Search

Co-culture model of endogenous Vstat120 impact on microglia response to oHSV-infected glioma.

Ewing sarcoma subcutaneous tumors stained for CD68+ macrophages, with hematoxylin counterstain.

List of genes differentially induced ({greater than or equal to} 1.5 fold) in macrophages cultured with rHSVQ1 (Q) vs. RAMBO (R) infected glioma cells (UI, uninfected).

List of genes significantly up-regulated (>1.5 fold) in macrophages upon culture with glioma cells infected with RAMBO (R) or rHSVQ1 (Q) relative to uninfected (UI) cells.

Microglia, the innate immune cells of the brain, develops a pro-inflammatory, "primed" profile with age. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing, we confirmed hippocampal microglia of aged mice (18 m.o.) had an amplified (4 h) and prolonged (24 h) neuroinflammatory response to peripheral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge compared to adults (2 m.o.). Overall, there were several unique cell-, age-, and time-dependent differences in the clusters of microglia identified. Analysis of upstream regulators and canonical pathways revealed impaired regulation of an activated, neuroinflammatory state within microglia. Moreover, microglia in the aged hippocampus failed to turn over during the resolving phase of neuroinflammation. Concomitantly, astrocytes in the aged hippocampus were "immunosenescent" both 4 and 24 h after LPS challenge. For example, aged astrocytes had reduced anti-inflammatory signaling and cholesterol biosynthesis, two pathways by which astrocytes regulate the inflammatory profile of microglia. One of the pathways reduced in the aged hippocampus was interleukin (IL)-10 signaling. This pathway increases astrocytic expression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, an anti-inflammatory cytokine with abundant receptor expression on microglia. Therefore, transgenic astrocytic Il10ra

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with chronic psychiatric complications and increased risk for development of neurodegenerative pathology. Aged individuals account for most TBI-related hospitalizations and deaths. Nonetheless, neurobiological mechanisms that underlie worsened functional outcomes after TBI in the elderly remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to identify pathways that govern differential responses to TBI with age. Here, adult (2 months of age) and aged (16–18 months of age) male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to diffuse brain injury (midline fluid percussion), and cognition, gliosis, and neuroinflammation were determined 7 or 30 d postinjury (dpi). Cognitive impairment was evident 7 dpi, independent of age. There was enhanced morphologic restructuring of microglia and astrocytes 7 dpi in the cortex and hippocampus of aged mice compared with adults. Transcriptional analysis revealed robust age-dependent amplification of cytokine/chemokine, complement, innate immune, and interferon-associated inflammatory gene expression in the cortex 7 dpi. Ingenuity pathway analysis of the transcriptional data showed that type I interferon (IFN) signaling was significantly enhanced in the aged brain after TBI compared with adults. Age prolonged inflammatory signaling and microgliosis 30 dpi with an increased presence of rod microglia. Based on these results, a STING (stimulator of interferon genes) agonist, DMXAA, was used to determine whether augmenting IFN signaling worsened cortical inflammation and gliosis after TBI. DMXAA-treated Adult-TBI mice showed comparable expression of myriad genes that were overexpressed in the cortex of Aged-TBI mice, includingIrf7,Clec7a,Cxcl10, andCcl5. Overall, diffuse TBI promoted amplified IFN signaling in aged mice, resulting in extended inflammation and gliosis.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTElderly individuals are at higher risk of complications following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Individuals >70 years old have the highest rates of TBI-related hospitalization, neurodegenerative pathology, and death. Although inflammation has been linked with poor outcomes in aging, the specific biological pathways driving worsened outcomes after TBI in aging remain undefined. In this study, we identify amplified interferon-associated inflammation and gliosis in aged mice following TBI that was associated with persistent inflammatory gene expression and microglial morphologic diversity 30 dpi. STING (stimulator of interferon genes) agonist DMXAA was used to demonstrate a causal link between augmented interferon signaling and worsened neuroinflammation after TBI. Therefore, interferon signaling may represent a therapeutic target to reduce inflammation-associated complications following TBI.

