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Recent systematic reviews show that, overall, and across governance levels and sectors, climate change adaptation monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems are rarely programmed and implemented. As a result, there is a generalized lack of knowledge and practice regarding the definition and use of adaptation indicators and metrics from which to effectively learn. This paper focuses on understanding the emergent state of practice regarding adaptation indicators and metrics at the local level: what indicators and metrics are used? What aspects of the adaptation process are they measuring? How will they be monitored, evaluated, and reported? Out of a sample of the largest 136 coastal cities worldwide, only 59 cities have adaptation-related plans and only 11 (Athens, Auckland, Barcelona, Glasgow, Lima, Montreal, Nagoya, New York City, Portland, Tokyo, and Vancouver) list indicators and metrics. Sourced from these documents, we compile and code a total of 1971 indicators, of which 1841 focus fully or partially on adaptation-related aspects. We study the level of detail (objective, indicator, metric), type (target, input, output, outcome, or impact), scale, dimension, units of measurement, target, and proposed monitoring timeframe, among other aspects. Data shows that current adaptation measurement frameworks are tied to the degree to which each city integrates and addresses adaptation in its policies. A majority of adaptation indicators and metrics measure outputs, i.e. implementation aspects. Outcome indicators are generally connected to users or beneficiaries of adaptation measures and impact indicators are mostly related to health (e.g. hospitalizations). Targets and monitoring timeframes, as well as data sources, are rarely defined. We connect this to a lack of definition of local adaptation goals and a poor understanding of how specific adaptation actions lead to vulnerability reductions and resilience increases. Based on the identified gaps, we propose a metric development guiding framework to stimulate discussion around effective and feasible approaches to measure adaptation progress based on improved adaptation decision-making. We argue, that our results should fuel a critical revision of current adaptation planning practices that might ultimately facilitate processes of learning, experimentation and innovation in this embryonic field. © 2022 This study was funded by AXA Research Fund under Grant Agreement No. 4771. This research was also supported by María de Maeztu excellence accreditation 2018-2022 (Ref. MDM-2017-0714), funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/; and by the Basque Government through the BERC 2022-2025 program.

Academic and political debate places great expectations on cities&rsquo, potential for furthering decentralized, bottom-up climate policies. Local policy research acknowledges the role of local agency to develop and implement sustainability, but also acknowledges internal conflicts. This partly reflects tensions between different functions of the local level, and different governance models related to them. In addition, local dependency on higher level competencies, resources, and overarching strategies is discussed. This article proposes a focus on political processes and power relationships between levels of governance, and among relevant domains within cities, to understand the dynamics of policy change towards sustainability. Researching these dynamics within local climate policy arrangements (LCPAs) is proposed as an approach to understanding the complexities of local constellations and contradictions within them. It makes the distinction between &ldquo, weak&rdquo, and &ldquo, strong&rdquo, ecological modernization, and relates it to two basic rationales for local governance. The resulting typology denotes constellations characterizing policy change ambitions towards local climate policy in crucial domains, including economic development, energy infrastructures, climate change management, town planning and housing, and transportation. This article argues that this approach overcomes the limitations of the predominating conceptualizations of urban carbon control strategies as consistent, and recognises the multi-level dimension of such internal urban processes.

