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[Agricultural channels can be important habitats for aquatic species inhabiting agricultural areas. However, water supply in agricultural channels can vary substantially with types of agriculture and irrigation/drainage system, and thereby affect the viability of local populations of aquatic species. In this study, we focused on the amphidromous freshwater atyid shrimp Caridina leucosticta. To clarify whether C. leucosticta utilizes agricultural channels as a habitat in relation to fluctuations in the water supply, we conducted a series of field surveys on the distribution of this shrimp in a rice paddy drainage channel (spring-fed channel) around the Furu River, central Japan, during July and December 2008. Large numbers of C. leucosticta had migrated into that drainage channel. Water from the adjacent rice paddies had disappeared by October, because irrigation was stopped, but the water level in the drainage channel was maintained by a supply of spring water. By mid-November the supply of spring water had almost disappeared, then the channel nearly dried up, and many shrimps were concentrated in an isolated water pool in the channel. Thus, habitat fragmentation of C. leucosticta occurred in terms of water (dis-)continuity. This water pool dried up completely by mid-December. We found many dead individuals of C. leucosticta in the dried-up area of the channel. These results indicate that agricultural channels can be an important temporal habitat for amphidromous freshwater shrimps, but that the drying-up of the channels can lethally affect migrating atyid shrimps. Les canaux agricoles peuvent etre des habitats importants pour les especes aquatiques rurales. Cependant l'alimentation en eau des canaux agricoles peut varier substantiellement avec le type d'agriculture, les systemes d'irrigation/drainage et en consequence affectent la viabilite des populations locales des especes aquatiques. Cette etude est centree sur la crevette atyidee amphidrome d'eau douce Caridina leucosticta. Pour eclaicir si C. leucosticta utilise les canaux agricoles comme habitat en relation avec la fluctuation de l'apport en eau, nous avons conduit une serie de releves de terrain sur la distribution de cette crevette dans un canal de drainage de riziere (eau de source) pres de la riviere Furu, Japon central, durant Juillet et Decembre 2008. Un grand nombre de C. leucosticta ont migre dans ce canal de drainage. L'eau des rizieres adjacentes a disparu en Octobre, car l'irrigation a stoppe, mais le niveau de l'eau a ete maintenu par un apport d'eau de source. Mi-Novembre l'apport d'eau de source a presque disparu, ce qui a pratiquement asseche le canal, et de nombreuses crevettes etaient concentrees dans des flaques isolees du canal. Ainsi la fragmentation de l'habitat de C. leucosticta est due a la discontinuite en eau. Ces flaques d'eau ont seche completement mi-Decembre. De nombreux individus morts ont ete trouves dans parties assechees du canal. Ces resultats indiquent que les canaux agricoles peuvent etre un important habitat temporaire pour les crevettes d'eau douce amphidromes, mais que l'assechement de ces canaux peut affecter de facon letale les crevettes atyides migratrices., Agricultural channels can be important habitats for aquatic species inhabiting agricultural areas. However, water supply in agricultural channels can vary substantially with types of agriculture and irrigation/drainage system, and thereby affect the viability of local populations of aquatic species. In this study, we focused on the amphidromous freshwater atyid shrimp Caridina leucosticta. To clarify whether C. leucosticta utilizes agricultural channels as a habitat in relation to fluctuations in the water supply, we conducted a series of field surveys on the distribution of this shrimp in a rice paddy drainage channel (spring-fed channel) around the Furu River, central Japan, during July and December 2008. Large numbers of C. leucosticta had migrated into that drainage channel. Water from the adjacent rice paddies had disappeared by October, because irrigation was stopped, but the water level in the drainage channel was maintained by a supply of spring water. By mid-November the supply of spring water had almost disappeared, then the channel nearly dried up, and many shrimps were concentrated in an isolated water pool in the channel. Thus, habitat fragmentation of C. leucosticta occurred in terms of water (dis-)continuity. This water pool dried up completely by mid-December. We found many dead individuals of C. leucosticta in the dried-up area of the channel. These results indicate that agricultural channels can be an important temporal habitat for amphidromous freshwater shrimps, but that the drying-up of the channels can lethally affect migrating atyid shrimps. Les canaux agricoles peuvent etre des habitats importants pour les especes aquatiques rurales. Cependant l'alimentation en eau des canaux agricoles peut varier substantiellement avec le type d'agriculture, les systemes d'irrigation/drainage et en consequence affectent la viabilite des populations locales des especes aquatiques. Cette etude est centree sur la crevette atyidee amphidrome d'eau douce Caridina leucosticta. Pour eclaicir si C. leucosticta utilise les canaux agricoles comme habitat en relation avec la fluctuation de l'apport en eau, nous avons conduit une serie de releves de terrain sur la distribution de cette crevette dans un canal de drainage de riziere (eau de source) pres de la riviere Furu, Japon central, durant Juillet et Decembre 2008. Un grand nombre de C. leucosticta ont migre dans ce canal de drainage. L'eau des rizieres adjacentes a disparu en Octobre, car l'irrigation a stoppe, mais le niveau de l'eau a ete maintenu par un apport d'eau de source. Mi-Novembre l'apport d'eau de source a presque disparu, ce qui a pratiquement asseche le canal, et de nombreuses crevettes etaient concentrees dans des flaques isolees du canal. Ainsi la fragmentation de l'habitat de C. leucosticta est due a la discontinuite en eau. Ces flaques d'eau ont seche completement mi-Decembre. De nombreux individus morts ont ete trouves dans parties assechees du canal. Ces resultats indiquent que les canaux agricoles peuvent etre un important habitat temporaire pour les crevettes d'eau douce amphidromes, mais que l'assechement de ces canaux peut affecter de facon letale les crevettes atyides migratrices.]

