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Background: The association between maternal smoking in pregnancy and offspring intellectual disability (ID) is less well understood than that of smoking and fetal growth restriction. As fetal growth and cognitive development may share similar confounding structures, comparison of the two associations may improve understanding of the causal nature of the association with ID. Furthermore, comparisons of smoking with smokeless tobacco use may aid identification of mechanisms of action.Methods: This was a cohort study of all Swedish births between 1999 and 2012 (n = 1 070 013), with prospectively recorded data. We assessed the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring outcomes ID and born small for gestational age (SGA). Analyses were repeated for snus use in pregnancy. Using a sibling design, we estimated within-family effects that control for shared sibling characteristics.Results: Those exposed to maternal smoking in pregnancy had increased odds of ID [odds ratio (OR) = 1.24, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.16-1.33] and SGA (OR = 2.19, 95% CI: 2.11-2.27) after confounder adjustment. Within-family effects were found for SGA (OR = 1.44, 95% CI: 1.27-1.63) but not ID (OR = 0.92, 95% CI: 0.74-1.14). For snus use, the results for ID were similar to smoking. We found increased odds of offspring SGA among mothers who used snus in pregnancy in sensitivity analyses but not in primary analyses.Conclusions: Our findings are consistent with a causal effect of maternal smoking in pregnancy on risk of offspring born SGA but not on risk of ID. We found no evidence for a causal effect of snus use in pregnancy on ID and inconclusive evidence for SGA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies indicate that the increasing educational level in many post-industrial nations may imply that subgroups of the population work in occupations for which they are overeducated. We aimed to investigate whether overeducation is associated with future self-rated health and psychological distress. The analytical sample consisted of 21,159 participants from the Stockholm Public Health Cohort. Individuals with upper secondary or university education, who in 2006 or 2007 had occupations requiring less education, were considered overeducated. The outcomes were self-rated health ( SRH) and psychological distress in 2010. Overeducated women had an increased risk of less than good SRH, compared to university-educated women in matching occupations (adjusted odds ratios ( OR): 2.44 confidence intervals ( CI): 1.32-4.51 for overeducated women with secondary school education), but not compared to less educated women in the same occupational class (adjusted OR: 0.87 CI:0.32-2.38 for overeducated women with secondary school education). We found no increased risk of less than good SRH for overeducated men, and no association between overeducation and psychological distress for either sex. The results indicate that overeducation is not per se associated with onset of less than good SRH or psychological distress in a short-term perspective, and the findings support education expansion as a means of improving public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a record-linkage study in Stockholm, Sweden, the year 2011 prevalence of diagnosed autism spectrum disorders (ASD) was found to be 0.40, 1.74, 2.46, and 1.76 % among 0-5, 6-12, 13-17, and 18-27 year olds, respectively. The corresponding proportion of cases with a recorded diagnosis of intellectual disability was 17.4, 22.1, 26.1 and 29.4 %. Between 2001 and 2011, ASD prevalence increased almost 3.5 fold among children aged 2-17 years. The increase was mainly accounted for by an eightfold increase of ASD without intellectual disability (from 0.14 to 1.10 %), while the prevalence of ASD with intellectual disability increased only slightly (from 0.28 to 0.34 %). The increase in ASD prevalence is likely contributed to by extrinsic factors such as increased awareness and diagnostics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Self‐harm among young autistic individuals is a clinical challenge, and the risk of premature death by suicide is strongly increased in this group. Using the advantage of total‐population and family‐based data, we investigated whether autism per se is a risk factor for self‐harm independently of psychiatric comorbidities and how it differs from self‐harm in non‐autistic individuals. Methods: We used The Stockholm Youth Cohort, a total‐population register study, including all residents in Stockholm County aged 0–17 years between 2001 and 2011.Study participants were followed from age 10 to 27 for hospital admissions because of self‐harm. We used modified Poisson regression to calculate relative risks (RR) using robust standard error to derive 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results: In all, 410,732 individuals were included in the cohort (9,070 with a diagnosis of autism). Autistic individuals had a fivefold increased adjusted relative risk of self‐harm (RR 5.0 [95% CI 4.4–5.6]). The risk increase was more pronounced for autism without intellectual disability and particularly high for self‐cutting 10.2 [7.1–14.7] and more violent methods 8.9 [5.2–15.4]. The association between autism and self‐harm was independent of, but clearly exacerbated by comorbid psychiatric conditions. It was of similar magnitude as risks linked to these conditions per se, and not explained by shared familial factors. Conclusion: Self‐harm severe enough to present to medical services is as common in autistic youth as in those with depression or ADHD. Potentially more lethal methods are more likely to be used of autistic self‐harmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines how gender equality during early parenthood (1988-1991) associates with alcohol-related inpatient care or mortality (1992-2006). We categorised all Swedish couples having had a first child together in 1988-1989 (N=118 595) as traditional, or gender equal, or untraditional based on income and occupational position (bread-winning indicators), parental leave and temporary child care (child-care indicators). Overall, traditional women run lower risk, whereas traditional men and untraditional women (those opposing the traditional division of parenthood responsibilities) run higher risks of alcohol harm than their gender-equal counterparts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the current condition of the filial responsibility laws in the U.S. It focuses on the Constitutionality of filial responsibility statutes with the landmark case Swoap v. Superior Court of Sacramento County, which serves as an example of the legality of such statutes. It explores the typical ways for children to avoid filial responsibility for their parents including the lack of economic means to support their parents, if the children can prove their parents' abandonment on them, and failure of the parents to provide financial support for their child. It comments that the government has enacted statutes requiring children to provide support for their indigent elderly basing mainly on the filial relationship between parent and child.

