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Historically, Internet access has been linked to a country’s wealth. However, starting a decade ago, this situation changed dramatically and Internet access became increasingly available in primate range countries. The rapid growth of smartphone use in developing nations has created new avenues to communicate conservation. Here we assess the potential of social media to promote primate conservation at the local level within primate range countries. We interviewed 381 people in communities associated with 18 conservation projects from 11 countries to assess their use of social media. We found that 91% of the people had at least one social media account and 95% of these people checked their accounts daily. The median number of contacts per person across all platforms was 453 and 300 considering only each person’s most used platform. We also documented that local conservation projects had a diversity of information they wanted to relay to the local community through social media. Our research highlights the potential for social media to be an extremely useful communication tool for tropical conservation scientists. Thus, we encourage more conservation groups to explore using social media to communicate to local communities and to report on the impact it has on conservation.

Como homenaje y permanente recuerdo de quienes fuimos sus estudiantes, continuando su legado, en conmemoración de su aniversario luctuoso, el día 4 de abril.

As human modification of primate habitats expands, overlapping use of resources and conflict between people and primates are becoming more common, particularly at the forest–farm edge where primates feed on crops. Although there is anecdotal evidence that the white-faced capuchin monkey (Cebus imitator) feeds on crops in Panama, to our knowledge farmers’ perceptions of this behavior have not been systematically investigated. We assessed farmers’ perceptions of and attitudes toward crop-feeding by white-faced capuchins by conducting freelisting exercises with 37 farmers and in-depth interviews with 29 farmers in rural communities of Renacimiento District, Chiriqui Province, Panama. We also set up 26 camera traps in five maize fields to capture crop-feeding behavior. Our findings indicate farmers perceived the white-faced capuchin to be one of the main crop feeders causing crop damage. Although two-thirds of the farmers we interviewed said that crop-feeding by white-faced capuchins has decreased over the years, 70% of farmers are still greatly affected by capuchin crop damage. Camera trap data revealed the white-nosed coati to be the most frequent crop feeder; capuchins were identified only in two crop-feeding events. Farmers identified several techniques that they use to deter white-faced capuchins, most of which are currently nonlethal. Farmers expressed sympathy for the capuchins, noting the impact of deforestation on wild food abundance and recognizing that “capuchins need to eat too.” These findings indicate that rural communities in Chiriqui province, Panama may be receptive to conservation messaging that emphasizes human–capuchin coexistence.

Antecedentes y Objetivos: Diversos estudios han destacado el importante papel de los monos aulladores (Alouatta palliata mexicana) en la dispersión de semillas y, con ello, en la regeneración de las poblaciones de plantas con frutos carnosos de los bosques tropicales. Sin embargo, poca es la evidencia empírica sobre cuáles podrían ser los mecanismos que les permitiría a los monos aulladores favorecer la germinación de las semillas de muchas especies de plantas, incluyendo la escarificación de su cubierta externa. En este trabajo se evaluó si los endocarpos de Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae), una especie importante en la dieta de los monos aulladores, podrían ser escarificados al pasar por el tracto digestivo de estos primates. Métodos: Se colectaron endocarpos de las heces de monos aulladores, así como frutos maduros del suelo, en la región de Los Tuxtlas, municipio Catemaco, Veracruz, México. Mediante cortes transversales de los endocarpos y su análisis en el microscopio electrónico de barrido, se tomaron medidas del grosor de la cubierta externa y probaron las diferencias entre ambos tipos de muestras (i.e., endocarpos de frutos y endocarpos que pasaron por el tracto digestivo). Resultados clave: Se observó que el grosor de la cubierta de los endocarpos en frutos fue mayor (=47.05±9.69 µm) que el de endocarpos en heces (=1.51±3.60 µm) (W=0.48, p

Leucism is an aberration of color that occurs in individuals as a consequence of genetic mutations. Along with albinism and piebaldism, leucism is one of the most commonly reported types of chromatic anomalies in mammals, however, detailed descriptions of such conditions are rare. We report the first record of a leucistic black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) in southern Mexico, an apparently healthy individual who was the male of a typical black howler group. Additionally, we compiled records of anomalous pigmentation in American primates published in peer-reviewed journals between 1960 and 2021, as well as social media posts regarding casual observations of individuals with such conditions. We found 11 scientific articles which described 13 records of anomalous pigmentation in a total of 44 individuals, from five species, three subspecies and one hybrid. Leucism was the most widely reported condition with six records. We discovered 19 online posts of 20 individuals with anomalous pigmentation, which included two species not reported in scientific literature. Our results suggest that anomalous coloration is not a significant threat to survival, but its occurrence raises interesting, and possibly alarming, questions about the causes of such conditions. We encourage researchers and civil society to formally report such observations of animals with color aberrations, to expand upon the understanding of this phenomenon and to get involved in the conservation of tropical forests.

