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Background, Aim and Scope: Ria de Aveiro (Portugal) is a shallow coastal lagoon of high economic and ecological importance. Hardly any data on its chemical pollution by polar organic pollutants are available in literature. This study focused on the presence and sources of a series of phenolic endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in this area, including parabens, alkylphenolic compounds and bisphenol-A (BPA). A number of possible sources of pollution are present in the area, including the large harbours present in the lagoon, the city of Aveiro and the rivers discharging into the area. A recently constructed submarine wastewater outfall, located a few kilometres from the lagoon inlet has also been suggested as a possible source of pollution to Ria de Aveiro in several publications. The aim of the current field study was to investigate the occurrence and main sources of phenolic endocrine disruptors in Ria de Aveiro., Materials and Methods: An extensive sampling campaign was performed, with surface water and wastewater grab samples taken at over 50 locations, in duplicate on different days. Samples were treated using solid phase extraction and analysed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry., Results and Discussion: Concentrations in lagoon water were generally low: not exceeding 20 ng/L for most analytes. Levels in river water exceeded those in the lagoon by a factor 3 to 500 (o-phenylphenol (PhP) and nonylphenoxy ethoxy acetic acids (A9PEC), respectively), with concentrations up to 700 ng/L for BPA and 7,300 ng/L for A9PEC. Samples from the harbours showed EDC levels similar to those in the rest of the lagoon, but in the city of Aveiro, elevated concentrations were observed for alkylphenol ethoxylates (A9PEO), A9PEC, PhP and BPA. Wastewater effluents showed low levels for parabens, whilst alkylphenolic compounds reached several micrograms per litre. The effluents are discharged into the ocean via a submarine outfall, but as marine water near the outfall showed slightly elevated concentrations only for A9PEO, it does not seem to be a significant source of these EDCs for the area., Conclusions: All the studied phenolic EDCs were detected in the study area, with high levels found in some of the rivers discharging into the lagoon, and generally low concentrations in the lagoon itself. The main sources for all investigated EDCs were the rivers Caster and Antuã which discharge into the lagoon. The city of Aveiro was identified as a secondary source. As the tidal water exchange volume is much larger than the freshwater input from the rivers, concentrations of phenolic EDCs remained low in the lagoon.

Effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are responsible for the input of estrogenic contaminants into aquatic ecosystems, leading to widespread effects in wildlife. In the present work, levels of estrone (E1), 17alpha- and 17beta-estradiol (E2), 17alpha-ethinylestradiol (EE2), bisphenol A (BPA), and nonylphenol (NP) were quantified in effluents from WWTPs located in Ria de Aveiro (NW Portugal), as well as in the final effluent discharged into the Atlantic Ocean through the S. Jacinto submarine outfall. Reference sites, located at the entrance of the estuarine system and at the seaside, were also included. Samples were collected under summer (June 2005) and winter (February 2006) conditions. For the summer survey samples, estrogenicity and androgenicity were evaluated using the yeast estrogen screen (YES) and the yeast androgen screen (YAS) assay. Estrone levels varied from 0.5 to 85 ng/L in the summer survey and between

