken by pro-MMA stakeholders to address existing negative emotions, and create positive new ones. Emotions play a crucial role in new sport emergence; therefore, institutional work aiming at legitimizing a new sport on cognitive grounds alone might be inadequate for the successful emergence of a new sport, without the specific emotion-focused institutional work to disrupt existing negative emotions, and create new positive emotions for the new sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study delves into the intricate details of MixedMartial Arts (MMA) by examining key variables such asmaximal oxygen uptake (VO2 peak), aerobic energy (EAER), anaerobic energy (EAN), and accumulated O2 deficit (DOA). By investigating associations and comparing athletes in the -61 kg bantamweight and -66 kg featherweight weight divisions, we aim to shed light on their physiological characteristics. The sample consisted of 20 male volunteers separated into two paired groups: ten athletes in the category up to 61 kg (age: 27.7 ± 5.9 years old, height: 170.9 ±3.4cm, bodymass: 72.8 ± 1.4 kg, fat percentage: 9.5% ± 3.0%, professional experience: 7.5 ± 7.1 years) and ten athletes up to 66 kg (age: 27.6 ± 2.9 years old, height: 176.0 ± 5.5 cm, body mass: 77.0 ± 1.5 kg, fat percentage: 7.85% ± 0.3%, professional experience: 5.5 ± 1.5 years). Remarkably, our findings revealed striking similarities between the twoweight divisions. Furthermore, we discovered a negative correlation between VO2 peak and the number of MMA fights, indicating a potential impact of professional experience on aerobic capacity (r = -0.65, p < 0.01). Additionally, the number of fights exhibited negative correlationswith anaerobic energy (r=-0.53, p < 0.05) and total energy cost (r =-0.54, p < 0.05). These results provide valuable insights for designing training programs in the context of MMA. While training both weight divisions together can be beneficial, it is equally crucial to incorporate specific weight-class-focused training to address each division's unique physical demands and requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kovacs Vase was first made known under scholars in Munich in 1996, but its origins and current owner are unknown. It could be shown that the pictorial scenes come from the Greek Pankration. It has now been proposed to date the Kovacs Vase to 400 AD. The successful fight of the alround-fighter Privatulus is shown in five scenes, with legends attached to the fight pictures describing the athletes in more detail. The inscriptions also indicate that it must have been an experienced and victorious all-fighter from the Green Circus Party (factiones). What is unusual is that the loser Victorinus is also mentioned by name, possibly also a successful fighter, over whom victory may have meant an outstanding achievement for Privatulus. All additions are written in a vulgar Latin that is similar to Proto-Romance and is difficult to understand. The overview and comparison of silver and non-ferrous metal jugs and vases from the 4th to 8th centuries shows that in the toreutics of this period both traditional forms and motifs have been present since the 4th century and new forms and decorative elements appear that clearly differ from the late Roman origins. The Kovacs Vase combines 'classic' shapes and motifs from the 6th century with innovative elements that indicate an independent, classicist development. It could be that it was made in a workshop in northern Italy. Although written sources mention gymnastic agones, no firmly dated images from the 5th century are known to date. Against this historical-archaeological background, the Kovacs Vase with its depictions and inscriptions is a unique testimony to Greek agonistics in late antiquity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plyometrics is a type of training that focuses on improving your muscles' ability to generate force and speed. In this research, a quasi-experimental study was carried out with 11 mixed martial arts athletes from an academy in Riobamba, Ecuador. Jump height, force, speed, power, contact time, and force and velocity profile were measured using the My Jump 2 mobile app. A plyometric training plan was developed and the same parameters were measured post-training. The results showed a significant increase in the strength, power and height of the athletes. It was concluded that guided plyometric training can significantly improve lower limb strength and strength in low, medium and high kicks. Plyometrics is a training method that can enhance the physical abilities of athletes regardless of the sport in which this method is used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High demands on the physical training are set before athletes-fighters engaged in professional MMA. Therefore, the development of new programs for the integrated development of strength and conditioning training in mixed martial arts is an urgent direction in the training process. Research aim: to experimentally substantiate and develop a training program aimed at developing strength and conditioning readiness for fights among professional MMA athletes. Materials and methods. 24 professional mixed martial arts fighters aged 26.1 ± 2.5 and with 8.4 ± 1.3 years of experience in this sport participated in the research. The athletes completed two different strength and conditioning training programs for 18 weeks. Group 1 (CG) studied according to the standard physical training methodology, group 2 (EG) studied according to the experimental program developed by us. In the program, the strength and conditioning training of professional mixed martial arts athletes is divided into two blocks - the off-season (preparatory period) and the training camp (competitive period). In the first block, the training program consisting of three consecutive mesocycles included exercises to develop aerobic ability, as well as maximum aerobic power and speed-strength qualities. The second block of the program incorporated specific plyometric, strength, and conditioning exercises, focusing on diverse barbell