Platelet-derived growth factor receptor-beta (PDGFRβ) is a receptor tyrosine kinase found in cells of mesenchymal origin such as fibroblasts and pericytes. Activation of this receptor is dependent on paracrine ligand induction, and its preferred ligand PDGFB is released by neighboring epithelial and endothelial cells. While expression of both PDGFRβ and PDGFB has been noted in patient breast tumors for decades, how PDGFB-to-PDGFRβ tumor–stroma signaling mediates breast cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis remains unclear. Here we demonstrate this paracrine signaling pathway that mediates both primary tumor growth and metastasis, specifically, metastasis to the brain. Elevated levels of PDGFB accelerated orthotopic tumor growth and intracranial growth of mammary tumor cells, while mesenchymal-specific expression of an activating mutant PDGFRβ (PDGFRβD849V) exerted proproliferative signals on adjacent mammary tumor cells. Stromal expression of PDGFRβD849V also promoted brain metastases of mammary tumor cells expressing high PDGFB when injected intravenously. In the brain, expression of PDGFRβD849V was observed within a subset of astrocytes, and aged mice expressing PDGFRβD849V exhibited reactive gliosis. Importantly, the PDGFR-specific inhibitor crenolanib significantly reduced intracranial growth of mammary tumor cells. In a tissue microarray comprised of 363 primary human breast tumors, high PDGFB protein expression was prognostic for brain metastases, but not metastases to other sites. Our results advocate the use of mice expressing PDGFRβD849V in their stromal cells as a preclinical model of breast cancer–associated brain metastases and support continued investigation into the clinical prognostic and therapeutic use of PDGFB-to-PDGFRβ signaling in women with breast cancer. Significance: These studies reveal a previously unknown role for PDGFB-to-PDGFRβ paracrine signaling in the promotion of breast cancer brain metastases and support the prognostic and therapeutic clinical utility of this pathway for patients. See related article by Wyss and colleagues, p. 594

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) alters stress responses, which may influence neuroinflammation and behavioral outcome. Sleep disruption (SD) is an understudied post-injury environmental stressor that directly engages stress-immune pathways. Thus, we predicted that maladaptive changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis after TBI compromise the neuroendocrine response to SD and exacerbate neuroinflammation. To test this, we induced lateral fluid percussion TBI or sham injury in female and male C57BL/6 mice aged 8–10 weeks that were then left undisturbed or exposed to 3 days of transient SD. At 3 days post-injury (DPI) plasma corticosterone (CORT) was reduced in TBI compared with sham mice, indicating altered HPA-mediated stress response to SD. This response was associated with approach-avoid conflict behavior and exaggerated cortical neuroinflammation. Post-injury SD specifically enhanced neutrophil trafficking to the injured brain in conjunction with dysregulated aquaporin-4 (AQP4) polarization. Delayed and persistent effects of post-injury SD were determined 4 days after SD concluded at 7 DPI. SD prolonged anxiety-like behavior regardless of injury and was associated with increased cortical Iba1 labeling in both sham and TBI mice. Strikingly, TBI SD mice displayed an increased number of CD45(+) cells near the site of injury, enhanced cortical glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunolabeling, and persistent expression of Trem2 and Tlr4 7 DPI compared with TBI mice. These results support the hypothesis that post-injury SD alters stress-immune pathways and inflammatory outcomes after TBI. These data provide new insight to the dynamic interplay between TBI, stress, and inflammation.

Daniel P Nemeth,1– 3 Xiaoyu Liu,3 Daniel B McKim,4 Damon J DiSabato,2,5 Braedan Oliver,2 Anu Herd,3 Asish Katta,1 Christina E Negray,1,2 James Floyd,3 Samantha McGovern,3 Paige S Pruden,2 Feiyang Zhutang,2 Maria Smirnova,3 Jonathan P Godbout,2,5 John Sheridan,1,2 Ning Quan3 1College of Dentistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; 2Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; 3Stiles-Nicholson Brain Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL, USA; 4Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA; 5Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USACorrespondence: Daniel P Nemeth; Ning Quan, 5353 Parkside Drive, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA, Email nemethd@fau.edu; nquan@health.fau.eduIntroduction: Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) preconditioning involves repeated, systemic, and sub-threshold doses of LPS, which induces a neuroprotective state within the CNS, thus preventing neuronal death and functional losses. Recently, proinflammatory cytokine, Interleukin-1 (IL-1), and its primary signaling partner, interleukin-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1), have been associated with neuroprotection in the CNS. However, it is still unknown how IL-1/IL-1R1 signaling impacts the processes associated with neuroprotection.Methods: Using our IL-1R1 restore genetic mouse model, mouse lines were generated to restrict IL-1R1 expression either to endothelia (Tie2-Cre-Il1r1r/r) or microglia (Cx3Cr1-Cre-Il1r1r/r), in addition to either global ablation (Il1r1r/r) or global restoration of IL-1R1 (Il1r1GR/GR). The LPS preconditioning paradigm consisted of four daily i.p. injections of LPS at 1 mg/kg (4d LPS). 24 hrs following the final i.p. LPS injection, tissue was collected for qPCR analysis, immunohistochemistry, or FAC sorting.Results: Following 4d LPS, we found multiple phenotypes that are dependent on IL-1R1 signaling such as microglia morphology alterations, increased microglial M2-like gene expression, and clustering of microglia onto the brain vasculature. We determined that 4d LPS induces microglial morphological changes, clustering at the vasculature, and gene expression changes are dependent on endothelial IL-1R1, but not microglial IL-1R1. A novel observation was the induction of microglial IL-1R1 (mIL-1R1) following 4d LPS. The induced mIL-1R1 permits a unique response to central IL-1β: the mIL-1R1 dependent induction of IL-1R1 antagonist (IL-1RA) and IL-1β gene expression. Analysis of RNA sequencing datasets revealed that mIL-1R1 is also induced in neurodegenerative diseases.Discussion: Here, we have identified cell type-specific IL-1R1 mediated mechanisms, which may contribute to the neuroprotection observed in LPS preconditioning. These findings identify key cellular and molecular contributors in LPS-induced neuroprotection.Graphical Abstract: Keywords: BBB, neuroinflammation, perivascular microglia