The demand for meat and dairy products is expected to double by 2050 due to population growth and changing consumption patterns worldwide. According to the IPCC, meeting the target of keeping the global temperature rise below 2°C by the middle of the century calls for massive emission cuts in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and natural resource use consumption associated with the global food system. In recent times, globalization and increased trade of food products has resulted in the displacement of environmental impacts related to local food consumption to region overseas. Therefore, global mitigation options for agri-food climate- and resource use pressures requires that countries monitor and lower the environmental pressures from food consumption within and beyond their local borders. The current Danish environmental policy lays down ambitious targets aimed at mitigating the territorial environmental impacts of Denmark’s agri-food industry, with GHG emissions, water quality and biodiversity at the centre of policy attention. However, a shortcoming of Denmark’s present climate and environmental policies is that they do not tackle the environmental pressures associated with food products that are consumed within Danish borders but produced overseas. In this context, a growing body of research proposes that allow country-specific estimation of environmental pressures from consumption of locally sourced and imported products. This PhD project applies two consumption-based (CB) environmental accounting methods, namely the environmentally extended multi-regional input-output analysis and biophysical model of agricultural trade to evaluate Denmark’s national and subnational food-related CB accounts (or footprints) for GHG emissions (i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)), and cropland, grassland and blue water use from 1995 to 2014. Secondly, the thesis quantifies the potential for Denmark to reduce its global food-related GHG emissions and resource consumption based on scenarios that include household dietary shifts towards plant-based foods and food waste prevention as well as improvements in livestock feed use efficiencies. From 2000 to 2013, Denmark’s per capita consumption of meat and dairy decreased from 668 kg/yr to 583 kg/yr while its per capita consumption of food crops increased from 687 kg/yr to 744 kg/yr. We find that the GHG emissions, cropland and grassland use associated Denmark’s food consumption declined by 30% (4.45 Mt CO2e) and 16% (355 kha), 27% (62 kha) respectively between 1995 and 2014. In the same period, the blue water use related to Danish food consumption was fairly stable, increasing by a negligible 0.36% (1 Mm3). From 1995 to 2014, the GHG emissions, croplands and grasslands displaced to the rest of the world by Danish consumption of imported foods decreased by only 3% (0.17 Mt CO2e), 5% (50 kha) and 1% (2 kha) respectively. In contrast, the blue water embodied in Denmark’s food imports increased by 4% (12 Mm^3). However, the share of displaced impacts to regions overseas by Danish food consumption in Denmark’s total CB impacts increased for GHG emissions (37% to 51%), land (45% to 51%) and blue water use (81% to 84%). Between 1995 and 2014, the environmental pressures displaced to Denmark by food consumption abroad food increased for GHG emissions (+0.72 Mt CO2e), land use (+245 kha) and water use (+18 Mm3). The global feed cropland footprint for livestock products consumed in Denmark decreased by 24% (271 kha) from 2000 to 2013, with the most significant reductions for pork (-41% or 156 kha), beef (-19% or 35 kha) and milk (-16% or 77 kha). At subnational level, the Capital region of Denmark accounted for 41% (28.26 Mt CO2e) and 31% (27.19 Mt CO2e) of Denmark national production-and-consumption based GHG emissions. Also, Denmark’s biggest cities (i.e. Copenhagen, Aarhus, Aalborg and Odense) accounted for 21% (18.21 Mt CO2e) and 22% (2.51Mt CO2e) of Denmark’s global total and food-related GHG emissions respectively in 2011. In summary, the findings of the project suggest that reasonable to optimal reductions in household consumption of meat and dairy in Denmark could potentially reduce the global environmental pressures associated with Danish food consumption. With regards to local climate policies in Denmark, the Capital region of Denmark, as well as Denmark’s richest and most populous municipalities presents great opportunities for significantly lowering Denmark’s GHG emissions. To mitigate Denmark’s food trade environmental impacts, we recommend, (i) concerted efforts by principal public and private stakeholders in the Danish food industry to transfer Danish expertise, and innovative food technologies to the countries of origin for its most pollution-and-resource intensive food imports, (ii) a redesign of Denmark’s food system to increase local food supply self-sufficiency in a sustainable manner (iii) dietary shifts towards less or no meat and dairy products abroad. We hope that the finding of this project will contribute to climate and environmental policymaking and changes in consumer dietary choices in Denmark necessary for meeting the climate neutrality goal set for 2050.

This paper analyses how local energy and climate actions can affect the use of water and land resources locally, nationally and globally. Each of these resource systems is linked to different Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), we also explore related SDG interactions. A municipality in Sweden with the ambition of phasing out fossil fuels by year 2030 is used as illustrative case example. The local energy system is modelled in detail and indirect water and land requirements are quantified for three stylised decarbonisation scenarios of pathways to meeting climate and energy requirements (related to SDG13 and SDG7, respectively). Total local, national and global implications are addressed for the use of water and land resources, which relate to SDG6 for water, and SDG2 and SDG15 for land use. We find that the magnitude and location of water and land impacts are largely pathway-dependent. Some scenarios of low carbon energy may impede progress on SDG15, while others may compromise SDG6. Data for the studied resource uses are incoherently reported and have important gaps. As a consequence, the study results are indicative and subject to uncertainty. Still, they highlight the need to recognise that resource use changes targeting one SDG in one locality have local and non-local impacts that may compromise progress other SDGs locally and/or elsewhere in the world.

