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BackgroundMany autistic children experience motor skill deficits which can impact other areas of functioning, and research on therapeutic interventions for motor skills in autism is in a preliminary stage. Music-based therapies have been used extensively to address motor skills in non-autistic populations. Though a handful of studies exist on the effects of music-based therapies for movement in autistic children, none have investigated the possibility of administering sessions via telehealth. This mixed-methods pilot study investigated whether nine Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT)® sessions via telehealth would improve motor and attention skills in autistic children.MethodsFive autistic children between five and 10 years of age participated in the study, with support from their caregivers. Motor skills were assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency second edition, short form (BOT-2 SF), and a selective attention and sustained attention task were taken from the Test of Everyday Attention for Children, Second Edition (TEA-Ch2). Caregivers and the two neurologic music therapists involved in the study provided qualitative input about the perceived effectiveness of telehealth NMT for the children involved. Their responses were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Caregivers also filled out a Sensory Profile 2 assessment prior to the onset of sessions so that each child’s sensory profile could be compared to their motor and attention results.ResultsStatistically significant improvements in motor skills were observed between pre-test assessment and a two-week follow-up assessment. Results from attention test scores were not significant. Caregivers and neurologic music therapists generally perceived sessions positively and noted the importance of having caregivers actively involved. When compared with individual progress on the BOT-2 SF assessment, sensory profile results revealed that children with fewer sensory sensitivities tended to improve the most on motor skills. The improvements in motor skills and positive caregiver and therapist views of telehealth indicate that NMT motor interventions administered via telehealth are a promising avenue of therapeutic support for movement skill development in autistic children.

To promote the rational use of Inonotus obliquus (chaga) from Eastern Canada, a mushroom consumed in infusion as a health drink, the extraction of its constituents was investigated. The extraction was carried out with water or ethanol at room temperature or by heating as well as following exposure to ultrasound. The extracts of the four seasons obtained with the four extraction methods were compared for their contents in carbon, nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), potassium (K), betulin, betulinic acid, potassium, flavonoids, and polyphenols. The antiradical effect as well as the photoprotective effects of all extracts were also investigated. The results show that there is no difference between the quantities extracted from the extracts of the 4 seasons. The results show a significant difference between the mass of the extracts obtained with water and ethanol. Betulinic acid was found to be more abundant in the extracts obtained with water while betulin was more abundant in the extracts obtained with ethanol. The mushroom and the extracts had high C contents, but low N and S contents, typical of protein-poor and carbohydrate-rich materials. Extracts were particularly rich in potassium, five times more than bananas. Heating favors the extraction of polyphenols and flavonoids. The aqueous extracts of chaga harvested in winter had the highest antiradical capacity. With a Sun Protection Factor (SPF) higher than 30 in the UVB wavelength, chaga extracts might be used as sunscreen. Extracts obtained with water had the highest SPF in general. The analysis of this mushroom further highlights this local product that deserves more attention for its potential benefits as a functional food/nutraceutical product. In addition to its nutritional values, this mushroom can also be used for its cosmetic qualities as it can be used as a sunscreen.

IntroductionAutistic individuals demonstrate greater variability and timing error in their motor performance than neurotypical individuals, likely due at least in part to atypical cerebellar characteristics and connectivity. These motor difficulties may differentially affect discrete as opposed to continuous movements in autistic individuals. Augmented auditory feedback has the potential to aid motor timing and variability due to intact auditory-motor pathways in autism and high sensitivity in autistic individuals to auditory stimuli.MethodsThis experiment investigated whether there were differences in timing accuracy and variability in autistic adults as a function of task (discontinuous vs. continuous movements) and condition (augmented auditory feedback vs. no auditory feedback) in a synchronization-continuation paradigm. Ten autistic young adults aged 17–27 years of age completed the within-subjects study that involved drawing circles at 800 milliseconds intervals on a touch screen. In the discontinuous task, participants traced a series of discrete circles and paused at the top of each circle for at least 60 milliseconds. In the continuous task, participants traced the circles without pausing. Participants traced circles in either a non-auditory condition, or an auditory condition in which they heard a tone each time that they completed a circle drawing.ResultsParticipants had significantly better timing accuracy on the continuous timing task as opposed to the discontinuous task. Timing consistency was significantly higher for tasks performed with auditory feedback.DiscussionThis research reveals that motor difficulties in autistic individuals affect discrete timing tasks more than continuous tasks, and provides evidence that augmented auditory feedback may be able to mitigate some of the timing variability present in autistic persons’ movements. These results provide support for future investigation on the use of music-based therapies involving auditory feedback to address motor dysfunction in autistic individuals.