Alkylphenolic compounds derived from microbial degradation of non-ionic surfactants became a major focus of environmental research in the early 1980s. More toxic than the parent compounds and weakly oestrogenic, certain metabolites of nonylphenol polyethoxylate (NPnEO) surfactants, especially nonylphenol (NP), raised sustained concern over the risk they pose to the environment and triggered legal measures as well as partly voluntary actions by the manufacturing industry. Continuous progress in the development of analytical techniques is crucial to understand how these alkylphenolic compounds behave in wastewater treatment, the aquatic environment and in laboratory experiments. Measured concentrations and mass flows of phenolic endocrine disruptors, particularly nonylphenolic compounds, bisphenol A and parabens in municipal wastewater effluents and in the Glatt River, Switzerland, show that rain events leading to discharges of untreated wastewater into rivers have a great impact on the riverine mass flows of contaminants. Biotransformation experiments in our laboratory with nonylphenoxyacetic acid and individual NP isomers enabled the elucidation of degradation pathways of these compounds. The finding that nonylphenoxyacetic acid is metabolized via NP further underscores the role of NP as the most relevant metabolite in the degradation of NPnEO. Several Sphingomonadaceae bacterial strains were found to degrade alpha-quaternary 4-NP isomers by an ipso-substitution mechanism, and to use only the aromatic part of the molecule. These reactions turned out to be isomer specific, meaning that rate and extent of transformation depend on constitution, and possibly also on the absolute configuration of the alkyl side chain of a specific isomer. The observation that NP isomers with distinct oestrogenic activities are differentially degraded has significant implications for risk assessment.

Nucella lapillus imposex levels and organotin (OT) concentrations in water and female tissues were measured in samples collected from the Ria de Aveiro (NW Portugal) between 1997 and 2007. Vas deferens sequence index (VDSI), relative penis size index (RPSI), mean female penis length (FPL) and percentage of imposex affected females (%I) were used to determine imposex levels at each site. A significant temporal decline in imposex intensity was observed during the assessed period. Imposex decrease was evident after 2003 although improvements were most notable from 2005 to 2007, probably due to the implementation of the EU Council Regulation no.782/2003 forbidding further application of tributyltin (TBT) antifouling on vessels carrying EU flags. Despite these improvements, OT analysis in N. lapillus female tissues and water indicate there are still recent TBT inputs into the study area.

This study focused on the occurrence and behaviour in wastewater and surface waters of several phenolic endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) including parabens, alkylphenolic compounds, phenylphenol (PhP) and bisphenol A (BPA). Analytical procedures using solid-phase-extraction and LC-MS/MS techniques were applied to samples of influents and effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) discharging into the Glatt River (Switzerland) as well as to river water samples. A mass flow analysis provided insight into the main sources and the fate of these contaminants during different weather conditions. Concentrations in influents were in the low microg/L range for most analytes. Removal of parabens in the WWTPs was mostly above 99%. Nonylphenol polyethoxylates (A(9)PEO) removal amounted to 98%, but in some cases nonylphenoxy acetic acid (A(9)PEC) or nonylphenols (NP) were formed. In effluents, concentrations were highest for the A(9)PEC, A(9)PEO and NP. Concentrations in river water were in the high ng/L range for alkylphenolic compounds and in the low ng/L range for BPA, PhP and the parabens. During the sampling period, in which several rain events occurred, both water flows and mass flows varied strongly. Mass flows in WWTP effluents and in the river increased with increasing water flows for most compounds indicating that higher water flows do not lead necessarily to a proportional dilution of the pollutants. Throughout the low water flow period, mass flows predicted from the known inputs were similar to the actual mass flows at the end of the river for most analytes. For none of the EDCs, significant in-stream removal could be observed. In the periods with high water flows, mass flows in the river were much higher than can be explained by the initially defined sources. Discharge of untreated wastewater influent into the river was assessed as an additional source. Adding this source improved the mass balance for some, but not all of the analytes.

Fluorochemicals are persistent contaminants that are globally distributed in air, water, sediments, and biota. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play an important role in mitigating pollutant releases from municipalities to aquatic and terrestrial environments. However, because WWTPs are point sources of fluorochemicals, it is important to understand their contribution to fluorochemical burdens in the greater context of watersheds. To this end, over a 1 week period, the mass flows of 11 fluorochemicals from seven WWTPs that discharge effluent into the Glatt River in Switzerland were measured and compared to the measured mass flows within the Glatt River. Overall, the fluorochemicals were not removed efficiently during wastewater treatment. Effluents from WWTPs and Glatt River water were dominated by perfluorooctane sulfonate, which was detected in all samples, followed by perfluorohexane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoate. The mass flows of fluorochemicals emanating from WWTPs were found to be conserved within the 35 km Glatt River, which indicates that input from the WWTPs is additive and that removal within the Glatt River is not significant. Per capita discharges of fluorochemicals were calculated from the populations served by the WWTPs studied; the values determined also account for the fluorochemical content of Lake Greifen (Greifensee), which is a lake at the headwaters of the Glatt River that also receives treated wastewater.