Allocation of energy between reproduction and growth is a fundamental principle in life history theory. In a seasonal environment, animals with indeterminate growth are predicted to change their allocation between reproduction and growth according to the season. We examined the seasonal variation in the allocation to reproduction and growth within a breeding season in the hermit crab Pagurus nigrivittatus. Females of P. nigrivittatus produced smaller clutches during the early part of the reproductive period than later although the frequency of prenuptial molting was lower early in the period. We suggest that environmental factors, such as temperature, may affect the development rate of embryos, as well as the metabolism and surplus energy in females, which have consequences for seasonal variation in the energy allocation to reproduction and growth.

Interval between reproductive events is an important factor for iteroparous animals because it determines the number of clutches throughout life. This study examined whether female size, clutch size, shell size and prenuptial molting affected the clutch interval in the hermit crab Pagurus nigrivittatus. Precopulatory guarding pairs of P. nigrivittatus were sampled in the field and kept in the laboratory until the female extruded eggs. The clutch interval of each female was assessed as one of two types of relatively "short" and "long" intervals by checking whether the guarded female had eggs and/or egg cases from the preceding brood or not when the guarding pair was collected. The clutch interval was longer in females with prenuptial molting than those without molting and these females usually grew larger at the prenuptial molt. This suggests that female P. nigrivittatus with a long interval might allocate energy into growth at the expense of the number of clutches during the current reproductive season. The allocation to growth is theoretically predicted to decrease with female size. Gastropod shell size is also known to affect the reproductive activity in hermit crabs. However, female size did not significantly affect the clutch interval in P. nigrivittatus, and the effect of gastropod shell size on clutch interval was not consistent with previous empirical studies. These results may be caused by differences in the gastropod species of shell occupied by the females of P. nigrivittatus.

Asymmetry in mutual predation can be important in species replacement between native and invasive species. Mutual predation between the endangered Japanese native crayfish species Cambaroides japonicus and the North American invasive crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus was studied to assess the potential impact of P. leniusculus on C. japonicus. We made laboratory experiments to examine mutual predation (i) between individuals in pairs of the same and different species and (ii) among a group comprising single and mixed species. We also made field surveys to clarify the frequency of cannibalism of the two species. In laboratory experiments, the frequency of cannibalism was low by both two species, but predation by P. leniusculus on C. japonicus was severe and most P. leniusculus survived both in different species pairs and in mixed species groups. In field surveys, remains of the two crayfish species, which may have been caused by predation by the same species, i.e., cannibalism, were scanty. The results suggest that asymmetry in mutual predation can be an important cause of species replacement of the native C. japonicus by the invasive P. leniusculus in the field.