Abstract During reaching and grasping movements tactile processing is typically suppressed. However, during a reception or catching task, the object can still be acquired but without suppressive processes related to movement execution. Rather, tactile information may be facilitated as the object approaches in anticipation of object contact and the utilization of tactile feedback. Therefore, the current study investigated tactile processing during a reception task. Participants sat with their upper limb still as an object travelled to and contacted their fingers. At different points along the object’s trajectory and prior to contact, participants were asked to detect tactile stimuli delivered to their index finger. To understand if the expectation of object contact contributed to any modulation in tactile processing, the object stopped prematurely on 20% of trials. Compared to a pre-object movement baseline, relative perceptual thresholds were decreased throughout the object’s trajectory, and even when the object stopped prematurely. Further, there was no evidence for modulation when the stimulus was presented shortly before object contact. The former results suggest that tactile processing is facilitated as an object approaches an individual’s hand. As well, we purport that the expectation of tactile feedback drives this modulation. Finally, the latter results suggest that peripheral masking may have reduced/abolished any facilitation.

When preparing and executing goal-directed actions, neck proprioceptive information is critical to determining the relative positions of the body and target in space. While the contribution of neck proprioception for upper-limb movements has been previously investigated, we could not find evidence discerning its impact on the planning vs. online control of upper-limb trajectories. To investigate these distinct sensorimotor processes, participants performed discrete reaches towards a virtual target. On some trials, neck vibration was randomly applied before and/or during the movement, or not at all. The main dependent variable was the medio-lateral/directional bias of the reaching finger. The neck vibration conditions induced early leftward trajectory biases in some participants and late rightward trajectory biases in others. These different patterns of trajectory biases were explained by individual differences in the use of body-centered and head-centered frames of reference. Importantly, the current study provides direct evidence that sensory cues from the neck muscles contribute to the online control of goal-directed arm movements, likely accompanied by significant individual differences.

This study presented a novel kinematic assessment of paretic limb function “online” during the actual therapeutic exercisers rooted within the acceleration domain. Twenty-eight patients at chronic stroke stages participated in an auditory-motor intervention mapping reaching movements of the paretic arm unto surfaces of large digital musical instruments and sound tablets that provided rhythmic entrainment cues and augmented auditory feedback. Patients also wore a tri-axial accelerometer on the paretic limb during the nine-session intervention. The resulting acceleration profiles were extracted and quantified within the frequency domain. Measures of peak power and peak width were leveraged to estimate volitional control and temporal consistency of paretic limb movements, respectively. Clinical assessments included the Wolf Motor Function Test and Fugl-Meyer – Upper Extremity subtest. The results showed that peak power increased significantly from Session 1 to Session 9 within oscillatory frequency ranges associated with intentional movement execution (i.e., 4.5 Hz). Decreases in peak width over time provided additional evidence for improved paretic arm control from a temporal perspective. In addition, Peak width values obtained in Session 1 was significantly correlated with pre-test Fugl-Meyer – Upper Extremity scores. These results highlighted improvements in paretic limb acceleration as an underlying mechanism in stroke motor recovery and shed further light on the utility of accelerometry-based measures of paretic limb control in stroke rehabilitation.The data reported here was obtained from a larger clinical trial: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03246217 ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03246217.