Robert M Jaggers,1 Damon J DiSabato,2,3 Brett R Loman,1 Danica Kontic,1 Kyle D Spencer,1,4,5 Jacob M Allen,1 Jonathan P Godbout,2,3 Ning Quan,6 Tamar L Gur,2,7 Michael T Bailey1,2,8 1Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, 43205, USA; 2Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA; 3Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA; 4Department of Biomedical Informatics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; 5Graduate Partnership Program, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, OH, USA; 6Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA; 7Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA; 8Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USACorrespondence: Michael T Bailey, Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, W410, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, 700 Children’s Drive, Columbus, OH, 43205, USA, Tel +1 614-722-2764, Email Michael.bailey2@nationwidechildrens.orgPurpose: Commensal microbes are impacted by stressor exposure and are known contributors to cognitive and social behaviors, but the pathways through which gut microbes influence stressor-induced behavioral changes are mostly unknown. A murine social stressor was used to determine whether host–microbe interactions are necessary for stressor-induced inflammation, including neuroinflammation, that leads to reduced cognitive and social behavior.Methods: C57BL/6 male mice were exposed to a paired fighting social stressor over a 1 hr period for 6 consecutive days. Y-maze and social interaction behaviors were tested following the last day of the stressor. Serum cytokines and lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) were measured and the number and morphology of hippocampal microglia determined via immunohistochemistry. Intestinal mucous thickness and antimicrobial peptide expression were determined via fluorescent staining and real-time PCR (respectively) and microbial community composition was assessed using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. To determine whether the microbiota or the LBP receptor (CD14) are necessary for stressor-induced behavioral changes, experiments were performed in mice treated with a broad-spectrum antibiotic cocktail or in CD14−/− mice.Results: The stressor reduced Y-maze spontaneous alternations, which was accompanied by increased microglia in the hippocampus, increased circulating cytokines (eg, IL-6, TNF-α) and LBP, and reduced intestinal mucus thickness while increasing antimicrobial peptides and cytokines. These stressor-induced changes were largely prevented in mice given broad-spectrum antibiotics and in CD14−/− mice. In contrast, social stressor-induced alterations of social behavior were not microbe-dependent.Conclusion: Stressor-induced cognitive deficits involve enhanced bacterial interaction with the intestine, leading to low-grade, CD14-dependent, inflammation.Keywords: social defeat, stress, microbiome, microglia, cytokines, neuroinflammation, mucus barrier

Circadian rhythms influence various aspects of biology, including hormonal, immunological, and behavioral processes. These 24-hour oscillations are necessary to optimize cellular functions and to synchronize these processes with the environment. Breast cancer patients and survivors frequently report disruptions in circadian oscillations that adversely affect quality-of-life, including fragmented sleep-wake cycles and flattened cortisol rhythms, which are associated with negative behavioral comorbidities (e.g., fatigue). However, the potential causal role of tumor biology in circadian dysregulation has not been investigated. Here, we examined the extent to which sham surgery, non-metastatic mammary tumors, or mammary tumor removal in mice disrupts circadian rhythms in brain clock gene expression, loco motor behavior (free-running and entrained), and physiological rhythms that have been associated with cancer behavioral comorbidities. Tumors and tumor resection altered time-of-day differences in hypothalamic expression of eight circadian-regulated genes. The onset of activity in entrained running behavior was advanced in tumor-bearing mice, and the amplitude of free-running rhythms was increased in tumor-resected mice. Tumors flattened rhythms in circulating corticosterone and Ly6c(Hi) monocytes which were largely restored by surgical tumor resection. This work implies that tumors alone may directly impact central and/or peripheral circadian rhythmicity in breast cancer patients, and that these effects may persist in cancer survivors, potentially contributing to behavioral comorbidities.

Anxiety and mood disorders affect both men and women. The majority of experimental models of stress, however, are completed using only male animals. For repeated social defeat (RSD), a rodent model, this is due to the inherent difficulty in eliciting male aggression toward female mice. To address this limitation, a recent study showed that a DREADD-based activation of the ventrolateral subdivision of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHvl) was effective in inducing aggressive behavior in male mice towards females in a social defeat paradigm. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine if this modified version of RSD in females elicited behavioral, physiological, and immune responses similar to those reported in males. Here, we show that female mice subjected to RSD with the male DREADD aggressor developed anxiety-like behavior and social avoidance. These behavioral alterations coincided with enhanced neuronal and microglial activation in threat-appraisal regions of the brain. Moreover, stressed female mice had an enhanced peripheral immune response characterized by increased myelopoiesis, release of myeloid cells into circulation, and monocyte accumulation in the spleen and brain. These results are consistent with previously reported findings that male mice exposed to RSD exhibited increased fear and threat appraisal responses, enhanced myelopoiesis, myeloid cell release and trafficking, and anxiety-like behavior. These findings validate that RSD is a relevant model to study stress responses in female mice.