Among mammals, the order Primates is exceptional in having a high taxonomic richness in which the taxa are arboreal, semiterrestrial, or terrestrial. Although habitual terrestriality is pervasive among the apes and African and Asian monkeys (catarrhines), it is largely absent among monkeys of the Americas (platyrrhines), as well as galagos, lemurs, and lorises (strepsirrhines), which are mostly arboreal. Numerous ecological drivers and species-specific factors are suggested to set the conditions for an evolutionary shift from arboreality to terrestriality, and current environmental conditions may provide analogous scenarios to those transitional periods. Therefore, we investigated predominantly arboreal, diurnal primate genera from the Americas and Madagascar that lack fully terrestrial taxa, to determine whether ecological drivers (habitat canopy cover, predation risk, maximum temperature, precipitation, primate species richness, human population density, and distance to roads) or species-specific traits (body mass, group size, and degree of frugivory) associate with increased terrestriality. We collated 150,961 observation hours across 2,227 months from 47 species at 20 sites in Madagascar and 48 sites in the Americas. Multiple factors were associated with ground use in these otherwise arboreal species, including increased temperature, a decrease in canopy cover, a dietary shift away from frugivory, and larger group size. These factors mostly explain intraspecific differences in terrestriality. As humanity modifies habitats and causes climate change, our results suggest that species already inhabiting hot, sparsely canopied sites, and exhibiting more generalized diets, are more likely to shift toward greater ground use.

Los monos aulladores negros o saraguatos negros ('Alouatta pigra') constituyen una de las tres especies de primates silvestres mexicanos. Sin embargo, a pesar de que se ha documentado su gran flexibilidad conductual para adaptarse a diferentes ambientes, se tienen evidencias del impacto que tiene la disponibilidad del alimento y características de la vegetación en el éxito del aprovechamiento del hábitat que ocupen. A fin de evaluar de qué manera esta especie se adapta y selecciona su dieta dentro de un hábitat con fragmentación extrema, se realizaron observaciones conductuales. Así se pudo conocer las especies vegetales consumidas por dos grupos de saraguatos negros en dos sitios con distintas características y limitado espacio arbóreo.

espanolSe presenta una revision sistematica y actualizada de la literatura sobre discapacidad en primates no humanos. La informacion obtenida muestra que en diversas especies de primates los individuos con malformaciones y otras anormalidades, congenitas o adquiridas, tienen una importante flexibilidad conductual que en muchas ocasiones les permite sobrevivir y reproducirse a pesar de sus limitaciones. En algunos casos se ha observado que los individuos con discapacidad reciben cuidados por parte de sus congeneres, particularmente las crias e infantes. Las madres tambien muestran flexibilidad conductual para adaptarse a las necesidades y ritmos de los individuos afectados. El cuidado en la discapacidad aparece como un rasgo importante del comportamiento social de los primates no humanos. Por lo anterior, se plantea una critica a la teoria aun prevaleciente del darwinismo social y su ideologia de un mundo que mejora con base en la competencia y supervivencia solo de los mas aptos, situacion que impacta negativamente en el trato a personas con discapacidad. EnglishA systematic and updated review of the literature on disability in non-human primates is presented. The information obtained shows that in several primate species, individuals with malformations and other abnormalities, congenital or acquired, have an important behavioral flexibility that in many cases allows them to survive and reproduce despite their limitations. In some cases, it has been observed that individuals with disabilities are cared for by their peers, particularly the offspring and infants. Mothers also show behavioral flexibility to adapt to the needs and rhythms of affected individuals. Caregiving in disability appears as an important feature of the social behavior of non-human primates. Therefore, a critique of the still prevailing theory of social Darwinism and its ideology of a world that improves based on competition and survival only of the fittest, a situation that has a negative impact on the treatment of people with disabilities, is raised.

BackgroundSaliva contains a very complex mixture of proteins for defense against microbiological pathogens and for oral food perception. Howler monkeys are Neotropical primates that can consume a mostly leaf diet. They are well known to thrive in highly disturbed habitats where they may cope with a diversity of dietary challenges and infection risks. We aimed to describe the salivary proteome of howlers to contribute to better understanding of their physiology.MethodsWe analyzed the salivary proteins of wild black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra), by SDS-PAGE-1-D and Nano LC-MS/MS and categorized them by their function involved in host defense and oral food perception.ResultsOur proteomic analysis identified 156 proteins in howler saliva including a number of host defense peptides that are the first line of defense in mammals, such as defensin, cathelicidin, dermcidin, and lactotransferrin, and proteins with anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, and anti-viral capacity, such as IgA, IgG, IgM, BPI, salivary heat shock 70 kDa protein, beta-2-microbulin, and protein S-100. We also identified key proteins necessary for taste perception, including salivary carbonic anhydrase VI, cystatin D, IgA, and fatty acid-binding protein. Proteins to detect astringent foods were identifying, including four members of cystatins (A, B, C and D), lactoperoxidase, and histidine-rich proteins. No chitinase and amylase were identified as would be expected because howlers do not eat insects and little starch. These findings provide basic information to future studies in oral biology, ingestive physiology, and physiological ecology of mammals and non-human primates.

Background Bifidobacterium genus are considered to be beneficial bacteria for their hosts; however, knowledge about the specific species that are part of the gut microbiome of howler monkeys is scarce. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a useful technique for the identification of non-cultivable or difficult to grow bacterial species. With the goal of detecting species of the genus Bifidobacterium in black howler monkeys, we used PCR on DNA derived from faecal samples. Methods We collected and extracted DNA from 40 faecal samples. Using specific primers, we performed PCR and nested PCR to detect members of the Bifidobacterium genus and a subset of species: Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium longum and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. animalis. Results 97.5% (39/40) of the samples were positive for Bifidobacterium spp. We found B longum in 100% of the analysed samples. Conclusions This is the first report of B longum in black howler monkey faeces.