Abstract: This study examines associations between indicators of gender equality and public health. We compare Swedish municipalities on nine indicators in both the private and public sphere, and an additive index, and study the correlations with indicators of morbidity and mortality. The hypothesis that a higher level of gender equality is associated with a convergence of health outcomes (life expectancy, sickness absence) between men and women was supported for equality of part-time employment, managerial positions and economic resources for morbidity, and for temporary parental leave for mortality. Our main finding is that gender equality was generally correlated with poorer health for both men and women. Our conclusions are tentative due to the methodological uncertainties. However, the results suggest an unfortunate trade-off between gender equality as we know it and public health. Sweden may have reached a critical point where further one-sided expansion by women into traditionally male roles, spheres and activities will not lead to positive health effects unless men also significantly alter their behaviour. Negative effects of this unfinished equality might be found both for women, who have become more burdened, and men, who as a group have lost many of their old privileges. We propose that this contention be confronted and discussed by policymakers, researchers and others. Further studies are also needed to corroborate or dispute these findings. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aims: This study was undertaken to examine the association between short stature and acute non-fatal myocardial infarction and to analyse causal mechanisms related to height with a focus on childhood risk factors. Method: The SHEEP (Stockholm Heart Epidemiology Program) is a population-based case-referent study. The outcome was incident first events of myocardial infarction. The study base included all Swedish citizens aged 45 to 70, who lived in Stockholm County during 1992-94. This analysis is based on 967 male cases, 412 female cases and 1696 referents. Exposure information was obtained through questionnaires, interviews, health examinations, and obstetric records. Results: Adult height was inversely related to myocardial infarction. The odds ratio for men in the shortest quartile (<173 cm) compared with the tallest was 1.78 (95% CI: 1.39, 2.28). For women the corresponding odds ratio in the shortest quartile (<159 cm) was 1.86 (95% CI: 1.28, 2.71). Height was also inversely associated with fetal growth and indicators of material resources during childhood. Within each social class of origin short stature was associated with number of siblings, lack of higher education, and absence of upward social mobility. Adjustment for childhood risk factors decreased the excess relative risk of short stature with around 25%. Adult social, behavioural, and biological risk factors could not explain the association. The findings were similar for men and women. Conclusion: Height is associated with many risk factors of myocardial infarction, which increase the risk of disease through many different causal pathways. Childhood exposures have no dominant role in explaining the association between short stature and myocardial infarction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the role of peer review organizations within the United States health care system. Indepth look at the challenges faced by the Health Care Financing Administration's (HCFA) Health Care Quality Improvement Initiative; Reference to the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1986; Objectives of the initiative.

Aims: Worldwide, smokeless-tobacco use is a major risk factor for oral cancer. Evidence regarding the particular association between Swedish snus use and oral cancer is, however, less clear. We used pooled individual data from the Swedish Collaboration on Health Effects of Snus Use to assess the association between snus use and oral cancer. Methods: A total of 418,369 male participants from nine cohort studies were followed up for oral cancer incidence through linkage to health registers. We used shared frailty models with random effects at the study level, to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) adjusted for confounding factors. Results: During 9,201,647 person-years of observation, 628 men developed oral cancer. Compared to never-snus use, ever-snus use was not associated with oral cancer (adjusted HR 0.90, 95% CI: 0.74, 1.09). There were no clear trends in risk with duration or intensity of snus use, although lower intensity use (⩽ 4 cans/week) was associated with a reduced risk (HR 0.65, 95% CI: 0.45, 0.94). Snus use was not associated with oral cancer among never smokers (HR 0.87, 95% CI: 0.57, 1.32). Conclusions: Swedish snus use does not appear to be implicated in the development of oral cancer in men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The relationship between statin treatment and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality has been discussed due to the pleiotropic effects of statins on coagulation and immune mechanisms. However, available observational studies are hampered by study design flaws, resulting in substantial heterogeneity and ambiguities. Here, we aim to determine the relationship between statin treatment and COVID-19 