Background Stress is associated with an increased prevalence of anxiety and depression. Repeated social defeat (RSD) stress in mice increases the release of monocytes from the bone marrow that are recruited to the brain by microglia. These monocytes enhance inflammatory signaling and augment anxiety. Moreover, RSD promotes stress sensitization, in which exposure to acute stress 24 days after cessation of RSD causes anxiety recurrence. The purpose of this study was to determine whether microglia were critical to stress sensitization and exhibited increased reactivity to subsequent acute stress or immune challenge. Methods Mice were exposed to RSD, microglia were eliminated by colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor antagonism (PLX5622) and allowed to repopulate, and responses to acute stress or immune challenge (lipopolysaccharide) were determined 24 days after RSD sensitization. Results Microglia maintained a unique messenger RNA signature 24 days after RSD. Moreover, elimination of RSD-sensitized microglia prevented monocyte accumulation in the brain and blocked anxiety recurrence following acute stress (24 days). When microglia were eliminated prior to RSD and repopulated and mice were subjected to acute stress, there was monocyte accumulation in the brain and anxiety in RSD-sensitized mice. These responses were unaffected by microglial elimination/repopulation. This may be related to neuronal sensitization that persisted 24 days after RSD. Following immune challenge, there was robust microglial reactivity in RSD-sensitized mice associated with prolonged sickness behavior. Here, microglial elimination/repopulation prevented the amplified immune reactivity ex vivo and in vivo in RSD-sensitized mice. Conclusions Microglia and neurons remain sensitized weeks after RSD, and only the immune reactivity component of RSD-sensitized microglia was prevented by elimination/repopulation.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) produces a toxic inflammatory microenvironment that negatively affects plasticity and recovery. Recently, we showed glial activation and peripheral myeloid cell infiltration extending beyond the epicenter through the remote lumbar cord after thoracic SCI. The presence and role of infiltrating monocytes is important, especially in the lumbar cord where locomotor central pattern generators are housed. Therefore, we compared the inflammatory profile of resident microglia and peripheral myeloid cells after SCI. Bone marrow chimeras received midthoracic contusive SCI, and trafficking was determined 1-7 days later. Fluorescence-activated cell (FAC) sorting showed similar infiltration timing of both neutrophils and macrophages in epicenter and lumbar regions. While neutrophil numbers were attenuated by day 3, macrophages remained unchanged at day 7, suggesting that macrophages have important long-term influence on the microenvironment. Nanostring gene array identified a strong proinflammatory profile of infiltrating macrophages relative to microglia at both epicenter and lumbar sites. Macrophages had elevated expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IFNγ), chemokines (CCL2, CXCL2), mediators (COX-1, MMP-9), and receptors (CCR2, Ly6C), and decreased expression of growth promoting genes (GDNF, BDNF). Importantly, lumbar macrophages had elevated expression of active trafficking genes (CCR2, l-selectin, MMP-9) compared with epicenter macrophages. Further, acute rehabilitation exacerbated the inflammatory profile of infiltrated macrophages in the lumbar cord. Such high inflammatory potential and negative response to rehabilitation of infiltrating macrophages within lumbar locomotor central pattern generators likely impedes activity-dependent recovery. Therefore, limiting active trafficking of macrophages into the lumbar cord identifies a novel target for SCI therapies to improve locomotion.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), particularly of greater severity (i.e., moderate to severe), has been identified as a risk factor for all-cause dementia and Parkinson's disease, with risk for specific dementia subtypes being more variable. Among the limited studies involving neuropathological (postmortem) confirmation, the association between TBI and risk for neurodegenerative disease increases in complexity, with polypathology often reported on examination. The heterogeneous clinical and neuropathological outcomes associated with TBI are likely reflective of the multifaceted postinjury acute and chronic processes that may contribute to neurodegeneration. Acutely in TBI, axonal injury and disrupted transport influences molecular mechanisms fundamental to the formation of pathological proteins, such as amyloid-β peptide and hyperphosphorylated tau. These protein deposits may develop into amyloid-β plaques, hyperphosphorylated tau-positive neurofibrillary tangles, and dystrophic neurites. These and other characteristic neurodegenerative disease pathologies may then spread across brain regions. The acute immune and neuroinflammatory response involves alteration of microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and endothelial cells; release of downstream pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines; and recruitment of peripheral immune cells. Although thought to be neuroprotective and reparative initially, prolongation of these processes may promote neurodegeneration. We review the evidence for TBI as a risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's dementia and Parkinson's disease, in clinical and neuropathological studies. Further, we describe the dynamic interactions between acute response to injury and chronic processes that may be involved in TBI-related pathogenesis and progression of neurodegeneration.