This is the first report of two North American branchiobdellidans, Sathodrilus attenuatus Holt, 1981, and Xironogiton victoriensis Gelder and Hall, 1990, on the signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana, 1852) introduced into Japan from the Columbia River system, northwestern North America. Signal crayfish from 12 localities in eastern and northern Hokkaido, Japan, were examined and each supported S. attenuatus. In addition, an individual of this species was found on preserved material from Ishikawa Prefecture, central Honshu. All of these branchiobdellidans reported in Hokkaido most probably came from the original population of signal crayfish introduced into Lake Mashu, Hokkaido, Japan, in 1930. It is suggested that the use of non-pathogenic branchiobdellidans, when present, provides an easy method for tracing the spread of crayfishes around Japan and could also be applied in other countries and continents. Specimens of X. victoriensis were only found on crayfish in a stream at Akashina in Nagano Prefecture, central Honshu, Japan. Although the signal crayfish appears to be displacing the endemic Japanese crayfish, C. japonicus, no native branchiobdellidans were found on any of the introduced signal crayfish examined.

KAZUYOSHI NAKATA14), KIMIHIRO TSUTSUMI2), TADASHI KAWAI3) andSEIJIGOSHIMA1) *) Laboratory of Marine Biology and Biodiversity, Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8611, Japan 2) Zukosha Co., Ltd., 1-17 Kita, 18 Nishi, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-0048, Japan 3) Hokkaido Nuclear Energy Environmental Research Center, 261-1 Miyaoka, Kyowa, Hokkaido 045-0123, Japan

Ovary formation, egg number and egg size was studied to examine the fecundity of the Japanese crayfish Cambaroides japonicus. From histological observations of ovaries, the ovarian eggs of C. japonicus developed as asynchronous oocytes. Many well-grown oocytes were in the ovary after spawning, as well as before spawning. The smallest carapace length of ovigerous females was 15.2 mm. The pleopodal egg number ranged from 22 to 75 and significantly increased with female body size. Both egg diameters (2.13–2.50 mm) and weights (0.009–0.017 g) also significantly increased as the female body size increased, but were variable even for the same size crayfish. We conclude that larger females should be used for seed production of C. japonicus because of its high fecundity and large eggs. Mature females spawn only once a year in natural habitats, but multiple spawning can be artificially induced within 1 year because of well-grown oocytes that remain in the ovary after spawning. Thus, we recommend that an effective technique for artificial induction of multiple spawning be developed from our results.

We developed a simple, easy method with a microplate to artificially incubate Japanese crayfish (Cambaroides japonicus) eggs for their cultivation. We prepared 6-, 12-, 24-, 48-, and 96-well microplates containing sterile water heated to 5, 10, 15, and 20 °C. Fourteen experimental groups for each water temperature were prepared for each of different water volumes (0.125–10 ml) in each well. One embryonic egg was placed in each well. Experiments were also conducted with water collected from the lake where the eggs were harvested from and held at 15 °C. In the microplates with sterile water, high proportions of eggs hatched (60–100%) at 15 °C in all volumes of water, although the proportions of hatching were low (0–20%) at 5, 10, and 20 °C. All eggs died in the experiments that used lake water. We conclude that the 96-well would be the most effective size to hatch crayfish eggs in, because of its convenience. This method using a microplate is simpler and easier compared with methods of previous studies to artificially incubate crayfish eggs, and therefore it might be useful to incubate eggs of other freshwater crayfish species. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Purpose The purpose of this study is to design the system of recycling based society which "the Basic Law for Establishing the Recycling- based Society" aims, and construct an econometric model of Japanese economy in which resource recycling processes or activities are explicitly introduced. Furthermore, we will propose some simulations of promoting recycling of iron scrap, glass bottle, aluminum ingot, waste paper and PET resin. 2. Background There are quality gaps between products made from recycled materials (RM) and those made from virgin materials (VM). If there are not the condition where price of RM is sufficiently lower than price of VM, it would be difficult to promote utilization of RM. Therefore, promoting utilization of RM semi-compulsorily through changing relative price of RM and VM by means of policies like subsidizing or removing tax burden can be effective. However, we must investigate the proper method while comparing costs accompanying possible policies. Furthermore, the change of recycling rate in specific sector affects price system or production in the whole economy through technological interdependency among industries, and also affects emission of carbon dioxide. We must investigate by considering and estimating influences of recycling promoting policy to whole economy. 3. Method We constructed sub-models of five different materials; iron scrap, glass bottle, aluminum ingot, waste paper and PET resin. The substitutions between RM and VM which are accompanied by changes in relative price are described in sub-models. We analyzed empirically influences of recycling promoting policy to whole economy by applying Leontief's input output analysis based on results from sub-models. For example, we estimated changes in relative prices generated by subsidizing, and changes in emission of carbon dioxide from production. 4. Implication The influence of recycling promoting policy to emission of carbon dioxide seems to be small. However our purpose is not to show that the impact of specific policy in removing environmental burden is impressive. As we mentioned above, what our research objective is "Does any market mechanism work between RM and VM?". If no market mechanism was effective between RM and VM, our society have to pay high social costs to promote recycling, or we have to wait until new technology appears. If we discovered some possibilities of market mechanisms between RM and VM, then recycling based society will naturally become taking advantage of recycling promoting policies.