Es muy probable que ningún naturalista haya contribuido al conocimiento de tantas disciplinas como fue el sabio Tabasqueño José Narciso Rovirosa. Sus aproximaciones pioneras en diversos campos de la zoología y la botánica han sido un parteaguas para el conocimiento y descripción de muchas especies. En particular sus relatos de campo sobre aspectos de la Distribución, Comportamiento, Amenazas y Conservación de las tres especies de primates nativos de México son notables, y constituyen quizás el precedente de cualquier estudio primatológico realizado en este país. Dado lo anterior, el presente estudio describe las anotaciones más relevantes de esas incursiones pioneras sobre los primates silvestres y sus preocupaciones, las cuales curiosamente lucen tan actuales como las mismas amenazas que el detectó y que siguen impactando la conservación de los monos Mexicanos.

Learning theories are rarely considered in the design of conservation education programs in Mexico. However, if students are taught in a way in which they can easily relate, this could impr...

Studying the relationship between culture, perception, and use of biodiversity allows understanding the reasons why people exercise an impact on other species and generates information to create culturally relevant conservation proposals. In this study, we applied a qualitative approach to understand the cultural aspects, perception, and use of howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana) and spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus) by the Popoluca indigenous people in two localities (Los Mangos and Piedra Labrada) in the region of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. We carried an ethnographic research conducting 46 semi-structured interviews (23 in each community). The findings suggest that howler monkeys are widely known in myths and popular beliefs. Spider monkeys have traditionally been used as medicine and pets and not as food or for economic purposes. Both species evoke positive emotions, and all the interviewees are interested in their conservation so that their children and future generations can “enjoy” them. People perceive that the main threat to primates is cattle ranching. Also, they believe that howler monkeys are more abundant than spider monkeys. These results can be used to promote regional primate conservation.

Research is a highly competitive profession where evaluation plays a central role; journals are ranked and individuals are evaluated based on their publication number, the number of times they are cited and their h-index. Yet such evaluations are often done in inappropriate ways that are damaging to individual careers, particularly for young scholars, and to the profession. Furthermore, as with all indices, people can play games to better their scores. This has resulted in the incentive structure of science increasingly mimicking economic principles, but rather than a monetary gain, the incentive is a higher score. To ensure a diversity of cultural perspectives and individual experiences, we gathered a team of academics in the fields of ecology and evolution from around the world and at different career stages. We first examine how authorship, h-index of individuals and journal impact factors are being used and abused. Second, we speculate on the consequences of the continued use of these metrics with the hope of sparking discussions that will help our fields move in a positive direction. We would like to see changes in the incentive systems, rewarding quality research and guaranteeing transparency. Senior faculty should establish the ethical standards, mentoring practices and institutional evaluation criteria to create the needed changes.

The availability and spatial distribution of food resources affect animal behavior and survival. Black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) have a foraging strategy to balance their nutrient intake that involves mixing their consumption of leaves and fruits. The spatial aggregation of food items should impact this strategy, but how it does so is largely unknown. We quantified how leaf and fruit intake combined (here termed food set selection) was spatially aggregated in patches and how food aggregation varied across seasons. Using variograms we estimated patch diameter and with Generalized Least Square models determined the effect of food spatial aggregation on food selection. Only fruits were structured in patches in the season of highest availability (dry-season). The patches of food set selection had a diameter between 6.9 and 14 m and were explained by those of mature fruit availability which were between 18 and 19 m in diameter. Our results suggest that the spatial pattern of food selection is influenced by patches of large fruit-bearing trees, not by particular species. Fruit also occur along spatial gradients, but these do not explain food selection, suggesting that howlers maximize food intake in response to local aggregation of fruit that are limiting during certain seasons. We demonstrate how the independent spatial modelling of resources and behavior enables the definition of patches and testing their spatial relationship.

With 60% of all primate species now threatened with extinction and many species only persisting in small populations in forest fragments, conservation action is urgently needed. But what type of action? Here we argue that restoration of primate habitat will be an essential component of strategies aimed at conserving primates and preventing the extinctions that may occur before the end of the century and propose that primates can act as flagship species for restoration efforts. To do this we gathered a team of academics from around the world with experience in restoration so that we could provide examples of why primate restoration ecology is needed, outline how primates can act as flagship species for restoration efforts of tropical forest, review what little is known about how primate populations respond to restoration efforts, and make specific recommendations of the next steps needed to make restoration of primate populations successful. We set four priorities: (1) academics must effectively communicate both the value of primates and the need for restoration; (2) more research is needed on how primates contribute to forest restoration; (3) more effort must be put into Masters and PhD level training for tropical country nationals; and finally (4) more emphasis is needed to monitor the responses of regenerating forest and primate populations where restoration efforts are initiated. We are optimistic that populations of many threatened species can recover, and extinctions can be prevented, but only if concerted large-scale efforts are made soon and if these efforts include primate habitat restoration.

In tropical forest, there are many types of food for primates but their availability is not always predictable. We followed 6 species of primates in the wild in 3 countries, Uganda, Ghana, and Mexico, to see if the way they move through the forest change when the food items availability changes also. We found that behavior is flexible and primates modify the way they search for food according to the spatial and temporal distribution of food.