Even though sleep modification is a hallmark of the aging process, age-related changes in functional connectivity using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) during sleep, remain unknown. Here, we combined electroencephalography and fMRI to examine functional connectivity differences between wakefulness and light sleep stages (N1 and N2 stages) in 16 young (23.1 ± 3.3y; 7 women), and 14 older individuals (59.6 ± 5.7y; 8 women). Results revealed extended, distributed (inter-between) and local (intra-within) decreases in network connectivity during sleep both in young and older individuals. However, compared to the young participants, older individuals showed lower decreases in connectivity or even increases in connectivity between thalamus/basal ganglia and several cerebral regions as well as between frontal regions of various networks. These findings reflect a reduced ability of the older brain to disconnect during sleep that may impede optimal disengagement for loss of responsiveness, enhanced lighter and fragmented sleep, and contribute to age effects on sleep-dependent brain plasticity.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) impairs the ability to restore homeostasis in response to stress, indicating hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis dysfunction. Many stressors result in sleep disturbances, thus mechanical sleep fragmentation (SF) provides a physiologically relevant approach to study the effects of stress after injury. We hypothesize SF stress engages the dysregulated HPA-axis after TBI to exacerbate post-injury neuroinflammation and compromise recovery. To test this, male and female mice were given moderate lateral fluid percussion TBI or sham-injury and left undisturbed or exposed to daily, transient SF for 7- or 30-days post-injury (DPI). Post-TBI SF increases cortical expression of interferon- and stress-associated genes characterized by inhibition of the upstream regulator NR3C1 that encodes glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Moreover, post-TBI SF increases neuronal activity in the hippocampus, a key intersection of the stress-immune axes. By 30 DPI, TBI SF enhances cortical microgliosis and increases expression of pro-inflammatory glial signaling genes characterized by persistent inhibition of the NR3C1 upstream regulator. Within the hippocampus, post-TBI SF exaggerates microgliosis and decreases CA1 neuronal activity. Downstream of the hippocampus, post-injury SF suppresses neuronal activity in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus indicating decreased HPA-axis reactivity. Direct application of GR agonist, dexamethasone, to the CA1 at 30 DPI increases GR activity in TBI animals, but not sham animals, indicating differential GR-mediated hippocampal action. Electrophysiological assessment revealed TBI and SF induces deficits in Schaffer collateral long-term potentiation associated with impaired acquisition of trace fear conditioning, reflecting dorsal hippocampal-dependent cognitive deficits. Together these data demonstrate that post-injury SF engages the dysfunctional post-injury HPA-axis, enhances inflammation, and compromises hippocampal function. Therefore, external stressors that disrupt sleep have an integral role in mediating outcome after brain injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can lead to significant neuropsychiatric problems and neurodegenerative pathologies, which develop and persist years after injury. Neuroinflammatory processes evolve over this same period. Therefore, we aimed to determine the contribution of microglia to neuropathology at acute [1 d postinjury (dpi)], subacute (7 dpi), and chronic (30 dpi) time points. Microglia were depleted with PLX5622, a CSF1R antagonist, before midline fluid percussion injury (FPI) in male mice and cortical neuropathology/inflammation was assessed using a neuropathology mRNA panel. Gene expression associated with inflammation and neuropathology were robustly increased acutely after injury (1 dpi) and the majority of this expression was microglia independent. At 7 and 30 dpi, however, microglial depletion reversed TBI-related expression of genes associated with inflammation, interferon signaling, and neuropathology. Myriad suppressed genes at subacute and chronic endpoints were attributed to neurons. To understand the relationship between microglia, neurons, and other glia, single-cell RNA sequencing was completed 7 dpi, a critical time point in the evolution from acute to chronic pathogenesis. Cortical microglia exhibited distinct TBI-associated clustering with increased type-1 interferon and neurodegenerative/damage-related genes. In cortical neurons, genes associated with dopamine signaling, long-term potentiation, calcium signaling, and synaptogenesis were suppressed. Microglial depletion reversed the majority of these neuronal alterations. Furthermore, there was reduced cortical dendritic complexity 7 dpi, reduced neuronal connectively 30 dpi, and cognitive impairment 30 dpi. All of these TBI-associated functional and behavioral impairments were prevented by microglial depletion. Collectively, these studies indicate that microglia promote persistent neuropathology and long-term functional impairments in neuronal homeostasis after TBI.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTMillions of traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) occur in the United States alone each year. Survivors face elevated rates of cognitive and psychiatric complications long after the inciting injury. Recent studies of human brain injury link chronic neuroinflammation to adverse neurologic outcomes, suggesting that evolving inflammatory processes may be an opportunity for intervention. Here, we eliminate microglia to compare the effects of diffuse TBI on neurons in the presence and absence of microglia and microglia-mediated inflammation. In the absence of microglia, neurons do not undergo TBI-induced changes in gene transcription or structure. Microglial elimination prevented TBI-induced cognitive changes 30 d postinjury (dpi). Therefore, microglia have a critical role in disrupting neuronal homeostasis after TBI, particularly at subacute and chronic timepoints.