mortality. Methods and findings: This cohort study included all Stockholm residents aged 45 or older (N = 963,876), followed up from 1 March 2020 until 11 November 2020. The exposure was statin treatment initiated before the COVID-19-pandemic, defined as recorded statin dispensation in the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register between 1 March 2019 and 29 February 2020. COVID-19-specific mortality was ascertained from the Swedish Cause of Death Registry. Hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated using multivariable Cox regression models. We further performed a target trial emulation restricted to initiators of statins. In the cohort (51.6% female), 169,642 individuals (17.6%) were statin users. Statin users were older (71.0 versus 58.0 years), more likely to be male (53.3% versus 46.7%), more often diagnosed with comorbidities (for example, ischemic heart disease 23.3% versus 1.6%), more frequently on anticoagulant and antihypertensive treatments, less likely to have a university-level education (34.5% versus 45.4%), and more likely to have a low disposable income (20.6% versus 25.2%), but less likely to reside in crowded housing (6.1% versus 10.3%). A total of 2,545 individuals died from COVID-19 during follow-up, including 765 (0.5%) of the statin users and 1,780 (0.2%) of the nonusers. Statin treatment was associated with a lowered COVID-19 mortality (adjusted HR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.79 to 0.97, P = 0.01), and this association did not vary appreciably across age groups, sexes, or COVID-19 risk groups. The confounder adjusted HR for statin treatment initiators was 0.78 (95% CI, 0.59 to 1.05, P = 0.10) in the emulated target trial. Limitations of this study include the observational design, reliance on dispensation data, and the inability to study specific drug regimens. Conclusions: Statin treatment had a modest negative association with COVID-19 mortality. While this finding needs confirmation from randomized clinical trials, it supports the continued use of statin treatment for medical prevention according to current recommendations also during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this cohort study, Rita Bergqvist and colleagues investigate the relationship between statin treatment and COVID-19 mortality. Author summary: Why was this study done?: Lipid-lowering HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) may influence Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality via their pleiotropic effects on coagulation and the immune system. Previous studies on this topic have been inconsistent, so we performed a population-based cohort study to investigate the relationship between statins and COVID-19 mortality. What did the researchers do and find?: Using data from Swedish health registers, a cohort of 963,876 residents of Stockholm, Sweden, were followed from 1 March 2020 until 11 November 2020. Prescription dispensation data were matched to healthcare data and the Swedish Cause of Death Registry and analyzed using multivariable cause-specific survival analysis. Statin treatment was associated with a moderately lower risk of COVID-19 mortality (hazard ratio (HR), 0.88; 95% CI, 0.79 to 0.97), after accounting for a series of preexisting health conditions and other factors. The association was corroborated by sensitivity analyses and did not vary substantially across risk groups. What do these findings mean?: These findings suggest that statin treatment may have a modest preventive therapeutic effect on COVID-19 mortality, although randomized trials are needed to determine the causality of the observed association. In summary, the findings support the continued use of statins for conditions such as cardiovascular disease and hyperlipidemia, in line with current recommendations, during the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Psychiatric comorbidities are common in patients with epilepsy. Reasons for the co-occurrence of psychiatric conditions and epilepsy remain poorly understood. Aim We aimed to triangulate the relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric conditions to determine the extent and possible origins of these conditions. Methods Using nationwide Swedish health registries, we quantified the lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders in patients with epilepsy. We then used summary data from genome-wide association studies to investigate whether the identified observational associations could be attributed to a shared underlying genetic aetiology using cross-trait linkage disequilibrium score regression. Finally, we assessed the potential bidirectional relationships using two-sample Mendelian randomisation. Results In a cohort of 7 628 495 individuals, we found that almost half of the 94 435 individuals diagnosed with epilepsy were also diagnosed with a psychiatric condition in their lifetime (adjusted lifetime prevalence, 44.09%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 43.78% to 44.39%). We found evidence for a genetic correlation between epilepsy and some neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. For example, we observed a genetic correlation between epilepsy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (rg=0.18, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.27, p<0.001)--a correlation that was more pronounced in focal epilepsy (rg=0.23, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.36, p<0.001). Findings from Mendelian randomisation using common genetic variants did not support bidirectional effects between epilepsy and neurodevelopmental or psychiatric conditions. Conclusions Psychiatric comorbidities are common in patients with epilepsy. Genetic correlations may partially explain some comorbidities; however, there is little evidence of a bidirectional relationship between the genetic liability of epilepsy and psychiatric conditions. These findings highlight the need to understand the role of environmental factors or rare genetic variations in the origins of psychiatric comorbidities in epilepsy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Although smoking is considered to be an established risk factor for colorectal cancer, the current evidence on the association between smokeless tobacco and