Habitat loss threatens many primate species, yet some can thrive in small forest fragments. As forest loss increases due to anthropogenic land conversion or climate change, understanding the adaptive behaviors that facilitate the use of fragments becomes critical in predicting which species will be most likely to survive. To address this issue, we quantified apparent adaptive behaviors of five groups of howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) living in small fragments located in cattle pastures in Balancan, Tabasco, Mexico. Here we report on two potentially adaptive behaviors that may facilitate their ability to survive in forest fragments: terrestrial locomotion and drinking water directly from sources, such as tree hollows. We examined associations between these behaviors and characteristics of fragment vegetation, as well as howler diet and general activity. In 1117 h of observation, 63 terrestrial events were observed, which mainly involved traveling to isolated trees. We hypothesized that larger groups would use larger areas and engage in more terrestrial locomotion because of the greater number of individuals; also larger groups might be less vulnerable to predation. However, there was no relationship between group size and the number of terrestrial events. There was a significant relationship between the cumulative distances traveled on the ground and the first principal component (PC 1) of general behavior during the dry season. Most of the 18 drinking events unexpectedly occurred in the rainy season and only 7 during dry season, and, counter to our expectation, their occurrence was not related to what plant parts were being eaten. We use this research to discuss a conservation action plan we have put in place for this howler population at a landscape level involving protected areas, education, policy development, and knowledge dissemination.

Background Analyses of environmental correlates of the composition of gastrointestinal parasite communities in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) have been hindered by inadequate calibration techniques of detection and quantification methods of the parasites. Here we calibrate samples and compare the likelihood of parasite detection using two flotation techniques, FLOTAC and Mini-FLOTAC, and compare flotation solution, preservation method and dilution ratio for egg detection and counts of the most common parasites (Controrchis spp. and Trypanoxyuris spp.) in howler monkeys. Results For samples preserved in 5% formalin, the Mini-FLOTAC technique was the best option for qualitative and quantitative copro-microscopic analysis. This technique displays an 83.3% and 100% detection of Controrchis spp. and Trypanoxyuris spp. infections, respectively. For the trematode Controrchis spp., more eggs per gram of feces (EPG) were recorded with the flotation solution (FS) #7 (zinc sulfate; specific gravity SG = 1.35) at 1:20 and 1:25 dilution than other methods. By contrast, for the nematode Trypanoxyuris spp., the best results were recorded with FS1 (sucrose and formaldehyde; SG = 1.20) at 1:10 dilution. Conclusions We recommend the Mini-FLOTAC technique for general use with parasite analysis on frugivore/folivores like the howler monkey, especially if many samples are analyzed. The technique has a high detection rate and the best EPG counts, allowing the qualitative and quantitative analysis of parasite load among the species or populations without the need for specialized equipment. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-017-2532-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background Loss and fragmentation of Neotropical primates’ habitat can alter the health and individual adaptation. Physiological parameters reflect health status and individuals responses to the habitat conditions. Methods We captured six wild adult females and six adult males of Alouatta pigra to evaluate their physical condition (body mass, respiratory and heart rate, and rectal temperature), hematology and blood chemistry on fragmentation habitat condition at southeastern Mexico. Results The males weighed more than females, but the female’ temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate were higher. Low values of hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cells suggest some degree of anemia in these howler monkeys. Low levels of the total protein, albumin, albumin/globulin Ratio, and low levels of blood urea nitrogen suggest that howler monkeys could have protein and carbohydrate deficiencies. Conclusions Howler monkeys living under the highly degraded conditions at Balancan, Tabasco, could be showing adaptability by modifying their physiology, hematology, and blood chemistry in response to the conditions of their fragmented landscape.

Dietary tannins can affect protein digestion and absorption, be toxic, and influence food selection by being astringent and bitter tasting. Animals that usually ingest tannins may regularly secrete tannin-binding salivary proteins (TBSPs) to counteract the negative effects of tannins or TBSPs production can be induced by a tannin-rich diet. In the wild, many primates regularly eat a diet that contains tannin-rich leaves and unripe fruit and it has been speculated that they have the physiological ability to cope with dietary tannins; however, details of their strategy remains unclear. Our research details the salivary protein composition of wild and zoo-living black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) feeding on natural versus manufactured low-tannin diets, and examines differences in TBSPs, mainly proline-rich proteins (PRPs), to determine whether production of these proteins is dependent on the tannin content of their food. We measured the pH, flow rate, and concentration of total protein and trichloroacetic acid soluble proteins (an index of PRPs) in saliva. Howler monkeys produced slightly alkaline saliva that may aid in the binding interaction between tannin and salivary proteins. We used gel electrophoresis to describe the salivary protein profile and this analysis along with a tannin-binding assay allowed us to detect several TBSPs in all individuals. We found no differences in the characteristics of saliva between wild and zoo-living monkeys. Our results suggest that black howler monkeys always secrete TBSPs even when fed on foods low in tannins. This strategy of constantly using this salivary anti-tannin defense enables them to obtain nutrients from plants that sometimes contain high levels of tannins and may help immediately to overcome the astringent sensation of their food allowing howler monkeys to eat tanniferous plants.

Dramatic increases in human populations and per capita consumption, climate change, overexploitation of marine and freshwater resources, and deforestation have caused a litany of negative consequences for biodiversity. Such doom-and-gloom scenarios are widely known, frequently cited and frankly depressing. Although accurate assessments of threats have clear value for intervention planning, we believe there is also a need to reflect on successes. Such reflection provides balance to negative scenarios and may shift attention towards constructive, positive action. Here we use a systematic evaluation of 90 success stories provided by conservation scientists and practitioners to explore the characteristics of the projects perceived as being associated with success. Success was deemed to have occurred for 19.4% of the projects simply because an event had occurred (e.g. a law was passed) and for 36.1% of projects quantitative data indicated success (e.g. censuses demonstrated population increase). However, for most projects (63.9%) there was no evaluation and success was defined by the subjective opinion of the respondent. Conservation community members viewed successful projects most often as those being long-term (88%), small in spatial scale (52%), with a relatively low budget (68%), and involving a protectionist approach alone or in combination with another approach. These results highlight the subjectivity of definitions of success in conservation but also the characteristics of conservation efforts that the conservation community perceives as indicative of success.