Objective: To investigate the potential benefits of 3 therapeutic instrumental music performance (TIMP)-based interventions in rehabilitation of the affected upper-extremity (UE) for adults with chronic poststroke hemiparesis. Design: Randomized-controlled pilot study. Setting: University research facility. Participants: Community-dwelling volunteers (N=30; 16 men, 14 women; age range, 33-76 years; mean age, 55.9 years) began and completed the protocol. All participants had sustained a unilateral stroke more than 6 months before enrollment (mean time poststroke, 66.9 months). Intervention: Two baseline assessments, a minimum of 1 week apart; 9 intervention sessions (3 times/week for 3 weeks), in which rhythmically cued, functional arm movements were mapped onto musical instruments; and 1 post-test following the final intervention. Participants were block-randomized to 1 of 3 conditions: group 1 (45 minutes TIMP), group 2 (30 minutes TIMP, 15 minutes metronome-cued motor imagery [TIMP+cMI]), and group 3 (30 minutes TIMP, 15 minutes motor imagery without cues [TIMP+MI]). Assessors and investigators were blinded to group assignment. Main Outcome Measures: Fugl-Meyer Upper-Extremity (FM-UE) and Wolf Motor Function Test- Functional Ability Scale (WMFT-FAS). Secondary measures were motor activity log (MAL)–amount of use scale and trunk impairment scale. Results: All groups made statistically significant gains on the FM-UE (TIMP, P=.005, r=.63; TIMP+cMI, P=.007, r=.63; TIMP+MI, P=.007, r=.61) and the WMFT-FAS (TIMP, P=.024, r=.53; TIMP+cMI, P=.008, r=.60; TIMP+MI, P=.008, r=.63). Comparing between-group percent change differences, on the FM-UE, TIMP scored significantly higher than TIMP+cMI (P=.032, r=.57), but not TIMP+MI. There were no differences in improvement on WMFT-FAS across conditions. On the MAL, gains were significant for TIMP (P=.030, r=.54) and TIMP+MI (P=.007, r=.63). Conclusion: TIMP-based techniques, with and without MI, led to significant improvements in paretic arm control on primary outcomes. Replacing a physical training segment with imagery-based training resulted in similar improvements; however, synchronizing internal and external cues during auditory-cMI may pose additional sensorimotor integration challenges.

Boron oxide nanoparticles (nB2O3) are manufactured for structural, propellant, and clinical applications and also form spontaneously through the degradation of bulk boron compounds. Bulk boron is not toxic to vertebrates but the distinctive properties of its nanostructured equivalent may alter its biocompatibility. Few studies have addressed this possibility, thus our goal was to gain an initial understanding of the potential acute toxicity of nB2O3 to freshwater fish and we used a variety of model systems to achieve this. Bioactivity was investigated in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatocytes and at the whole animal level in three other North and South American fish species using indicators of aerobic metabolism, behavior, oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, and ionoregulation. nB2O3 reduced O. mykiss hepatocyte oxygen consumption (ṀO2) by 35% at high doses but whole animal ṀO2 was not affected in any species. Spontaneous activity was assessed using ṀO2 frequency distribution plots from live fish. nB2O3 increased the frequency of high ṀO2 events in the Amazonian fish Paracheirodon axelrodi, suggesting exposure enhanced spontaneous aerobic activity. ṀO2 frequency distributions were not affected in the other species examined. Liver lactate accumulation and significant changes in cardiac acetylcholinesterase and gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity were noted in the north-temperate Fundulus diaphanus exposed to nB2O3, but not in the Amazonian Apistogramma agassizii or P. axelrodi. nB2O3 did not induce oxidative stress in any of the species studied. Overall, nB2O3 exhibited modest, species-specific bioactivity but only at doses exceeding predicted environmental relevance. Chronic, low dose exposure studies are required for confirmation, but our data suggest that, like bulk boron, nB2O3 is relatively non-toxic to aquatic vertebrates and thus represents a promising formulation for further development.

The feasibility of prediction of same-limb kinematics using a single inertial measurement unit attached to the same limb has been demonstrated using machine learning. This study was performed to see if a single inertial measurement unit attached to the tibia can predict the opposite leg’s kinematics (cross-leg prediction). It also investigated if there is a minimal or smaller data set in a convolutional neural network model to predict lower extremity running kinematics under other running conditions and with what accuracy for the intra- and inter-participant situations. Ten recreational runners completed running exercises under five conditions, including treadmill running at speeds of 2, 2.5, 3, and 3.5 m/s and level-ground running at their preferred speed. A one-predict-all scheme was adopted to determine which running condition could be used to best predict a participant’s overall running kinematics. Running kinematic predictions were performed for intra- and inter-participant scenarios. Among the tested running conditions, treadmill running at 3 m/s was found to be the optimal condition for accurately predicting running kinematics under other conditions, with R2 values ranging from 0.880 to 0.958 and 0.784 to 0.936 for intra- and inter-participant scenarios, respectively. The feasibility of cross-leg prediction was demonstrated but with significantly lower accuracy than the same leg. The treadmill running condition at 3 m/s showed the highest intra-participant cross-leg prediction accuracy. This study proposes a novel, deep-learning method for predicting running kinematics under different conditions on a small training data set.