The reproduction of the alien crayfish species Pacifastacus leniusculus inhabiting Lake Shikaribetsu, Hokkaido, Japan, was studied from August 2002 to August 2003. Spawning was for a short period after mating in mid October. The eggs developed to eyed stage in June the following year and hatched in mid July. After remaining with their mother for several weeks, the juveniles became independent between late July and August. The egg numbers attached to pleopods of this crayfish significantly increased with the female body size. The time of spawning in Lake Shikaribetsu was similar to that of this crayfish living in North America and Europe reported by previous studies, but the time of egg hatching was later in Lake Shikaribetsu compared with some populations in North America and Europe. A comparison of our results of the reproduction of P. leniusculus with that of the endangered Japanese endemic crayfish species Cambaroides japonicus reported by previous studies showed that P. leniusculus has a markedly higher reproductive ability than C. japonicus in terms of egg numbers.

The appropriate water velocity in artificial burrows for theJapanese crayfish species Cambaroides japonicus was studied.An experimental system of two artificial burrows (burrows A and B)of the same size was set in a large tank. The velocity of burrowA was 0 cm/s and that of burrow B was varied andset at 0 cm/s, 5 cm/s, 10 cm/s,20 cm/s and 30 cm/s. The selectionof these two burrows by C. japonicus was observed. No animalsselected burrow B significantly more than burrow A above 10 cm/s.At 20 cm/s, some crayfishes were swept away andcould not return to burrows because of the high water velocity.At 30 cm/s, most animals were swept away. We concludethat the appropriate water velocity for the suitability of artificialburrows and the immediate foraging area adjacent to the burrowsshould be as low as 5 cm/s.

Intra- and inter-specific competition for shelter, in relation to prior residence, sex differences, and body-size effects, was studied in the laboratory to assess the potential impact of the alien crayfish species Pacifastacus leniusculus on the endangered Japanese endemic crayfish species Cambaroides japonicus. The resident was placed in an aquarium, which contained a single shelter of preferred size for both C. japonicus and P. leniusculus. After 24 h, the intruder was introduced into the aquarium. In the experiments using different sex pairs of crayfish of approximately equal size, male residents had a significant prior residence effect against female intruders in both crayfish species in the intraspecific contests. However, residents of P. leniusculus dominated C. japonicus regardless of the sex in interspecific contests. In experiments using male crayfish pairs of different sizes, larger individuals had more successful possessions of the shelter against smaller individuals regardless of cray...

1. Overview of the JIP Database To measure total factor productivity (TFP) of the Japanese economy by industry, we created a database that we are calling the Japan Industry Productivity (JIP) database. The database contains annual information on 84 sectors, including 49 non-manufacturing sectors, from 1970 to 1998. It includes detailed information on factor inputs, annual input-output tables, relatively reliable deflators, and some additional data, such as R&D stock, and Japan's trade data by trade partner, etc., at a detailed sectoral level. 2. Estimate of TFP Growth of the Japanese Economy Labor quality is not taken into consideration in estimating TFP growth rates in many previous studies. When we estimate the TFP growth rate of the Japanese economy for the period of 1970-98 by taking it into consideration, we find that the TFP growth rate in consideration of labor quality was lower than that in no consideration of it. This implies that accumulation of human capital through school education and aging after 1970 contributed to improvements in labor productivity.When we take capacity utilization into consideration, we find that we tend to underestimate TFP for the periods of recession. Still, we can say that the TFP growth rates in the 1990s were lower than those before. 3. Estimate of TFP Growth By Sector When we compare TFP growth rates in service sectors and non-service ones, we find that those in non-service sectors were relatively high before the 1990s, while TFP growth rates in service sectors were relatively low before the 1990s. However, a new trend can be found in the 1990s. It should be noted that TFP growth rates in some of service sectors where deregulation was accelerated in the 1990s were getting higher. 4. Estimate of Software Investment In National Accounts of Japan, only order-made software investment is estimated. We estimate in-house software and general application software as well as order-made software. Our estimation suggests that Japan's official statistics underestimate software investment. The huge gap in software investment between the U.S. and Japanese official statistics vanishes when we take account of in-house software and general application software.