Recent evidence has shown that primates worldwide use agroecosystems as temporary or permanent habitats. Detailed information on how these primates are using these systems is scant, and yet their role as seed dispersers is often implied. The main objective of this study was to compare the activity, foraging patterns and seed dispersal role of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) inhabiting shaded cocoa plantations and rainforest in southern Chiapas, Mexico. We gathered data on three monkey groups living in shaded cocoa plantations and three groups living in rainforest, using focal sampling, and collecting fecal samples. General activity and foraging patterns were similar in both habitats, with the exception that monkeys in the cocoa habitat spent more time feeding on petioles. Monkeys in shaded cocoa plantations dispersed 51,369 seeds (4% were seeds ≥3 mm width) of 16 plant species. Monkeys in the rainforest dispersed 6,536 seeds (78% were seeds ≥3 mm width) of 13 plant species. Our data suggest that the difference between habitats in the proportion of large versus small seeds dispersed reflects differences in fruit species abundance and availability in cocoa versus forest. Mean seed dispersal distances were statistically similar in both habitats (cocoa = 149 m, forest = 86 m). We conclude that the studied cocoa plantations provide all elements necessary to constitute a long-term permanent habitat for black howler monkeys. In turn, howler monkeys living in these plantations are able to maintain their functional role as seed dispersers for those native tree and liana species present within their areas of activities. Am. J. Primatol. 76:890–899, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Recently several studies have focused on the structure of ecological networks to provide insights into ecological and coevolutionary dynamics of interacting species. However, rarely have the tools of ecological networks been used to understand how feeding relationships vary among individuals of the same population. Here we use 7 years of data and network analyzed to examine the intrapopulation diet variation in a group of howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata). We show that individual monkey–resource food webs are nested, but not modular and the stability of these patterns is independent of time of day or season. Our findings indicated that individuals do not forage randomly when compared to null models and that the diets of more selective monkeys represent subsets of the diets of other individuals. Moreover, there are no subgroups that eat a particular set of available plant species more frequently than other sets, suggesting that the spatial strategy of group foraging plays an important role in the feeding ecology of each group given that individuals of the same group tend to share similar resources while the group remains at a feeding site. Since the diets of more selective individuals are a subset of other monkeys, we suggest that more selective monkeys are able to outcompete others for preferred foods. Additionally, we did not observe differences in nutritional content or spatial abundance of more frequently eaten plant species when compared with less frequently eaten species, but in most cases, the more frequently eaten plant species were Ficus (Moraceae). This reinforces the important role that Ficus trees play in howler monkey feeding ecology, likely due to its year-round availability. Am. J. Primatol. 76:670–678, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Across the tropics, landscapes of continuous rain forest are being replaced by forest fragments embedded in a matrix of pastures and farmlands. This conversion has endangered many species, including arboreal primates. Species vary, however, in how they are able to supplement their diets from the matrix, although this is rarely studied in primates. We studied two groups of black howlers (Alouatta pigra) for a total of 1156 h, one inhabiting a smaller fragment (0.4 ha) and the other a larger fragment (20 ha). monkeys inhabiting the smaller fragment spent more time in the matrix than in the habitat fragment, spending 50 % of their time (335 of 667 h) in an abandoned mango (Mangifera indica) plantation, 8.8 % in scattered trees, and 0.2 % in pastures. In contrast, monkeys in the larger fragment spent 75 % of their time (368 of 489 h) in the forest fragment and only 25 % of their time in the matrix. Feeding in the matrix accounted for 53 % and 12 % of the foraging time for groups in the smaller and larger fragments respectively. We suggest that Alouatta pigra can use resources in the matrix to supplement their diet by means of crop raiding or taking other resources in many fragmented landscapes and that this may be true also for many fragment-dwelling primates. It is important to include a consideration of the matrix in conservation planning, considering both the total resources available to primates and the consequences of crop raiding for farmers.

Animals' responses to potentially threatening factors can provide important information for their conservation. Group size and human presence are potentially threatening factors to primates inhabiting small reserves used for recreation. We tested these hypotheses by evaluating behavioral and physiological responses in two groups of mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana) at the "Centro Ecologico y Recreativo El Zapotal", a recreational forest reserve and zoo located in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Both groups presented fission-fusion dynamics, splitting into foraging subgroups which varied in size among, but not within days. Neither subgroup size nor number of people had an effect on fecal cortisol. Out of 16 behavioral response variables tested, the studied factors had effects on six: four were affected by subgroup size and two were affected by number of people. With increasing subgroup size, monkeys increased daily path lengths, rested less, increased foraging effort, and used more plant individuals for feeding. As the number of people increased, monkeys spent more time in lower-quality habitat, and less time engaged in social interactions. Although fecal cortisol levels were not affected by the factors studied, one of the monkey groups had almost twice the level of cortisol compared to the other group. The group with higher cortisol levels also spent significantly more time in the lower-quality habitat, compared to the other group. Our results suggest that particular behavioral adjustments might allow howler monkeys at El Zapotal to avoid physiological stress due to subgroup size and number of people. However, the fact that one of the monkey groups is showing increased cortisol levels may be interpreted as a warning sign, indicating that an adjustment threshold is being reached, at least for part of the howler monkey population in this forest fragment.