This paper presents a calculation of Denmark's production and consumption-based accounting CO2e emissions for five regions in 2011. We apply an environmentally extended economic model for Danish municipalities known as the Local “INterregional” Economic (LINE) model, together with a multi-regional input-output model for the world economy (EXIOBASE v3.4). We find that Denmark's Capital region accounts for 41% (28 MtCO2e) and 31% (27 MtCO2e) of Denmark's production and consumption-based emissions respectively. By disaggregating regional emissions into industry and product categories, we provide relevant information to producers and consumers in each region concerning areas where the most significant differences towards reducing their carbon footprint can be realised. Mobility, services, food and shelter were the main drivers of emissions in all Danish regions. The Central, North and South Denmark accounted for more than half (9.56 MtCO2e) of Denmark's food production emissions. The Capital region was the largest source of emissions (3.79 MtCO2e) related to food consumption. We suggest that dietary changes towards less red meat and dairy products can potentially reduce regional food-related emissions of Danish households. Our results indicate that modest changes in consumer lifestyles are pivotal for local climate mitigation policies, especially in Denmark's biggest cities, Copenhagen, Århus, Aalborg and Odense.

This paper analyzed the effects of the local climate policies with "3E (Economy-Energy-Environment) model". This model is to analyze the effects to the local economies, energy demands, and CO2 emissions by introducing the policies for anti-global warming in the local area. The 3E model of Tokai region (Aichi, Gifu, and Mie Prefecture) of this paper called to "the Simulation Model of the Local Climate Policies and the Economic Effects" consists of the local macro econometric model, the local input-output model, and the local energy demand-supply model. The simulations in this paper are as follows; (1) constructing macro-econometric model, IO model, and energy demand-supply model, (2) estimating BAU values of macro-economic indices, forecast IO table, and energy demands and CO2 emission in each prefecture, (3) Creating the CO2 reduction policy package in each prefecture, and (4) estimating the forecast values of regional macro-economic indices, forecast IO, and energy demand and CO2 emission. As the results, introducing the CO2 reduction policies pushed up 0.2-0.7% of GRP, and created 1,000-4,000 employments per year. Furthermore, the simulations with the forecast IO tables showed that the climate policies with the local resources such as CHP and biomass had more spillover effect on local economy., 6, KJ00010081579, 論文

The transformation to a post-fossil city is one of the central urban challenges of the 21st century, with heat transition representing an important part of this process. In Germany, a structural change commission has proposed a complete phase-out of coal by 2038. For the city of Leipzig, which is located in a mining region, this opens up the possibility of a post-fossil transformation. Leipzig started an energetic retrofitting process within its housing sector several years ago, and is now planning to phase-out coal-fired district heating as early as 2023. This heat transition could turn Leipzig into one of the pioneering cities of post-fossil transformation. However, such a transition will be accompanied by numerous challenges and problems in the financial, political, technological, and labor sectors. Using the example of Leipzig, we conducted a document analysis and semi-structured interviews to investigate how a transition of the heating sector is conceptualized and planned, which governance structures have emerged, and how they work. In addition, our paper outlines the main interests and goals of the key actors and stakeholders in this transition, as well as their competences and resources. We emphasize that while Leipzig has committed itself to ambitious climate goals, up to now, the city has had no systemic approach for reducing local emissions. Although a window of opportunity has opened for a post-fossil heat transition, this still remains at a niche level due to a lack of interest, path dependencies, and weak governance.

International audience; Globally, efforts are underway to reduce anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to climate change impacts at the local level. However, there is a poor understanding of the relationship between city strategies on climate change mitigation and adaptation and the relevant policies at national and European level. This paper describes a comparative study and evaluation of cross-national policy. It reports the findings of studying the climate change strategies or plans from 200 European cities from Austria, Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom. The study highlights the shared responsibility of global, European, national, regional and city policies. An interpretation and illustration of the influences from international and national networks and policy makers in stimulating the development of local strategies and actions is proposed. It was found that there is no archetypical way of planning for climate change, and multiple interests and motivations are inevitable. Our research warrants the need for a multi-scale approach to climate policy in the future, mainly ensuring sufficient capacity and resource to enable local authorities to plan and respond to their specific climate change agenda for maximising the management potentials for translating environmental challenges into opportunities. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.