Lethal limits of high temperature were studied to clarify the effects on the survival of the endangered Japanese crayfish species Cambaroides japonicus and the alien species Pacifastacus leniusculus. After the acclimation period for 2 weeks at 16°C, the temperature was raised at a rate of 1°C per week. As a result, the ultimate upper lethal temperatures of C. japonicus and P. leniusculus were 27.0 and 31.1°C, respectively, and the lethal temperature for P. leniusculus was significantly higher than for C. japonicus. The natural distributions of these two species are discussed in terms of the temperature tolerance.

SUMMARY: Preference for artificial burrows by the endangered Japanese crayfish species Cambaroides japonicus was studied to improve its cultivation. The occupation of artificial burrows, which were made from straight polyvinyl chloride pipes of different internal diameters (Y, mm), by crayfishes of different total lengths (X, mm) was significantly (P < 0.001, n = 56) described by a linear regression: Y = 0.49X + 3.42 (19.0 ≤X≤ 70.2). Among burrows of different lengths [crayfish total length (TL) × 1, × 2, × 3, and × 4], crayfishes significantly preferred burrows that were greater than TL × 3 (P < 0.001, n = 588).

Of the 10 Australian crayfish genera, Euastacus is the largest with 49 species described, including some of the largest, and some of the rarest, species in the World. Many species are slow growing, late maturing, and the lifespan of some exceeds 30 years. The distribution of the genus encompasses most of the east coast of Continental Australia, latitudinal range of approximately 23 0 . This chapter reviews the distribution, habitat, population data, and biology for these crayfish, and their current conservation status where available. Sixteen species were listed on the IUCN Red List in 1996, and there have been increasing concerns regarding the conservation status of the genus since then. The current review was undertaken in order to allow, 1) assessment of the conservation status of all species against current IUCN Red List Criteria, and, 2) a discussion of research, conservation and management imperatives for the genus, presented in two accompanying papers. Keywords:biology; conservation status; Continental Australia; crayfish; Euastacus ; IUCN Red List

We performed 66 percutaneous lumbar nucleotomies (PLN) in 63 patients from October 1984 to March 1990. The patients (42 male patients, 21 female patients) ranged in age from 13 to 73 years (average, 36.8 years). Postoperative observation ranged from 6 months to 5 years and 11 months (average, 2.0 years). Pre- and postoperative discograms were reviewed. Fifty-one patients (79.7%) were judged to have successful results: they were able to return to gainful employment and to their preinjury level of activity. Six patients (9.4%) were judged to have unsuccessful results, and they required more radical surgical procedures. PLN was not effective for the patients with extremely severe positive SLR or agonizing leg pain.

Six cases of synovial sarcoma were examined histochemically in order to clarify the components of mucosubstances in the tumor tissues. The tumors were classified into 1) monophasic type, 2) predominantly monophasic type with focal biphasic differentiation, and 3) biphasic type. The former two groups and sarcomatous areas in the biphasic tumors contained various amounts of hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and, in some cases, heparitin sulfate. By contrast, the epithelioid regions in the biphasic-type tumors had periodic acid-Schiff-positive glycoproteins which contained various amounts of sialic acid, in addition to hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate. The significance of the presence of glycoproteins in the mesenchymal tumors is emphasized. It seems likely that the synovial sarcomas contain various kinds of mucosubstances and that sensitivity to hyaluronidase treatment is not necessarily the diagnostic criterion of synovial sarcoma.