colorectal cancer is scant and inconclusive. We used pooled individual data from the Swedish Collaboration on Health Effects of Snus Use to assess this association. Methods: A total of 417,872 male participants from nine cohort studies across Sweden were followed up for incidence of colorectal cancer and death. Outcomes were ascertained through linkage to health registers. We used shared frailty models with random effects at the study level to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results: During 7,135,504 person-years of observation, 4170 men developed colorectal cancer. There was no clear association between snus use and colorectal cancer overall. Exclusive current snus users, however, had an increased risk of rectal cancer (HR 1.40: 95% CI 1.09, 1.79). There were no statistically significant associations between snus use and either all-cause or colorectal cancer-specific mortality after colorectal cancer diagnosis. Conclusions: Our findings, from a large sample, do not support any strong relationships between snus use and colorectal cancer risk and survival among men. However, the observed increased risk of rectal cancer is noteworthy, and in merit of further attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The objectives of this study were to examine the independent and dependent associations of maternal and paternal age and risk of offspring autism spectrum disorders (ASD), with and without intellectual disability (ID).Methods: The sample consisted of 417 303 Swedish children born 1984–2003. ASD case status (N = 4746) was ascertained using national and regional registers. Smoothing splines in generalized additive models were used to estimate associations of parental age with ASD.Results: Whereas advancing parental age increased the risk of child ASD, maternal age effects were non-linear and paternal age effects were linear. Compared with mothers at the median age 29 years, those <29 had similar risk, whereas risk increased after age 30, with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.75 [95% (CI): 1.63–1.89] at ages 40–45. For fathers, compared with the median age of 32 years, the OR for ages 55–59 was 1.39 (1.29–1.50). The risk of ASD was greater for older mothers as compared with older fathers. For example, mothers aged 40–45 (&geq;97.2th percentile) had an estimated 18.63 (95% CI: 17.25–20.01) ASD cases per 1000 births, whereas fathers aged 55–59 (&geq;99.7th percentile) had 16.35 (95% CI: 15.11–17.58) ASD cases per 1000 births. In analyses stratified by co-parental age, increased risk due to advancing paternal age was evident only with mothers &leq;35 years. In contrast, advancing maternal age increased risk regardless of paternal age. Advancing parental age was more strongly associated with ASD with ID, compared with ASD without ID.Conclusions: We confirm prior findings that advancing parental age increases risk of ASD, particularly for ASD with ID, in a manner dependent on co-parental age. Although recent attention has emphasized the effects of older fathers on ASD risk, an increase of n years in maternal age has greater implications for ASD risk than a similar increase in paternal age. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: The relationship between statin treatment and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality has been discussed due to the pleiotropic effects of statins on coagulation and immune mechanisms. However, available observational studies are hampered by study design flaws, resulting in substantial heterogeneity and ambiguities. Here, we aim to determine the relationship between statin treatment and COVID-19 mortality.Methods and Findings: This cohort study included all Stockholm residents aged 45 or older (N = 963,876), followed up from 1 March 2020 until 11 November 2020. The exposure was statin treatment initiated before the COVID-19-pandemic, defined as recorded statin dispensation in the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register between 1 March 2019 and 29 February 2020. COVID-19-specific mortality was ascertained from the Swedish Cause of Death Registry. Hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated using multivariable Cox regression models. We further performed a target trial emulation restricted to initiators of statins. In the cohort (51.6% female), 169,642 individuals (17.6%) were statin users. Statin users were older (71.0 versus 58.0 years), more likely to be male (53.3% versus 46.7%), more often diagnosed with comorbidities (for example, ischemic heart disease 23.3% versus 1.6%), more frequently on anticoagulant and antihypertensive treatments, less likely to have a university-level education (34.5% versus 45.4%), and more likely to have a low disposable income (20.6% versus 25.2%), but less likely to reside in crowded housing (6.1% versus 10.3%). A total of 2,545 individuals died from COVID-19 during follow-up, including 765 (0.5%) of the statin users and 1,780 (0.2%) of the nonusers. Statin treatment was associated with a lowered COVID-19 mortality (adjusted HR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.79 to 0.97, P = 0.01), and this association did not vary appreciably across age groups, sexes, or COVID-19 risk groups. The confounder adjusted HR for statin treatment initiators was 0.78 (95% CI, 0.59 to 1.05, P = 0.10) in the emulated target trial. Limitations of this study include the observational design, reliance on dispensation data, and the inability to study specific drug regimens.Conclusions: Statin treatment had a modest negative association with COVID-19 mortality. While this finding needs confirmation from randomized clinical trials, it supports the continued use of statin treatment for medical prevention according to current recommendations also during the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate whether parental migration, parental region of origin, timing of child's birth in relation to maternal migration and parental reason for migration are associated with intellectual disability (ID) with and without autism. Methods: We used a register‐based cohort of all individuals aged 0–17 years in Stockholm County during 2001–2011. General estimating equation logistic model and additionally sibling comparison were