We report a survey on the occurrence and distribution of natural (17beta-estradiol, E2; estrone, E1) and synthetic (nonylphenol, NP; nonylphenol monoethoxylate carboxylate, NP1EC; bisphenol-A, BPA; benzophenone, BP; mestranol, MES; 17alpha-ethinylestradiol, EE2; diethylstilbestrol, DES) endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in water, sediment and biota (Mediterranean mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis) in the Venice lagoon, a highly urbanized coastal water ecosystem that receives both industrial and municipal wastewater effluents. The survey was preceded by the development of tailor made extraction and clean-up procedures for the simultaneous HPLC-ESI-MS determination of all examined EDCs in sediment and biota samples. Satisfactory extraction performances and method detection limits (MDLs) were obtained for almost all EDCs. Most of the selected compounds were found in water and sediment (concentration range: 2.8-211 ng/L, and 3.1-289 microg/kg, d.w., respectively), while only 17alpha-ethinylestradiol and nonylphenol were recorded in biota samples (conc. range: 7.2-240 ng/g, d.w.). 17beta-estradiol and ethinylestradiol contributed mostly to the water estradiol equivalent concentration (EEQ) (1.1-191 ng/L, average: 25 ng/L), while synthetic EDCs (17alpha-ethinylestradiol, diethylstilbestrol) were mainly responsible of the sediment EEQ (1.1-191 microg/kg, average: 71 microg/kg, d.w.). Whenever diethylstilbestrol was not recorded in the sediment, water EEQs were similar to sediment EEQs. A remarkable increase of nonylphenol was observed in sediments over the last decade.

Recently we showed that degradation of several nonylphenol isomers with alpha-quaternary carbon atoms is initiated by ipso-hydroxylation in Sphingobium xenophagum Bayram (F. L. P. Gabriel, A. Heidlberger, D. Rentsch, W. Giger, K. Guenther, and H.-P. E. Kohler, J. Biol. Chem. 280:15526-15533, 2005). Here, we demonstrate with 18O-labeling experiments that the ipso-hydroxy group was derived from molecular oxygen and that, in the major pathway for cleavage of the alkyl moiety, the resulting nonanol metabolite contained an oxygen atom originating from water and not from the ipso-hydroxy group, as was previously assumed. Our results clearly show that the alkyl cation derived from the alpha-quaternary nonylphenol 4-(1-ethyl-1,4-dimethyl-pentyl)-phenol through ipso-hydroxylation and subsequent dissociation of the 4-alkyl-4-hydroxy-cyclohexadienone intermediate preferentially combines with a molecule of water to yield the corresponding alcohol and hydroquinone. However, the metabolism of certain alpha,alpha-dimethyl-substituted nonylphenols appears to also involve a reaction of the cation with the ipso-hydroxy group to form the corresponding 4-alkoxyphenols. Growth, oxygen uptake, and 18O-labeling experiments clearly indicate that strain Bayram metabolized 4-t-butoxyphenol by ipso-hydroxylation to a hemiketal followed by spontaneous dissociation to the corresponding alcohol and p-quinone. Hydroquinone effected high oxygen uptake in assays with induced resting cells as well as in assays with cell extracts. This further corroborates the role of hydroquinone as the ring cleavage intermediate during degradation of 4-nonylphenols and 4-alkoxyphenols.