exercises bodyweight workouts. Rigorous assessments were conducted to evaluate athletes' strength, conditioning, physical performance, and technical and tactical preparedness. Results. Revealed a significant improvement in the experimental group's athletes compared to those in the control group across various indicators, including strength, conditioning abilities, physical performance, and technical and tactical qualities. Conclusions. The experimental program uses in professional mixed martial arts fighters revealed an increase in the values of strength endurance by 18% and maximum strength by 12%. A positive relationship between the characteristics of fighters' strength and conditioning training and technical and tactical indicators has been established. The fighters' activity increased by 19.9%, the technical and tactical actions effectiveness by 27.1%, the defensive actions reliability by 13.6%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been suggested that boxing glove design alters thumb position increasing the risk of injury. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of boxing glove design on thumb joint angles when making a fist. Ten experienced fighters participated in this study. A DEXA scan was used to produce an x-ray image of thumb position for all conditions (no gloves and 10-oz boxing gloves). Mean values for dependent measures were compared using a paired-sample T test and an alpha of 0.05. The carpometacarpal (CMC) joint angle was significantly different between no glove (14.1 ± 6.54°) and boxing glove (34.2 ± 7.60°) at p ≤ 0.001. The metacarpophalangeal (MP) joint angle was significantly different between no glove (132.6 ± 12.74°) and boxing glove (149.40 ± 8.15°) at p ≤ 0.001. The IP joint angle was not significantly different between no glove (135.50 ± 19.12°) and boxing glove (144.40 ± 17.39°) at p = 0.269. The perpendicular distance from the second metacarpal of the hand to the center of the MP joint was significantly different between no glove (0.48 ± 0.54 cm) and boxing glove (1.84 ± 0.29 cm) at p ≤ 0.001. Use of a boxing glove resulted in abduction of the thumb away from the hand and increased CMC and MP joint angles that were significantly different in relation to making a fist without a glove. Information from this study may provide insight into the high rate of thumb injury and provide insight for future boxing glove design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth in mixed martial arts (MMA) gyms worldwide, along with adjunct media discourse has been matched by the number of participants, characterized by the dedication and sacrifice imbued. These factors catalyzed this research which sought initially to understand the motivations of MMA gym members and the role that the training plays in their lives. Through an immersive participant ethnography lasting 3 years, the author trained, socialized, fought, and competed with members of an urban MMA gym in the United Kingdom. The findings focus on the subculture of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu existing within and alongside MMA and where men of diverse ages and creeds follow a path to improved mental health. Drawing from the salutogenic health model and the sociology of health literature, this paper shows that through membership of an MMA gym and dedication to Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, participants embody a version of health that is closely aligned with Antonovsky's theory of salutogenesis. This theory of health helps explain not only the dedication of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu practitioners and the growth of MMA more broadly but also posits a fresh perspective on the role of alternative physical activities in male mental health redress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The functioning of terms and professionalisms belonging to the thematic group of mixed mar- tial arts has not been sufficiently studied by modern linguistics, which makes the present study rele- vant. The purpose of the study is to investigate the functional features of the terms and professional- isms of mixed martial arts, using the methods of continuous sampling and comparative analysis. The article considers the use of various types of sports professionalisms in speech, describes the ex- amples demonstrating implementation of the functions of terms (nominative, significative, commu- nicative and cognitive) in texts of different orientation. The conclusion is that not all lexical units have the exact status due to the fact that mixed martial arts as a sphere of functioning of these lexi- cal units is still relatively young.

This study aimed to explore the technical variability index considering different years and technical expertise profiles in high-level MMA athletes. 44 fights from UFC and Pride's events, and also taken from public websites, were analyzed. These videos were purposely chosen considering the official MMA fighting years of the 1990s, the 2000s, 2010s, and the 2020s. In addition, a comparative analysis was performed considering grapplers and strikers MMA athletes. The variability index was measured based on the attack variability, kicks per knockout, punches per knockouts, groundwork transition to knockouts, and index of qualitative variation (IQV). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey post hoc test were used to compare the variability index of MMA athletes between different years and the Student T test t test was used for comparison according to the grapplers and strikers with the level at significance at 5%. The main results demonstrated a difference for IQV, higher in the 2020s compared to 2010 (p = 0.019) and kick per knockouts and punches per knockouts for strikers compared to the grappling groups (p = 0.047, p = 0.032 respectively). Based on these results, we concluded that technical variability in MMA can change over the years and the strikers' group have a higher punch and kick variability actions compared to the grapplers, due to the profile of the fight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]