Pairing high-intensity interval training (HIIT) with motor skill acquisition may improve learning of some implicit motor sequences (albeit with some variability), but it is unclear if HIIT enhances explicit learning of motor sequences. We asked whether a single bout of HIIT after non-musicians learned to play a piano melody promoted better retention of the melody than low-intensity interval training (LIIT). Further, we investigated whether HIIT facilitated transfer of learning to a new melody. We generated individualized exercise protocols by having participants (n = 25) with little musical training undergo a graded maximal exercise test (GXT) to determine their cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2peak) and maximum power output (Wmax). In a subsequent session, participants practiced a piano melody (skill acquisition) and were randomly assigned to a single bout of HIIT or LIIT. Retention of the piano melody was tested 1 hour, 1 day, and 1 week after skill acquisition. We also evaluated transfer to learning a new melody 1 week after acquisition. Pitch and rhythm accuracy were analyzed with linear mixed-effects modeling. HIIT did not enhance sequence-specific retention of pitch or rhythmic elements of the piano melody, but there was modest evidence that HIIT facilitated transfer to learning a new melody. We tentatively conclude that HIIT enhances explicit, task-general motor consolidation.

Abstract Background We investigate the use of different denoising filters on low signal-to-noise ratio cardiac images of the rat heart acquired with a birdcage volume coil at 7T. Accuracy and variability of cardiac function parameters were measured from manual segmentation of rat heart images with and without filtering. Methods Ten rats were studied using a 7T Varian system. End-diastolic and end-systolic volumes, ejection fraction and left ventricle mass (LVM) were calculated from manual segmentation by two experts on cine-FLASH short-axis slices covering the left ventricle. Series were denoised with an anisotropic diffusion filter, a whole variation regularization or an optimized Rician non-local means (ORNLM) filtering technique. The effect of the different filters was evaluated by the calculation of signal-to-noise (SNR) and contrast-to-noise (CNR) ratios, followed by a study of intra- and inter-expert variability of the measurement of physiological parameters. The calculated LVM was compared to the LVM obtained by weighing the heart ex vivo. Results The SNR and the CNR increased after application of the different filters. The performance of the ORNLM filter was superior for all the parameters of the cardiac function, as judged from the inter- and intra-observer variabilities. Moreover, this filtering technique resulted in the lowest variability in the LVM evaluation. Conclusions In cardiac MRI of rats, filtering is an interesting alternative that yields better contrast between myocardium and surrounding tissues and the ORNLM filter provided the largest improvements.

Wearable sensors facilitate running kinematics analysis of joint kinematics in real running environments. The use of a few sensors or, ideally, a single inertial measurement unit (IMU) is preferable for accurate gait analysis. This study aimed to use a convolutional neural network (CNN) to predict level-ground running kinematics (measured by four IMUs on the lower extremities) by using treadmill running kinematics training data measured using a single IMU on the anteromedial side of the right tibia and to compare the performance of level-ground running kinematics predictions between raw accelerometer and gyroscope data. The CNN model performed regression for intraparticipant and interparticipant scenarios and predicted running kinematics. Ten recreational runners were recruited. Accelerometer and gyroscope data were collected. Intraparticipant and interparticipant R2 values of actual and predicted running kinematics ranged from 0.85 to 0.96 and from 0.7 to 0.92, respectively. Normalized root mean squared error values of actual and predicted running kinematics ranged from 3.6% to 10.8% and from 7.4% to 10.8% in intraparticipant and interparticipant tests, respectively. Kinematics predictions in the sagittal plane were found to be better for the knee joint than for the hip joint, and predictions using the gyroscope as the regressor were demonstrated to be significantly better than those using the accelerometer as the regressor.