Recent research into the effects of mixtures of estrogenic chemicals has revealed the capacity for similarly acting chemicals to act in combination, according to the principles of concentration addition. This means that, collectively, they may pose a significant environmental risk, even when each component is present at a low and individually ineffective concentration. The aim of this study was to investigate the ecological significance of mixture effects at low-effect concentrations by assessing the combined effect of estrogenic chemicals on the reproductive performance of fish. Pairs of fathead minnows were exposed to five estrogenic chemicals. Endpoints analyzed included fecundity, the expression of male secondary sexual characteristics, somatic indices, and vitellogenin induction. In the first phase of the study, a concentration-response analysis was performed to investigate the relative sensitivity of these endpoints. In the second phase, mixture effects at low-effect concentrations were explored by exposing fish to each of the mixture components, individually and in combination. Data from these experiments provide evidence of mixture effects on fitness and fecundity, demonstrating the capacity for chemicals to act together to affect reproductive performance, even when each component is present belowthe threshold of detectable effects. This has important implications for hazard assessment and contributes to our understanding of mixture effects at increasing levels of biological complexity.

Existing environmental risk assessment procedures are limited in their ability to evaluate the combined effects of chemical mixtures. We investigated the implications of this by analyzing the combined effects of a multicomponent mixture of five estrogenic chemicals using vitellogenin induction in male fathead minnows as an end point. The mixture consisted of estradiol, ethynylestradiol, nonylphenol, octylphenol, and bisphenol A. We determined concentration-response curves for each of the chemicals individually. The chemicals were then combined at equipotent concentrations and the mixture tested using fixed-ratio design. The effects of the mixture were compared with those predicted by the model of concentration addition using biomathematical methods, which revealed that there was no deviation between the observed and predicted effects of the mixture. These findings demonstrate that estrogenic chemicals have the capacity to act together in an additive manner and that their combined effects can be accurately predicted by concentration addition. We also explored the potential for mixture effects at low concentrations by exposing the fish to each chemical at one-fifth of its median effective concentration (EC50). Individually, the chemicals did not induce a significant response, although their combined effects were consistent with the predictions of concentration addition. This demonstrates the potential for estrogenic chemicals to act additively at environmentally relevant concentrations. These findings highlight the potential for existing environmental risk assessment procedures to underestimate the hazard posed by mixtures of chemicals that act via a similar mode of action, thereby leading to erroneous conclusions of absence of risk.

We investigated the effect of an injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the rat medial forebrain bundle (MFB) on the degeneration and the function of the dopaminergic cell bodies in the substantia nigra (SN) 3 and 5 weeks after lesioning. After injection of 6-OHDA into the MFB a complete loss of dopamine content was apparent in the striatum 3 weeks after lesioning. In the SN the amount of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive dopamine cells decreased gradually, with a near-complete lesion (> 90%) obtained only after 5 weeks, indicating that neurodegeneration of the nigral cells was still ongoing when total dopamine denervation of the striatum had already been achieved. Baseline dialysate and extracellular dopamine levels in the SN, as determined by in vivo microdialysis, were not altered by the lesion. A combination of compensatory changes of the remaining neurones and dopamine originating from the ventral tegmental area may maintain extracellular dopamine at near-normal levels. In both intact and lesioned rats, the somatodendritic release was about 60% tetrodotoxin (TTX) dependent. Possibly two pools contribute to the basal dopamine levels in the SN: a fast sodium channel-dependent portion and a TTX-insensitive one originating from diffusion of dopamine. Amphetamine-evoked dopamine release and release after injection of the selective dopamine reuptake blocker GBR 12909 were attenuated after a near-complete denervation of the SN (5 weeks after lesioning). So, despite a 90% dopamine cell loss in the SN 5 weeks after an MFB lesion, extracellular dopamine levels in the SN are kept at near-normal levels. However, the response to a pharmacological challenge is severely disrupted.