used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The models were adjusted for child's sex and birth year and parental age at child's birth, and additionally for migrant‐specific variables in the analyses including only children with migrant parent(s). Results: Within the eligible sample of 670,098 individuals, 3781 (0.6%) had ID with autism, and 5076 (0.8%) had ID without autism. Compared with children with Swedish‐born parents, children with both parents born abroad had an increased risk of ID with autism (OR = 1.6, CI 1.5–1.8) and ID without autism (OR = 1.9, CI 1.7–2.0). Among these children with both parents born abroad, it was protective of ID with autism when the child's birth occurred before and later than four years after maternal migration, which was replicated in the sibling comparison. The associations with both conditions were more pronounced with parental origin in regions comprising low‐ and middle‐income countries and with reasons other than work or study. Conclusions: Parental migration is associated with ID regardless of co‐occurrence of autism. Our results indicate an association between environmental factors during pregnancy related to migration and offspring ID with autism, although further confirmative studies are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In 1974, Sweden became the first country to permit fathers to take paid parental leave. Other countries are currently following suit issuing similar laws. While this reform supports the principles of the United Nations convention of the right for children to be with both parents and enshrines the ethos of gender equality, there has been little systematic examination of its potential impact on child health. Instead, there is uninformed debate that fathers may expose their children to greater risks of injury than mothers. In this Swedish national study, the authors therefore assess whether fathers' parental leave can be regarded as a more serious risk factor for child injuries than that of mothers. Methods: Nationwide register-based ecological and longitudinal studies of hospitalisation due to injury (and intoxication) in early childhood, involving the Swedish population in 1973--2009 (ecological design), and children born in 1988 and 1989 (n=118 278) (longitudinal design). Results: An increase in fathers' share of parental leave over time was parallelled by a downward trend in child injury rates (age 0--4 years). At the individual level, the crude incidence of child injury (age 0--2 years) was lower during paternity as compared with maternity leave. This association was, however, explained by parental socio-demographic characteristics (multivariate HR 0.96, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.2). Conclusion: There is no support for the notion that paternity leave increases the risk of child injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Common mental disorders are known to cause long-term disability, although not much is known about long-term consequences of milder forms of psychological distress. Objective To investigate the association between increasing levels of psychological distress and 5-year risk of long-term disability pensions awarded for somatic or psychiatric conditions. Methods In this longitudinal population-based study, a cohort of 17 205 individuals, aged 18-64 years, recruited in 2002 in Stockholm County was prospectively followed up for new disability pension awards. The 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) was used to measure baseline psychological distress, and participants were categorised as having no, mild, moderate or severe psychological distress (GHQ-12 scores of 0; 1-2; 3-7 and 8-12, respectively). Details of new disability pension awards were obtained through record linkage with the Swedish National Insurance register. Comprehensive information on a range of sociodemographic, lifestyle and health characteristics was available. Results Increasing levels of psychological distress at baseline were associated with an increased likelihood of obtaining a disability pension later in life. Even mild psychological distress was independently associated with the award of a disability pension for both somatic (HR=1.7; 95% CI 1.3 to 2.2) and psychiatric diagnoses (2.2; 1.4 to 3.6). Over a quarter of disability pensions awarded for a somatic diagnosis, and almost two-thirds awarded for a psychiatric diagnosis, could be attributed to psychological distress. Conclusions Mild psychological distress may be associated with more long-term disability than previously acknowledged and its public health importance may be underestimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: Epidemiological studies in the United States consistently find autism spectrum disorders (ASD) to be overrepresented in high socioeconomic status (SES) families. These findings starkly contrast with SES gradients of many health conditions, and may result from SES inequalities in access to services. We hypothesized that prenatal measures of low, not high, parental SES would be associated with an increased risk of offspring ASD, once biases in case ascertainment are minimized. METHOD: We tested this hypothesis in a population-based study in Sweden, a country that has free universal healthcare, routine screening for developmental problems, and thorough protocols for diagnoses of ASD. In a case-control study nested in a total population cohort of children aged 0 to 17 years living in Stockholm County between 2001 and 2007 (N = 589,114), we matched ASD cases (n = 4,709) by age and sex to 10 randomly selected controls. We retrieved parental SES measures collected at time of birth by record linkage. RESULTS: Children of families with lower income, and of parents with manual occupations (OR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.3-1.6) were at higher risk of ASD. No important relationships with parental education were observed. These associations were present after accounting for parental ages, migration status, parity, psychiatric service use, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and birth characteristics; and regardless of comorbid intellectual disability. CONCLUSIONS: Lower, not higher, socioeconomic status was associated with an increased risk of ASD. Studies finding the opposite may be