Prior to goal-directed actions, somatosensory target positions can be localized using either an exteroceptive or an interoceptive body representation. The goal of the present study was to investigate if the body representation selected to plan reaches to somatosensory targets is influenced by the sensory modality of the cue indicating the target's location. In the first experiment, participants reached to somatosensory targets prompted by either an auditory or a vibrotactile cue. As a baseline condition, participants also performed reaches to visual targets prompted by an auditory cue. Gaze-dependent reaching errors were measured to determine the contribution of the exteroceptive representation to motor planning processes. The results showed that reaches to both auditory-cued somatosensory targets and auditory-cued visual targets exhibited larger gaze-dependent reaching errors than reaches to vibrotactile-cued somatosensory targets. Thus, an exteroceptive body representation was likely used to plan reaches to auditory-cued somatosensory targets but not to vibrotactile-cued somatosensory targets. The second experiment examined the influence of using an exteroceptive body representation to plan movements to somatosensory targets on pre-movement neural activations. Cortical responses to a task-irrelevant visual flash were measured as participants planned movements to either auditory-cued somatosensory or auditory-cued visual targets. Larger responses (i.e., visual-evoked potentials) were found when participants planned movements to somatosensory vs. visual targets, and source analyses revealed that these activities were localized to the left occipital and left posterior parietal areas. These results suggest that visual and visuomotor processing networks were more engaged when using the exteroceptive body representation to plan movements to somatosensory targets, than when planning movements to external visual targets.

Clinical evidence suggests that febrile status epilepticus (SE) in children can lead to acute hippocampal injury and subsequent temporal lobe epilepsy. The contribution of febrile SE to the mechanisms underlying temporal lobe epilepsy are however poorly understood. A rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy following hyperthermic SE was previously established in our laboratory, wherein a focal cortical lesion induced at postnatal day 1 (P1), followed by a hyperthermic SE (more than 30 min) at P10, leads to hippocampal atrophy at P22 (dual pathology model) and spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS) with mild visuospatial memory deficits in adult rats. The goal of this study was to identify the long term electrophysiological, anatomical and molecular changes in this model. Following hyperthermic SE, all cortically lesioned pups developed progressive SRS as adults, characterized by the onset of highly rhythmic activity in the hippocampus. A reduction of hippocampal volume on the side of the lesion preceded the SRS and was associated with a loss of hippocampal neurons, a marked decrease in pyramidal cell spine density, an increase in the hippocampal levels of NMDA receptor NR2A subunit, but no significant change in GABA receptors. These findings suggest that febrile SE in the abnormal brain leads to hippocampal injury that is followed by progressive network reorganization and molecular changes that contribute to the epileptogenesis as well as the observed memory deficits.

Predictions about one's own action capabilities as well as the action capabilities of others are thought to be based on a simulation process involving linked perceptual and motor networks. Given the central role of motor experience in the formation of these networks, one's present motor capabilities are thought to be the basis of their perceptual judgments about actions. However, it remains unknown whether the ability to form these action possibility judgments is affected by performance related changes in the motor system. To determine if judgments of action capabilities are affected by long-term changes in one's own motor capabilities, participants with different degrees of upper-limb function due to their level (cervical vs. below cervical) of spinal cord injury (SCI) were tested on a perceptual-motor judgment task. Participants observed apparent motion videos of reciprocal aiming movements with varying levels of difficulty. For each movement, participants determined the shortest movement time (MT) at which they themselves and a young adult could perform the task while maintaining accuracy. Participants also performed the task. Analyses of MTs revealed that perceptual judgments for participant's own movement capabilities were consistent with their actual performance- people with cervical SCI had longer judged and actual MTs than people with below cervical SCI. However, there were no between-group differences in judged MTs for the young adult. Although it is unclear how the judgments were adjusted (altered simulation vs. threshold modification), the data reveal that people with different motor capabilities due to SCI are not completely biased by their present capabilities and can effectively adjust their judgments to estimate the actions of others.