The environmental behavior of nonylphenol ethoxylates (A9PEO) and their metabolites was investigated in field studies in the two Dutch estuaries Western Scheldt and the Rhine estuary. Using liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry (LC-ES-MS) analysis after solid-phase extraction, A9PEO, nonylphenol (NP), and the carboxylated metabolites (A9PEC) were determined in surface water and sediments. Maximum dissolved concentrations of 2.3, 0.9, and 8.1 microg L(-1), respectively, were found. In sediments, maximum concentrations of 242 and 1080 ng g(-1) for A9PEO and NP were observed. In almost half of the sediment samples, concentrations of A9PEC in sediments were below the detection limit. Occasionally relatively high values were observed, with a maximum of 239 ng g(-1). Metabolites of the carboxy alkylphenoxy ethoxy acetic acids (CAPEC) type could not be detected in any of the sediment or water samples. In the Scheldt estuary, dissolved concentration profiles showed nonconservative behaviorfor all detected compound groups. While A9PEO and NP concentrations strongly decreased along the salinity gradient, this decrease was weaker for the A9PEC metabolites. The increasing concentration ratio of A9PEC/A9PEO clearly illustratesthe important role that aerobic biodegradation plays in the estuarine fate of these compounds. It is concluded that the oxidative hydrolytic degradation pathway is the main degradation route in this nonstratified estuary. At high salinities, where concentrations drop to background levels of around 50 ng L(-1), this ratio decreases to about unity. Simple model calculations show that this can be explained if continuous diffuse discharges (e.g. from the intensive shipping in the estuary) are assumed. For the stratified Rhine estuary the water concentration profiles are less pronounced, possibly due to more complicated and turbulent water flows and point sources from the Rotterdam harbors.

Prebiotics is a recent novel food concept that includes food ingredients that are not digested in the human upper intestinal tract and hence arrive in the colon where they are selectively fermented by a limited number of colonic bacteria. Amongst these are bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, which are considered indicators of a well-balanced intestinal flora. Probiotics are bacteria that, while passing through the intestine, may exert specific beneficial effects on the host's physiology. In general, probiotics are members of the group of the lactic acid-producing bacteria. By means of a variety of experimental models it was demonstrated that prebiotic carbohydrates and probiotics consistently reduced processes of carcinogenesis and tumorigenesis. Synergistic chemopreventive actions were observed with combinations of the two, which together are called synbiotics. One of the most important causes of death in the ageing western population is colon cancer, which is typically associated with a western-style diet. On the basis of the available experimental data, an EU-funded research project (the SYNCAN project QLK1-1999-00346) was set up to evaluate whether synbiotics and prebiotics can be added to food without detriment to (and hopefully eventually improving) organoleptic properties. They are, as such, a good vector for importing nutritionally interesting properties into our diet.

The aerobic biodegradation of nonylphenol ethoxylates (A9PEO) was kinetically investigated in a laboratory-scale bioreactor filled with riverwater, spiked at a concentration of 10 mg L(-1) nonionic surfactants. Analyses of the samples applying liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry (LC-ES-MS) after solid-phase enrichment revealed a relatively fast primary degradation of A9PEO with >99% degradation observed after 4 days. Contrary to the generally proposed degradation pathway of EO chain shortening, it could be shown that the initiating step of the degradation is omega-carboxylation of the individual ethoxylate chains: metabolites with long carboxylated EO chains are identified (A9PEC). Further degradation proceeds gradually into short-chain carboxylated EO with the most abundant species being AgPE2C. The oxidation of the nonyl chain proceeds concomitantly with this degradation, leading to metabolites having both a carboxylated ethoxylate and an alkyl chain of varying lengths (CAPEC). The identity of the CAPEC metabolites was confirmed by the fragmentation pattern obtained with LC-ES-MS/MS. Both A9PEC and CAPEC metabolites are still present in the bioreactor after 31 days. In the aerobic degradation pathway, A9PEO2 is formed only to a minor extent and is even further degraded in several days. The endocrine disruptor nonylphenol was not found as a metabolite in this study.