Chronic stress contributes to the development of psychiatric disorders including anxiety and depression. Several inflammatory-related effects of stress are associated with increased interleukin-1 (IL-1) signaling within the central nervous system and are mediated by IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1) on several distinct cell types. Neuronal IL-1R1 is prominently expressed on the neurons of the dentate gyrus, but its role in mediating behavioral responses to stress is unknown. We hypothesize that IL-1 acts on this subset of hippocampal neurons to influence cognitive and mood alterations with stress. Here, mice subjected to psychosocial stress showed reduced social interaction and impaired working memory, and these deficits were prevented by global IL-1R1 knockout. Stress-induced monocyte trafficking to the brain was also blocked by IL-1R1 knockout. Selective deletion of IL-1R1 in glutamatergic neurons (nIL-1R1−/−) abrogated the stress-induced deficits in social interaction and working memory. In addition, viral-mediated selective IL-1R1 deletion in hippocampal neurons confirmed that IL-1 receptor in the hippocampus was critical for stress-induced behavioral deficits. Furthermore, selective restoration of IL-1R1 on glutamatergic neurons was sufficient to reestablish the impairments of social interaction and working memory after stress. RNA-sequencing of the hippocampus revealed that stress increased several canonical pathways (TREM1, NF-κB, complement, IL-6 signaling) and upstream regulators (INFγ, IL-1β, NF-κB, MYD88) associated with inflammation. The inductions of TREM1 signaling, complement, and leukocyte extravasation with stress were reversed by nIL-1R1−/−. Collectively, stress-dependent IL-1R1 signaling in hippocampal neurons represents a novel mechanism by which inflammation is perpetuated and social interactivity and working memory are modulated.

Animal models are critical for determining the mechanisms mediating traumatic brain injury-induced (TBI) neuropathology. Fluid percussion injury (FPI) is a widely used model of brain injury typically applied either midline or parasagittally (lateral). Midline FPI induces a diffuse TBI, while lateral FPI induces both focal cortical injury (ipsilateral hemisphere) and diffuse injury (contralateral hemisphere). Nonetheless, discrete differences in neuroinflammation and neuropathology between these two versions of FPI remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to compare acute (4–72 h) and subacute (7 days) neuroinflammatory responses between midline and lateral FPI. Midline FPI resulted in longer righting reflex times than lateral FPI. At acute time points, the inflammatory responses to the two different injuries were similar. For instance, there was evidence of monocytes and cytokine mRNA expression in the brain with both injuries acutely. Midline FPI had the highest proportion of brain monocytes and highest IL-1β/TNFα mRNA expression 24 h later. NanoString nCounter analysis 7 days post-injury revealed robust and prolonged expression of inflammatory-related genes in the cortex after midline FPI compared to lateral FPI; however, Iba-1 cortical immunoreactivity was increased with lateral FPI. Thus, midline and lateral FPI caused similar cortical neuroinflammatory responses acutely and mRNA expression of inflammatory genes was detectable in the brain 7 days later. The primary divergence was that inflammatory gene expression was greater and more diverse subacutely after midline FPI. These results provide novel insight to variations between midline and lateral FPI, which may recapitulate unique temporal pathogenesis.

Clinical studies indicate that psychosocial stress contributes to adverse chronic pain outcomes in patients, but it is unclear how this is initiated or amplified by stress. Repeated social defeat (RSD) is a mouse model of psychosocial stress that activates microglia, increases neuroinflammatory signaling, and augments pain and anxiety-like behaviors. We hypothesized that activated microglia within the spinal cord facilitate increased pain sensitivity following RSD. Here we show that mechanical allodynia in male mice was increased with exposure to RSD. This stress-induced behavior corresponded with increased mRNA expression of several inflammatory genes, including IL-1β, TNF-α, CCL2, and TLR4 in the lumbar spinal cord. While there were several adhesion and chemokine-related genes increased in the lumbar spinal cord after RSD, there was no accumulation of monocytes or neutrophils. Notably, there was evidence of microglial activation selectively within the nociceptive neurocircuitry of the dorsal horn of the lumbar cord. Elimination of microglia using the colony stimulating factor 1 receptor antagonist PLX5622 from the brain and spinal cord prevented the development of mechanical allodynia in RSD-exposed mice. Microglial elimination also attenuated RSD-induced IL-1β, CCR2, and TLR4 mRNA expression in the lumbar spinal cord. Together, RSD-induced allodynia was associated with microglia-mediated inflammation within the dorsal horn of the lumbar spinal cord.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTMounting evidence indicates that psychological stress contributes to the onset and progression of adverse nociceptive conditions. We show here that repeated social defeat stress causes increased pain sensitivity due to inflammatory signaling within the nociceptive circuits of the spinal cord. Studies here mechanistically tested the role of microglia in the development of pain by stress. Pharmacological ablation of microglia prevented stress-induced pain sensitivity. These findings demonstrate that microglia are critical mediators in the induction of pain conditions by stress. Moreover, these studies provide a proof of principle that microglia can be targeted as a therapeutic strategy to mitigate adverse pain conditions.