El desarrollo de programas de enriquecimiento ambiental para animales en cautiverio promueve el bienestar animal aumentando la actividad física, reduciendo el estrés y, previniendo o reduciendotrastornos como las estereotipias o comportamientos anormales. En el Parque Zoológico Yaguar Xoo se diseñó y aplicó un programa a cuatro jaguares (Panthera onca). Fueron dos machos (de cuatroy diez años de edad) y dos hembras (de cuatro y diez años, respectivamente). Se aplicaron estímulos ocupativos (mordedera y garrafón con piedras), alimenticios (pollo, carne de res, pescado, alimento comercial Whiskas®) y sensoriales (grabaciones de vocalizaciones de jaguar Panthera onca, puma Puma concolor y mono aullador Alouatta palliata, así como sacos con diferentes esencias de menta, naranja, anís, orina de lince Lynx rufus y de ocelote Felis pardis). Con el objetivo de evaluar la eficiencia del programa, mediante la reducción o eliminación de las estereotipias (balanceo, paseo y vocalización), se midieron los patrones de comportamiento presentados en los sujetos de estudio durante tres diferentes etapas: (1) previa al enriquecimiento (26 días), (2) aplicación del enriquecimiento ambiental (34 días) y, (3) posterior al enriquecimiento (22 días). Como resultado de la aplicación del programa encontramos una disminución significativa en la ejecución de estereotipias y un incremento en los comportamientos normales en los individuos de estudio. Para los cuatro jaguares el número de comportamiento normales exhibidos (independientemente de que fueran individuales o sociales) fue significativamente distinto entre las tres etapas del estudio (F2,306 = 4.215, p = 0.0156). En la etapa posterior al enriquecimiento la frecuencia de comportamientos normales fue similar a la etapa previa al enriquecimiento (p = 0.4680). El balanceo (9.57%) disminuyó drásticamente una vez que se aplicó el enriquecimiento ambiental (0.96%) y, esta tendencia se mantuvo aun cuando el enriquecimiento fue retirado (3.88%) (X2 = 102.9, p < 0.001). El paseo (1.96%) también disminuyó drásticamente una vez que se aplicó el enriquecimiento ambiental (0.36%) y, una vez que el enriquecimiento fue retirado, el porcentaje se incrementó a niveles similares con la etapa previa (1.26%) (X2 = 12.6, p < 0.001). La vocalización (3.06%) disminuyó drásticamente una vez que se aplicó el enriquecimiento ambiental (0.48%), sin embargo fue similar en las etapas previa y posterior al enriquecimiento (3.49%) (X2 = 21.14, p < 0.001). Esto demuestra que la aplicación del programa tuvo un efecto positivo al tiempo de evaluación en el comportamiento de los felinos, al disminuir la frecuencia de estereotipias.

We developed a potential distribution model for the tropical rain forest species of primates of southern Mexico: the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra), the mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata), and the spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi). To do so, we applied the maximum entropy algorithm from the ecological niche modeling program MaxEnt. For each species, we used occurrence records from scientific collections, and published and unpublished sources, and we also used the 19 environmental coverage variables related to precipitation and temperature from WorldClim to develop the models. The predicted distribution of A. pigra was strongly associated with the mean temperature of the warmest quarter (23.6%), whereas the potential distributions of A. palliata and A. geoffroyi were strongly associated with precipitation during the coldest quarter (52.2 and 34.3% respectively). The potential distribution of A. geoffroyi is broader than that of the Alouatta spp. The areas with the greatest probability of presence of A. pigra and A. palliata are strongly associated with riparian vegetation, whereas the presence of A. geoffroyi is more strongly associated with the presence of rain forest. Our most significant contribution is the identification of areas with a high probability of the presence of these primate species, which is information that can be applied to planning future studies and then establishing criteria for the creation of areas to primate conservation in Mexico.

In the Mexican state of Chiapas the rainforest has been cleared, to make way for crops and extensive cattle ranching, at an annual rate of 12.4% since 2002. The conservation status of the Endangered black howler monkey Alouatta pigra in these fragmented landscapes in north-eastern Chiapas has not previously been examined. We therefore surveyed A. pigra populations in the municipality of Playas de Catazajá during 2004–2006 to obtain population and habitat data for this species in 115 fragments of remnant vegetation. A geographical information system was used to determine the variables (fragment size, and distances to the nearest fragment, human settlement and water body) that could be used to generate an index of habitat potential for A. pigra. We estimated a population of 659 individuals and a mean troop size of 5.0 ± SE 2.3. The adult male : female ratio was 1 : 1.4, the adult female : juvenile ratio 1 : 0.6 and adult female : immature ratio 1 : 0.8. The index of habitat potential indicates that 12% of the fragments have a high conservation potential for A. pigra. This index is a valuable tool for evaluating the conservation status of this species and its habitat, and can be expanded to include additional variables, thus allowing for a more comprehensive assessment.

exico Abstract In the Yucat ´ an Peninsula, spider monkeys Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis are generally found in two contrasting conditions: large tracts of conserved forest or small fragments surrounded by human populations. In the present study, we analyzed fecal cortisol levels of spider monkeys to investigate whether environ- mental conditions have an influence on stress; specifically, we compared fecal cortisol across individuals living in conserved forests, fragmented forests and captive conditions (zoos and pets). Radioimmunoanalysis of fecal samples from 121 individuals indicated significant differences in mean cortisol for A. g. yucatanensis based on habitat type, with the lowest levels found in the conserved forest condition. The higher cortisol levels in both fragmented forest populations and in captive individuals may be the result of metabolic and behavioral stress. The mean male fecal cortisol concentration was significantly higher than that of females, and the fecal cortisol concentration was higher in the dry season compared with the wet season in a conserved habitat. Therefore, we emphasize the importance of considering sex and seasonality when monitoring fecal cortisol concentrations of spider monkeys, and more generally of frugivores, as they face a seasonal variation in food availability. Finally, our results suggest that forest fragmentation may create long-term stressors for spider monkeys, affecting the viability of populations living under such conditions.