Economic growth was achieved by inputs of labor and capital, and by technological progress. Therefore, to achieve good economic performance, there can be no disturbances that impede free and efficient inputs of labor and capital in the market, and that technology progress is vigorous. There are various arguments on why Japans economy stagnated in the 1990s and beyond, but few attempts have been made to analyze the stagnated situations based on the idea of a neo-classical growth model. We explored how the economy is affected by disturbances of the prices of labor and capital based on the idea of a neo-classical growth model. First, we calculated the marginal productivity of capital, the marginal productivity of labor, Euler equation, and substitution of leisure and labor to select parameters so that they can reproduce real economic data. Real return to capital exceeded marginal productivity of capital before 1990, but fell below one after 1990. On the contrary, real wages were under marginal productivity of labor, but were over after 1990. Second, concerning wages, we calculated how much labor input and production increased, unless there was no discrepancy between real wages and marginal productivity of labor. The calculation shows that labor input increased by 20 percent, and production increased by 16 percent. Third, this increase of labor input is not considered to worsen utility of people considering that substitute of leisure were not preferred in 1990s. Finally, the problem of which factors caused the inefficient allocation of leisure and labor remains. We can tentatively say that monetary shock and the rigidity of wages caused it.

Though the Japanese government has established several economic policies concerning the promotion of IT investment (including investment tax credit (ITC) from 2003 FY), there are few academic papers on IT investment in Japan. It is thus important to analyze empirically which factors affect IT investment and how ITC increases IT investment. Using the JIP (Japan Industry Productivity) database made by the project team on potential growth at ESRI (Economic and Social Research Institute), our paper investigates several phases of IT investment in Japan. Trends on IT investment in Japan and other OECD countries are examined and IT investment functions are estimated by using panel data model and the instrumental variable method. The amount of IT investment in Japan is not so low when we compare it with that in the United States and other OECD countries. However, especially in the communications industry, the amount of IT investment in Japan is much less than that in the U.S. As for software investment in Japan, in-house software has stagnated since the first half of 1990 due to downsizing and outsourcing. The estimation results on investment function show that:(1) Coefficient on cost of capital is significantly negative, which means ITC is effective. (2) Coefficient on spillover effect is significantly positive, which means that an increase in IT investment in a specific industry stimulates IT investment in other industries. (3) Estimated increment on IT investment via ITC in 2003 is about 1 to 2 trillion yen. The results show that tax reduction, a demand-stimulating policy, increases IT investment via the decline of the cost of capital. However, in the long run, it is also important to determine whether IT investment contributes to increased productivity and growth of the economy. Both a demand-side and a supply-side analysis should be carried out to clarify the full significance of IT investment.

Japans economy today is plagued with a persistent deflation. From the early 1870s to the middle of the 1990s, however, Western countries too suffered from deflation. At that time, those countries experienced a fall in prices despite of a rise in money supply. In Japan, there is a controversy whether monetary policy is useful in battling deflation. The experiences of Western countries in the 19th century will give us some insight and suggestions, but they may not fit Japans economic situation today. The lesson that we could obtain from those experiences is simple. The reason why prices fell significantly while the money supply increased sharply in that age is that real production increased even more rapidly. Prices fell more rapidly than the ratio of money to real production decreased. This occurred due to the increase of the desire for holding money among the people. That is, prices did not increase because real production increased and the ratio of money to GDP increased. Deflation in the 19th century ended in the middle of the 1990s, and prices began to increase gradually with the increase of base money. Why, then, did the base money increase? Because gold mines in South Africa and Canada were discovered and new technologies that better extracted gold from the mines were introduced. Base money controlled under the gold standard increased due to the increase in the production of gold. As the result, a period of deflation that lasted for 30 years came to an end. It is clear that this increment of money led to an overcoming of deflation; the discovery of gold is considered to be an exogenous factor.

Deflation continues in Japan. The domestic corporate goods price index, excluding the effect of the consumption tax, has continuously declined since 1992. Moreover, the consumer price index (excluding fresh food) has declined since 1998. Why, then, does deflation continue? What do economists think of deflation? The purpose of this paper is to abstract the mechanism of price determination from Japanese macroeconomics textbooks, and to judge whether those mechanism can explain Japanese deflation. The basic conclusions of this paper are as follows. The mechanism of price determination is clearly explained in Japanese textbooks, which emphasize the short-term determination mechanism based on aggregated demand-aggregated supply curves. The mechanism says that price is explained by the money supply, by the gap between demand and supply, by expected inflation, and so on, and we empirically proved that the mechanism can explain real Japanese price fluctuations.