Microglia undergo dynamic structural and transcriptional changes during the immune response to traumatic brain injury (TBI). For example, TBI causes microglia to form rod-shaped trains in the cerebral cortex, but their contribution to inflammation and pathophysiology is unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine the origin and alignment of rod microglia and to determine the role of microglia in propagating persistent cortical inflammation. Here, diffuse TBI in mice was modeled by midline fluid percussion injury (FPI). Bone marrow chimerism and BrdU pulse-chase experiments revealed that rod microglia derived from resident microglia with limited proliferation. Novel data also show that TBI-induced rod microglia were proximal to axotomized neurons, spatially overlapped with dense astrogliosis, and aligned with apical pyramidal dendrites. Furthermore, rod microglia formed adjacent to hypertrophied microglia, which clustered among layer V pyramidal neurons. To better understand the contribution of microglia to cortical inflammation and injury, microglia were eliminated prior to TBI by CSF1R antagonism (PLX5622). Microglial elimination did not affect cortical neuron axotomy induced by TBI, but attenuated rod microglial formation and astrogliosis. Analysis of 262 immune genes revealed that TBI caused profound cortical inflammation acutely (8 hr) that progressed in nature and complexity by 7 dpi. For instance, gene expression related to complement, phagocytosis, toll-like receptor signaling, and interferon response were increased 7 dpi. Critically, these acute and chronic inflammatory responses were prevented by microglial elimination. Taken together, TBI-induced neuronal injury causes microglia to structurally associate with neurons, augment astrogliosis, and propagate diverse and persistent inflammatory/immune signaling pathways.

Objective Mounting evidence indicates that stress influences the experience of pain. Exposure to psychosocial stress disrupts bi-directional communication pathways between the central nervous system and peripheral immune system, and can exacerbate the frequency and severity of pain experienced by stressed subjects. Repeated social defeat (RSD) is a murine model of psychosocial stress that recapitulates the immune and behavioral responses to stress observed in humans, including activation of stress-reactive neurocircuitry and increased pro-inflammatory cytokine production. It is unclear, however, how these stress-induced neuroimmune responses contribute to increased pain sensitivity in mice exposed to RSD. Here we used a technique of regional analgesia with local anesthetics in mice to block the development of mechanical allodynia during RSD. We next investigated the degree to which pain blockade altered stress-induced neuroimmune activation and depressive-like behavior. Methods Following development of a mouse model of regional analgesia with discrete sensory blockade over the dorsal-caudal aspect of the spine, C57BL/6 mice were divided into experimental groups and treated with Ropivacaine (0.08%), Liposomal Bupivacaine (0.08%), or Vehicle (0.9% NaCl) prior to exposure to stress. This specific region was selected for analgesia because it is the most frequent location for aggression-associated pain due to biting during RSD. Mechanical allodynia was assessed 12 h after the first, third, and sixth day of RSD after resolution of the sensory blockade. In a separate experiment, social avoidance behavior was determined after the sixth day of RSD. Blood, bone marrow, brain, and spinal cord were collected for immunological analyses after the last day of RSD in both experiments following behavioral assessments. Results RSD increased mechanical allodynia in an exposure-dependent manner that persisted for at least one week following cessation of the stressor. Mice treated with either Ropivacaine or Liposomal Bupivacaine did not develop mechanical allodynia following exposure to stress, but did develop social avoidance behavior. Neither drug affected stress-induced activation of monocytes in the bone marrow, blood, or brain. Neuroinflammatory responses developed in all treatment groups, as evidenced by elevated IL-1β mRNA levels in the brain and spinal cord after RSD. Conclusions In this study, psychosocial stress was associated with increased pain sensitivity in mice. Development of mechanical allodynia with RSD was blocked by regional analgesia with local anesthetics, Ropivacaine or Liposomal Bupivacaine. Despite blocking mechanical allodynia, these anesthetic interventions did not prevent neuroimmune activation or social avoidance associated with RSD. These data suggest that stress-induced neuroinflammatory changes are not associated with increased sensitivity to pain following RSD. Thus, blocking peripheral nociception was effective in inhibiting enhanced pain signaling without altering stress-induced immune or behavioral responses.