underestimating the burden of ASD in lower SES groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Neck pain is very common but the occurrence of bothersome neck pain is not well described. Therefore our objective was to report on the prevalence and incidence of, as well as the rate of recovery from, bothersome neck pain in men and women of different ages in the general population. Methods: We used data from a recently conducted population-based cohort study, comprising 23,794 individuals in Stockholm County, Sweden. Study participants were surveyed with a self-administered questionnaire in 2002/2003 and 2007, and information on episodes of neck pain was gathered at baseline and at follow-up. We then measured bothersome neck pain in 2005 and 2006 retrospectively in 2007 using the follow-up questionnaire. Results: The one-year prevalence of bothersome neck pain for at least seven consecutive days was 25%(95% confidence interval (CI): 24-25) among women and 16% (95% CI: 15-16) among men, peaking in individuals aged 30-59 years. The one-year incidence proportion of bothersome neck pain was 7% (95% CI: 6-7) among women, and 4% (95% CI: 4-5) among men. Women recovered more infrequently than men. The one-year incidence proportion of recovery (of at least one year duration) was 11% (95% CI: 10-12) among women and 14% (95% CI: 12-16) among men. Conclusion: Bothersome neck pain is most common in middle-aged individuals. Women are more likely than men to have and to develop bothersome neck pain, and less likely to recover from such pain. Younger men and women have a higher incidence, but recover more often from bothersome neck pain than older individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: There is limited evidence whether the association between low socioeconomic status and risk of common mental disorders varies with symptom severity, type of socioeconomic indicator or gender. Methods: A population-based survey was conducted among a random sample of Stockholm County residents aged 18–84years in 2002. Respondents were reassessed via a follow-up questionnaire in 2007. Participants in both surveys (n=23794) were categorized according to socioeconomic status at baseline and followed up for onset of psychological distress (according to the twelve-item general health questionnaire) and depression (according to health data registers). Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results: Occupational class was not associated with risk of psychological distress, regardless of severity or gender. Occupational class was strongly associated with onset of depression in men (OR 3.0 [95% CI 1.5–5.9], comparing unskilled manual workers with higher non-manual workers) but not women. Income was associated with risk of onset of all outcomes, and risks increased with symptom severity. Belonging to the highest household income category was particularly protective of depression in women. Education was unrelated to either outcome in men and women overall. Limitations: Retention rate at follow-up was 76% and depression was ascertained via health service use. Conclusion: Low socioeconomic position is associated with onset of depression but not mild distress. Attributes of occupational class and household income may be respectively more relevant for the development of depression in men and women. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT • Drug–drug interactions (DDIs) may have a profound impact on the individual drug response, for instance by reducing the clearance of involved drugs and thereby causing adverse drug reactions at supratherapeutic drug exposure. • In specific cases, such a risk with specific drug combinations is stated in the drug label, including specific recommendations on the choice of drug and/or dose. • Less frequently, DDIs that reduce the drug effectiveness may have been recognized as well. • The clinical adherence to these recommendations is today unknown. WHAT THIS ADDS • The results from this study on specific drug combinations related to cytochrome P450-dependent drug metabolism indicate that Swedish doctors avoid prescribing strong inhibitors of drug metabolism together with drugs at risk of accumulation and exposure-dependent adverse drug reactions. • However, ‘silent’ DDIs that impact on effectiveness appear to be neglected, pointing out an area for continued medical education of drug prescribers about such DDIs. AIMS The study aimed to investigate the clinical adherence to drug label recommendations on important drug–drug interactions (DDIs). Dispensing data on drug combinations involving selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants could help to identify areas for intensified medical education. METHODS This was a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of individual dispensing data regarding all individuals ≥15 years old in Sweden. The study analysed the prescribing and dispensing of CYP2D6 drugs (metoprolol, donepezil, galantamine, codeine, tamoxifen) together with CYP2D6-blocking SSRIs (paroxetine/fluoxetine) or SSRIs without significant CYP2D6 inhibition (citalopram/escitalopram/sertraline), and the related prescribing of CYP2D6-independent comparator drugs (atenolol, rivastigmine, propoxyphene, anastrozole). Odds were calculated between each CYP2D6 drug and the corresponding comparator drug in patients on fluoxetine/paroxetine and citalopram/escitalopram/sertraline, respectively. The odds ratio (OR) was calculated by dividing the obtained odds in patients on fluoxetine/paroxetine by the corresponding odds in patients on citalopram/escitalopram/sertraline. RESULTS Compared with patients that were dispensed citalopram/escitalopram/sertraline, patients dispensed fluoxetine/paroxetine had lower prescribing rates of metoprolol (adjusted OR 0.80; 95% confidence interval 0.76, 0.85), donepezil (0.65; 0.49, 0.86) and galantamine (0.58; 0.41, 0.81). In contrast, the use of prodrugs codeine (compared woth propoxyphene) or tamoxifen (compared with anastrozole) was similar among patients on fluoxetine/paroxetine and citalopram/escitalopram/sertraline (adjusted OR 1.03; 0.94, 1.12 and 1.29; 0.96, 1.73, respectively). CONCLUSIONS Clinically important DDIs that are associated with impaired bioactivation of prodrugs might be more easily neglected in