The use of noninvasive collected samples as source of DNA in studies of wild primate populations has increased in recent years. Fresh-plucked hairs represent an important source of DNA, with relatively high quality and concentration. In this study, we describe a low-cost noninvasive technique for collecting fresh-plucked hairs used to obtain DNA samples from free-ranging black howler monkey populations (Alouatta pigra). We designed and manufactured darts made of wooden dowels, with the anterior part smeared with glue, which were projected with blowpipes to trap howler monkey hairs. All of the materials to make the darts are inexpensive and are available locally. We collected 89 samples from 76 individuals residing in 15 troops, and the total number of hairs obtained was 754. We found no differences in the number of hairs collected among sex–age classes or among localities but the percentage of darts recovered with sample varied among localities. Preliminary results indicate that over 96% of samples yielded DNA suitable for polymerase chain reaction-based microsatellite marker analysis. The technique proved successful for collecting fresh-plucked hairs of free-ranging black howler monkeys without any trauma to the animals and can be easily adapted to obtain samples from other wild primate and mammal species. Am. J. Primatol. 71:359–363, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Habitat loss and fragmentation can create severe environmental problems for forest species, and may ultimately lead to local population extinction. One mechanism that might play a role in this process is the physiological stress response of individuals, because animals that experience chronic stress might show reduced rates of reproduction and survival. In this study, we investigated whether black howler monkeys Alouatta pigra inhabiting forest fragments experienced greater physiological stress than those in continuous forest. Faecal cortisol metabolite levels were compared between monkeys inhabiting fragmented and continuous forests in Southern Mexico. The sex of the animals was taken into consideration, while activity patterns and aggressive events were also recorded to examine differences in behaviour and sociality. A chemiluminescent enzyme immunoassay was utilized to determine faecal cortisol metabolite levels. Our results showed that cortisol metabolite levels were higher in howler monkeys from forest fragments, and that they vary through time. Patterns of locomotion also differed between forest types, as monkeys from fragments travelled at higher frequencies, while monkeys from continuous forests performed more of their movements within tree crowns. There was no difference in the frequency of feeding, resting and social interactions between fragmented and continuous forest monkeys. Higher faecal cortisol metabolite levels in fragmented areas are likely the result of suboptimal environments and could have long-term adverse effects on monkey health, fertility and survival. We propose that faecal cortisol metabolite measurements can be a useful conservation tool for monitoring populations of long-lived species subsisting under suboptimal conditions.

We analyzed immature-to-mother social distance (juveniles and non-nursing infants) in two Mexican mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) troops inhabiting a tropical rainforest fragment (40 ha) at Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico. During July and August of 2000 and 2001 we applied an instantaneous sampling method (317 hr) to record the behaviors of the immatures and their mothers, as well as distances (ordinal scale) between immatures and their mothers (IMD), and between immatures and nonmother individuals (INMD). Immatures were generally less than 5 m away from any individual of the troop. Social distance was influenced by the different behaviors of both mothers and immatures, with the shortest distances occurring during rest (IMD

Two methods are commonly used to describe the feeding behavior of wild primates, one based on the proportion of time animals spent feeding on specific plant parts (“time-based” estimates) and one based on estimates of the actual amounts of different plant materials ingested (‘“weight-based” estimates). However, studies based on feeding time may not be accurate for making quantitative assessments of animals’ nutrient and energy intake. We analyzed the diet of two groups of Alouatta pigra living in forest fragments using two different methods (time- and dry weight-based estimates), to explore how these alternative approaches impact estimates of (a) the contribution of each food type to the diet and (b) the macronutrient composition of the diet, including available protein (AP), non-protein energy (NPE), and total energy (TE) intake. We conducted behavioral observations (N = 658 hr and N = 46 full day focal follows), from August 2012 to March 2013. For each feeding bout, we estimated both time spent feeding and actual fresh- and dry-weight consumption by counting the number of food items ingested during the bout. Using time-based estimates, A. pigra showed a predominantly leaf-based diet. In contrast, weight-based estimates described combined a fruit and leaf-based diet. There were no differences between methods when estimating AP intake; however, we found significant differences while estimating NPE and TE intake. Time-based estimates provide us with important information such as the foraging effort spent on food items, trees, or patches, while weight-based estimates may provide more accurate information concerning nutrient and energy intake. We suggest that quantitative estimates of nutrient intake in a primate's diet be based on observations of wet and/or dry weight actually ingested rather than extrapolated from time spent feeding.