Treatment of malignant glioma with chemotherapy is limited mostly because of delivery impediment related to the blood-brain tumor barrier (BTB). B1 receptors (B1R), inducible prototypical G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) can regulate permeability of vessels including possibly that of brain tumors. Here, we determine the extent of BTB permeability induced by the natural and synthetic peptide B1R agonists, LysdesArg(9)BK (LDBK) and SarLys[dPhe(8)]desArg(9)BK (NG29), in syngeneic F98 glioma-implanted Fischer rats. Ten days after tumor inoculation, we detected the presence of B1R on tumor cells and associated vasculature. NG29 infusion increased brain distribution volume and uptake profiles of paramagnetic probes (Magnevist and Gadomer) at tumoral sites (T(1)-weighted imaging). These effects were blocked by B1R antagonist and non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitors, but not by B2R antagonist and non-selective nitric oxide synthase inhibitors. Consistent with MRI data, systemic co-administration of NG29 improved brain tumor delivery of Carboplatin chemotherapy (ICP-Mass spectrometry). We also detected elevated B1R expression in clinical samples of high-grade glioma. Our results documented a novel GPCR-signaling mechanism for promoting transient BTB disruption, involving activation of B1R and ensuing production of COX metabolites. They also underlined the potential value of synthetic biostable B1R agonists as selective BTB modulators for local delivery of different sized-therapeutics at (peri)tumoral sites.

Pre-clinical bone cancer pain models mimicking the human condition are required to respond to clinical realities. Breast or prostate cancer patients coping with bone metastases experience intractable pain, which affects their quality of life. Advanced monitoring is thus required to clarify bone cancer pain mechanisms and refine treatments. In our model of rat femoral mammary carcinoma MRMT-1 cell implantation, pain onset and tumor growth were monitored for 21 days. The surgical procedure performed without arthrotomy allowed recording of incidental pain in free-moving rats. Along with the gradual development of mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia, behavioral signs of ambulatory pain were detected at day 14 by using a dynamic weight-bearing apparatus. Osteopenia was revealed from day 14 concomitantly with disorganization of the trabecular architecture (µCT). Bone metastases were visualized as early as day 8 by MRI (T(1)-Gd-DTPA) before pain detection. PET (Na(18)F) co-registration revealed intra-osseous activity, as determined by anatomical superimposition over MRI in accordance with osteoclastic hyperactivity (TRAP staining). Pain and bone destruction were aggravated with time. Bone remodeling was accompanied by c-Fos (spinal) and ATF3 (DRG) neuronal activation, sustained by astrocyte (GFAP) and microglia (Iba1) reactivity in lumbar spinal cord. Our animal model demonstrates the importance of simultaneously recording pain and tumor progression and will allow us to better characterize therapeutic strategies in the future.

In humans, sensory afferences are combined and integrated by the central nervous system (Ernst MO, Bülthoff HH (2004) Trends Cogn. Sci. 8: 162-169) and appear to provide a holistic representation of the environment. Empirical studies have repeatedly shown that vision dominates the other senses, especially for tasks with spatial demands. In contrast, it has also been observed that sound can strongly alter the perception of visual events. For example, when presented with 2 flashes and 1 beep in a very brief period of time, humans often report seeing 1 flash (i.e. fusion illusion, Andersen TS, Tiippana K, Sams M (2004) Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res. 21: 301-308). However, it is not known how an unfolding movement modulates the contribution of vision to perception. Here, we used the audio-visual illusion to demonstrate that goal-directed movements can alter visual information processing in real-time. Specifically, the fusion illusion was linearly reduced as a function of limb velocity. These results suggest that cue combination and integration can be modulated in real-time by goal-directed behaviors; perhaps through sensory gating (Chapman CE, Beauchamp E (2006) J. Neurophysiol. 96: 1664-1675) and/or altered sensory noise (Ernst MO, Bülthoff HH (2004) Trends Cogn. Sci. 8: 162-169) during limb movements.

Robotic devices are used to provide physical guidance when teaching different movements. To advance our knowledge of robotic guidance in training complex movements, this investigation tested different kinematic data filtering methods of individual's golf putts to convert them into trajectories to be employed by a robot arm. The purpose of the current study was to identify a simple filtering method to aptly replicate participants' individual golf putter trajectories which could be used by the robot to execute them with greater consistency and accuracy than their human counterpart. Participants putted toward three targets where three-dimensional data of the putter's head were filtered and then fitted by using one or two dimensions of the participant's putter head trajectories. As expected, both filtering methods employed with the robot outperformed the human participants in ball endpoint accuracy and consistency. Further, after comparing the filtered to the human participants' trajectories, the two-dimensional method best replicated the kinematic features of human participants' natural putter trajectory, while the one-dimensional method failed to replicate participant's backstroke position. This investigation indicates that a two-dimensional filtering method, using Y-forward and Z-vertical position data, can be used to create accurate, consistent, and smooth trajectories delivered by a robot arm.