clinical practice compared with DDIs that cause drug accumulation and symptomatic adverse drug reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study objective: Examine the relation between aspects of gender equality and population health based on the premise that sex differences in health are mainly caused by the gender system. Setting/participants: All Swedish couples (98 240 people) who had their first child together in 1978. Design: The exposure of gender equality is shown by the parents' division of income and occupational position (public sphere), and parental leave and temporary child care (domestic sphere). People were classified by these indicators during 1978–1980 into different categories; those on an equal footing with their partner and those who were traditionally or untraditionally unequal. Health is measured by the outcomes of death during 1981–2001 and sickness absence during 1986–2000. Data are obtained by linking individual information from various national sources. The statistical method used is multiple logistic regressions with odds ratios as estimates of relative risks. Main results: From the public sphere is shown that traditionally unequal women have decreased health risks compared with equal women, while traditionally unequal men tend to have increased health risks compared with equal men. From the domestic sphere is indicated that both women and men run higher risks of death and sickness when being traditionally unequal compared with equal. Conclusions: Understanding the relation between gender equality and health, which was found to depend on sex, life sphere, and inequality type, seems to require a combination of the hypotheses of convergence, stress and expansion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Sex differences in health, and the reality of a gender system, are well-known, but we know little about how this connects to opinions on fairness and desired change. This study aims to explore two principal questions: how to compare the position of women and men within-state and how to choose between-states, where a state is defined as a situation in which individuals have a particular set of resources, rights and duties, and if components in the set are altered, a new state for the same individuals appears. Based on various normative rules (monistic view or separate spheres, equity as choice or ethics of care, equity by attainment or shortfall; variants of welfarism, feminism and conservatism), a survey among Swedish public health workers was carried out. The results demonstrate a major rejection of the idea of compensation between health, power, influence and resources, and of considering past processes when judging fairness as to women and men. Moreover, most respondents believe that a biologically based difference in health is fair and reject health maximization as a guiding principle. The support for gender equality is strong when contrasted with the conservative goal, and subsists when contrasted against the Pareto criterion and trading-off health/income as well. Results that call for additional research and exchange of views include that common notions in research and policy-making are rejected by a majority, and that females and males differ considerably when judging change from a societal perspective. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Alcohol problems can increase the risk of downward mobility within, or mobility out of, the workforce. The magnitude of this risk has been unclear, as has also been the question whether the risk is different for men and women, for different socio-economic classes, and for single-living compared with co-habiting people. Methods: The study period was 1970-1980, when unemployment was low in Sweden. Information about socio-economic status from censuses was linked to hospitalization for alcoholism, alcohol psychosis and alcohol intoxication (AAA) over the period 1970-1975 in Stockholm County in persons aged 20-49 years in 1970 and gainfully employed in the same socio-economic category in both 1970 and 1975, and to general population data. The standardized rate ratio for mobility out of the workforce and for downward socio-economic mobility was calculated for those hospitalized with AAA. Results: There was a statistically significant risk of mobility out of the workforce over the period 1976-1980 in both sexes and in all socio-economic groups. The relative risk was 6.63 for male skilled and semi-skilled manual workers and 9.52 for non-manual employees at medium and high level, while the corresponding figures were lower for women. The absolute risk of leaving the workforce was lowest in non-manual employees at medium and high level. The relative risk was reduced in persons who were co-habiting. Conclusions: Severe alcohol problems are powerful determinants of downward mobility within, or mobility out of, the workforce in both sexes and in all socio-economic categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The health consequences of the use of Swedish snus, including its relationship with mortality, have not been fully established. We investigated the relationship between snus use and all-cause and cause-specific mortality (death due to cardiovascular diseases, cancer diseases and all other reasons, respectively) in a nationwide collaborative pooling project.Methods: We followed 169 103 never-smoking men from eight Swedish cohort studies, recruited in 1978-2010. Shared frailty models with random effects at the study level were used in order to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of mortality associated with snus use.Results: Exclusive current snus users had an increased risk of all-cause mortality (aHR 1.28, 95% CI 1.20-1.35), cardiovascular mortality (aHR 1.27, 95% CI 1.15-1.41) and other cause mortality (aHR 1.37, 95% CI 1.24-1.52) compared with never-users of tobacco. The risk of cancer mortality was also increased (aHR 1.12, 95% CI 1.00-1.26). These mortality risks increased with duration of snus use, but not with weekly amount.Conclusions: Snus use among men is associated with increased all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, with death from other causes and possibly with increased cancer mortality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anxiety is