Uncommonly observed behaviors were systematically recorded in a troop (n = 9 individuals) of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) inhabiting a small forest fragment (1.7 ha) in Leona Vicario, Balancán, Tabasco, Mexico. Between February 2002 and January 2003 (n = 499 h), we observed behaviors such as ground travel (85 occasions, total = 269 min/10.8% of total locomotion time), ground foraging (eight occasions, total = 50 min/0.84% of total feeding time) and drinking water pooled in tree holes (20 times, total = 93 min/0.31% of total activity time). Total time (412 min) for these non-resting behaviors (feeding and locomotion on the ground) is almost equivalent to time devoted to social activities (420 min). These behaviors indicate that howler monkeys may be responding to pressures imposed by the small size of the fragment by adopting diverse strategies to cover their basic nutritional needs in this environment. They accomplish this while exposing themselves to potential predation by coyotes (Canis latrans), as was observed once during the study. It is likely that these behaviors are occurring at an increasing rate among monkeys in fragmented landscapes.

Se informa sobre el comportamiento alimentario del mono aullador negro (Alouatta pigra Lawrence) durante un ciclo anual (Febrero 2002 a Enero 2003) en un remanente boscoso de 0.164 ha rodeado de potrero en la Ranchería Leona Vicario, Balancán, Tabasco, México. La presente investigación se constituye como el primer estudio sistemático para el estado de Tabasco sobre la dieta de esta especie. Mediante el método Animal Focal, se registraron observaciones conductuales (n= 499 h) de las actividades de una tropa de A. pigra (n= 9; 3 MA, 2 HA, 2 J, 2 In), de las cuales el 19.6 % (96 h 55 min) fueron dedicadas a la alimentación. En el área de estudio se registró el consumo de 15 spp. (55.5 %) de un total de 27 especies de plantas presentes en el área de estudio. El número de especies usadas por mes variaron desde 5 a 12 con un promedio de 9 especies. Las hojas jóvenes y los frutos maduros fueron las partes vegetales principales en la dieta de los monos aulladores y los porcentajes de uso fueron 70.8 % y 11.4 % respectivamente. Entre las diferentes especies de plantas consumidas por los aulladores, se mostró preferencia (X2= 25060, p>0.001, gl. =14) por algunas que se presentaban poco abundantes en el sitio de estudio (p.e. Andira inermes con 0.007 ind/ha). Bajo estas condiciones de perturbación, el consumo de diferentes especies vegetales, así como de sus diferentes partes a lo largo del año indica que los monos aulladores negros poseen una gran flexibilidad alimenticia que les ha permitido sobrevivir en el área de estudio. Sin embargo, se presenta como un reto el investigar la viabilidad poblacional de la especie en años futuros.

We examined the germination of Ficus seeds (subgenus Urostigma) after defecation by six primate species (New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, and apes). Seeds from figs (control) and primate feces were placed in a thermostatically controlled chamber for 30 days. Seeds defecated by Alouatta palliata, A. pigra, and Cercopithecus aethiops showed significantly higher germination rates than control seeds. In addition, seeds from A. palliata feces germinated significantly faster than control seeds and seeds from C. aethiops and Pan troglodytes. These differences may be due to the different digestive characteristics of the six primate species. Zoo Biol 23:273–278, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The purpose of this work was to measure important nutritional status parameters for a group of free-ranging Mexican mantled howler monkeys (A. palliata mexicana) and compare those data to published data for primates. The nutritional status of six free-ranging Mexican mantled howler monkeys was examined using biochemical analysis. Blood samples were analyzed for serum chemistry; lipids; vitamins D, A, and E; carotenoids; and minerals. Serum chemistries were somewhat different from published values, but did not indicate clear abnormalities. Circulating lipids were not different from those in captive primates. Circulating vitamin D metabolites (83±16.3 for 25(OH)D ng/mL; 563±53.8 for 1,25(OH)2D pg/mL) were similar to those in wild-caught tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), lower than some published data for captive Cebidae and Callitrichidae, and higher than for Old World primates. Serum concentrations of retinol (16.5±1.64 μg/dl) were similar to those in captive spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). Retinyl palmitate and retinyl stearate was present in howler samples and may have reflected recent dietary intake. Circulating α-tocopherol (997±97.6 μg/dl) was similar to published values for other primates. Carotenoid levels in howlers were within the ranges reported for many primates. A significant finding was the presence of cadmium in samples that should be further studied. The number of individuals sampled was limited, and further investigation into the effects of seasonality is needed. However, this information provides new data for howler monkeys and for free-ranging primates in general. Zoo Biol 22:239–251, 2003. © 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The Yucatan Peninsula contains some of the largest tracts of tropical forest in Mexico. These forests host six species of ungulates, including the largest and last survivor of the Neotropical megafauna, the Central American Tapir; one of the rarest ungulate species in Mexico, the White-lipped Peccary; and one endemic species of deer, the Gray Brocket. The Yucatan Peninsula is also home to another peccary species, two more deer species, five felid species, including the jaguar and the puma, and three species of primates. Most of these species face serious conservation threats, as their habitat is increasingly fragmented and because they are among the preferred targets of subsistence hunters. Some of these species require large areas of habitat in good conservation status to fulfill their basic needs for survival. Several research projects undertaken in the past years, and some currently being carried out, have addressed a lack of basic ecological information in this region. Among the ungulates, ecological research has focused on tapir, white-lipped peccary and the three deer species. For felids, scientific attention has been focused on the two largest species, the jaguar and puma; and all three primate species have received scientific attention recently, although more studies have focused on the black howler monkey. This chapter is an attempt to summarize what is currently known about these, the largest mammal species of the Yucatan Peninsula, and to point out gaps in the existing information. Such information is absolutely necessary to design conservation and management plans for these highly interesting and endangered species.