Greater energy efficiency can be achieved in existing dwellings thanks to longer lifecycles, slow replacement rates, and technical innovations. Many such dwellings are located in dense urban neighbourhoods, where urban renewal projects are undertaken. Local government can encourage the setting of ambitious goals as a stepping stone to realizing energy efficiency goals that achieve high levels of energy efficiency. The research question which this paper addresses is: to what degree do local governments influence ambitions to conserve energy in existing housing sites? To examine this issue, thirty-three sites in the Netherlands were studied using a quantitative analysis. The results show that collaboration between local authorities and local actors increases the level of ambition to conserve energy. However, local authorities intentionally selected sites with poor energy efficiency, so it would be easy to meet ambitious energy conservation targets. Collaboration between local authorities and local actors turns out to be the key factor in selecting those sites. Moreover, there is little sign of genuine ambition. This article contributes to the debate on energy conservation policies in local housing sites. The study provides starting points for systematic, empirical research into the realisation of energy conservation in existing housing, especially in large-scale refurbishment projects.

Actes accessibles sur le site international de COBRA : http://www.rics.org/site/scripts/download_info.aspx?downloadID=6209; International audience; In France, the "Grenelle de l'Environnement" takeholders agreed and planned on using thermal refurbishment on private buildings to reduce the greenhouse gas. On which they agreed, even if the cost was estimated as hundreds of billion euros. Its implement is actually more difficult than expected: in the absence of the obligation to renovate, really hard to legally set up, public initiatives are required. The OPATB experience shows the slowness of this innovative process and the capital character to financially support and advice the deciders especially for building co-owners. To locally articulate informative mission and support with a national tax fare system, requires accords on a local and national level, which will probably take years to happen.; Parmi les principaux gisements de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre en France, la rénovation énergétique des bâtiments a fait l'objet d'un consensus lors du Grenelle de l'Environnement nonobstant son coût, estimé à plusieurs centaines de milliards d'euros. En l'absence d'obligations, difficiles à mettre en place juridiquement, les pouvoirs publics ont développé des dispositions incitatives. L'expérience des OPATB souligne le temps long de la filière constructive et l'intérêt d'un accompagnement public local, notamment pour les copropriétés. La généralisation passe par une fine articulation entre un dispositif local d'accompagnement et de financement et la fiscalité nationale. Ajuster un système multi-territorial conciliant les enjeux sociaux avec le facteur 4 nécessitera probablement quelques années d'expérimentations, d'évaluation et de débat.

Actes accessibles sur le site international de COBRA : http://www.rics.org/site/scripts/download_info.aspx?downloadID=6209; International audience; In France, the "Grenelle de l'Environnement" takeholders agreed and planned on using thermal refurbishment on private buildings to reduce the greenhouse gas. On which they agreed, even if the cost was estimated as hundreds of billion euros. Its implement is actually more difficult than expected: in the absence of the obligation to renovate, really hard to legally set up, public initiatives are required. The OPATB experience shows the slowness of this innovative process and the capital character to financially support and advice the deciders especially for building co-owners. To locally articulate informative mission and support with a national tax fare system, requires accords on a local and national level, which will probably take years to happen.; Parmi les principaux gisements de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre en France, la rénovation énergétique des bâtiments a fait l'objet d'un consensus lors du Grenelle de l'Environnement nonobstant son coût, estimé à plusieurs centaines de milliards d'euros. En l'absence d'obligations, difficiles à mettre en place juridiquement, les pouvoirs publics ont développé des dispositions incitatives. L'expérience des OPATB souligne le temps long de la filière constructive et l'intérêt d'un accompagnement public local, notamment pour les copropriétés. La généralisation passe par une fine articulation entre un dispositif local d'accompagnement et de financement et la fiscalité nationale. Ajuster un système multi-territorial conciliant les enjeux sociaux avec le facteur 4 nécessitera probablement quelques années d'expérimentations, d'évaluation et de débat.