common in children with ASD; however, the burden of specific anxiety disorders for adults with ASD is under-researched. Using the Stockholm Youth Cohort, we compared anxiety disorder diagnoses among autistic adults (n = 4049), with or without intellectual disability, and population controls (n = 217,645). We conducted additional sibling analyses. Anxiety disorders were diagnosed in 20.1% of adults with ASD compared with 8.7% of controls (RR = 2.62 [95% CI 2.47–2.79]), with greatest risk for autistic people without intellectual disability. Rates of almost all individual anxiety disorders were raised, notably obsessive–compulsive disorder and phobic anxiety disorders. Anxiety disorders were more common in full siblings and half-siblings of people with ASD. The implications of this are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cigarette smoking is associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease. It is unclear what constituent of tobacco smoke may lower the risk. Use of Swedish moist smokeless tobacco (snus) can serve as a model to disentangle what constituent of tobacco smoke may lower the risk. The aim of this study was to determine whether snus use was associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease.Methods: Individual participant data were collected from seven prospective cohort studies, including 348 601 men. We used survival analysis with multivariable Cox regression to estimate study-specific relative risk of Parkinson's disease due to snus use, and random-effects models to pool estimates in a meta-analysis. The primary analyses were restricted to never-smokers to eliminate the potential confounding effect of tobacco smoking.Results: During a mean follow-up time of 16.1 years, 1199 incident Parkinson's disease cases were identified. Among men who never smoked, ever-snus users had about 60% lower Parkinson's disease risk compared with never-snus users [pooled hazard ratio (HR) 0.41, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.28-0.61]. The inverse association between snus use and Parkinson's disease risk was more pronounced in current (pooled HR 0.38, 95% CI 0.23-0.63), moderate-heavy amount (pooled HR 0.41, 95% CI 0.19-0.90) and long-term snus users (pooled HR 0.44, 95% CI 0.24-0.83).Conclusions: Non-smoking men who used snus had a substantially lower risk of Parkinson's disease. Results also indicated an inverse dose-response relationship between snus use and Parkinson's disease risk. Our findings suggest that nicotine or other components of tobacco leaves may influence the development of Parkinson's disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Studies have shown associations between higher income and better health, but income has not been studied in relation to neck pain. The aims of this cohort study were to assess the sex-specific role of disposable income for onset and prognosis of neck pain in the general population and if economic stress influences such potential associations. Methods: Two subcohorts were identified in the Stockholm Public Health Cohort with data from 2002. Cohort I (risk cohort) included persons without neck pain (n=8348). Cohort II (prognostic cohort) included persons with occasional neck pain during the previous 6 months (n=10 523). Both cohorts were assessed for long duration troublesome neck pain (LDNP) in 2007. Individual income was defined as aggregated annual family income in 2002 with each family member assigned a weighted consumption share, based on salary, pensions and social benefits. LDNP in 2007 was defined as having had troublesome neck pain lasting for three or more consecutive months the previous 5 years. Association between income and LDNP, considering potential confounding, was investigated by multivariable logistic regression. Economic stress was tested as effect modifier between income and LDNP. Results: In both cohorts, associations were found between lower income and a higher risk for LDNP. The results were similar between the sexes. Economic stress modified the associations in both cohorts. Conclusions: Low income may be a risk as well as prognostic factor for developing LDNP. Furthermore, the results indicate that economic stress may be an underlying factor to consider when studying associations between income and neck pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Recent systematic reviews have highlighted that the relationship between autism and violent offending is still unclear, but some cases have received extensive media scrutiny. We investigated whether autism is associated with convictions for violent crimes, and studied the associated risk and protective factors.Method: We analyzed data from the Stockholm Youth Cohort, a total population-based record-linkage cohort in Stockholm County comprising 295,734 individuals followed up between 15 and 27 years of age. Of these, 5,739 individuals had a recorded autism diagnosis. The main outcome measure was a conviction for violent crimes identified using the Swedish National Crime Register.Results: Individuals with autism, particularly those without intellectual disability, initially appeared to have a higher risk of violent offending (adjusted relative risk = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.23-1.58). However, these associations markedly attenuated after co-occurring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or conduct disorder were taken into account (adjusted relative risk = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.75-0.97). Among individuals with autism, male sex and psychiatric conditions were the strongest predictors of violent criminality, along with parental criminal and psychiatric history and socioeconomic characteristics. There was some evidence that a delayed diagnosis of autism was associated with a greater risk of violent crime. Better school performance and intellectual disability appeared to be protective.Conclusion: An initially observed association between autism and violent crimes at a population level was explained by comorbidity with ADHD and conduct disorder. Better understanding and management of comorbid psychopathology in autism may potentially help preventive action against offending behaviors in people with autism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]