Background Before primary oral tumors are treated, various prophylactic procedures that require tissue repair are often necessary (e.g. biopsies, tooth extractions, radiation, and tracheotomies). Wound healing and tumor growth harness similar immune/inflammatory mechanisms. Our previous work indicates that tumors impair wound healing, although the extent to which tissue repair conversely influences tumor growth is poorly understood. Here, we test the hypothesis that dermal wound healing exacerbates primary tumor growth and influences tumor immunobiology. Materials and methods Female, immunocompetent mice were inoculated subcutaneously with murine oral cancer cells (AT-84) to induce flank tumors. Half of the mice received dermal excisional wounds (4 × 3.5 mm diameter) on their dorsum 16 days later, whereas the skin of controls remained intact. Tumor and blood tissues were harvested 1 and 5 days post wounding, and tumor myeloid cell populations and inflammatory gene expression were measured. Circulating myeloid cells, cytokines, and corticosterone were also quantified. Results Wounding increased tumor mass, early tumor infiltration of macrophages, and tumor inflammatory gene expression. While wounding attenuated tumor growth–induced increases in circulating myeloid cells, no effects of wounding on circulating cytokine/endocrine measures were observed. Conclusions These results indicate that modest skin immune/inflammatory processes can enhance distal tumor growth and alter innate tumor immunity. The implication for this work is that, in the presence of a tumor, the benefits of tissue-damaging procedures that occur clinically must be weighed against the potential consequences for tumor biology.

Identifying differential responses between sexes following traumatic brain injury (TBI) can elucidate the mechanisms behind disease pathology. Peripheral and central inflammation in the pathophysiology of TBI can increase sleep in male rodents, but this remains untested in females. We hypothesized that diffuse TBI would increase inflammation and sleep in males more so than in females. Diffuse TBI was induced in C57BL/6J mice and serial blood samples were collected (baseline, 1, 5, 7 days post-injury [DPI]) to quantify peripheral immune cell populations and sleep regulatory cytokines. Brains and spleens were harvested at 7DPI to quantify central and peripheral immune cells, respectively. Mixed effects regression models were used for data analysis. Female TBI mice had 77–124% higher IL-6 levels than male TBI mice at 1 and 5DPI, whereas IL-1β and TNF-α levels were similar between sexes at all timepoints. Despite baseline sex differences in blood-measured Ly6C(high) monocytes (females had 40% more than males), TBI reduced monocytes by 67% in TBI mice at 1DPI. Male TBI mice had 31–33% more blood-measured and 31% more spleen-measured Ly6G(+) neutrophils than female TBI mice at 1 and 5DPI, and 7DPI, respectively. Compared with sham, TBI increased sleep in both sexes during the first light and dark cycles. Male TBI mice slept 11–17% more than female TBI mice, depending on the cycle. Thus, sex and TBI interactions may alter the peripheral inflammation profile and sleep patterns, which might explain discrepancies in disease progression based on sex.

As a major producer of the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 (IL-1), peripheral macrophages can augment IL-1 expression via type 1 IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1) mediated autocrine self-amplification. In the CNS, microglial cells are the major producers of inflammatory cytokines, but express negligible levels of IL-1R1. In the present study, we showed CNS IL-1 induced microglial proinflammatory cytokine expression was mediated by endothelial, not microglial, IL-1R1. This paracrine mechanism was further dissected in vitro. IL-1 was unable to stimulate inflammatory cytokine expression directly from the microglial cell line BV-2, but it stimulated the brain endothelial cell line bEnd.3 to produce a factor(s) in the culture supernatant, which was capable of inducing inflammatory cytokine expression in BV-2. We termed this factor IL-1-induced microglial activation factors (IMAF). BV-2 cytokine expression was inducible by extracellular ATP, but IL-1 did not stimulate the release of ATP from bEnd.3 cells. Filtration of IMAF by size-exclusion membranes showed IMAF activity resided in molecules larger than 50 kd and incubation of IMAF at 95 °C for 5 min did not alter its activity. Microglial inhibitor minocycline was unable to block IMAF activity, even though it blocked LPS induced cytokine expression in BV-2 cells. Adding NF-κB inhibitor to the bEnd.3 cells abolished IL-1 induced cytokine expression in this bi-cellular system, but adding NF-κB inhibitor after IMAF is already produced failed to abrogate IMAF induced cytokine expression in BV-2 cells. RNA sequencing of IL-1 stimulated endothelial cells revealed increased expression of genes involved in the production and processing of hyaluronic acid (HA), suggesting HA as a candidate of IMAF. Inhibition of hyaluronidase by ascorbyl palmitate (AP) abolished IMAF-induced cytokine expression in BV-2 cells. AP administration in vivo also inhibited ICV IL-1-induced IL-1 expression in the hippocampus and hypothalamus. In vitro, either TLR2 or TLR4 inhibitors blocked IMAF induced BV-2 cytokine expression. In vivo, however, IL-1 induced cytokine expression persisted in either TLR2 or TLR4 knockouts. These results demonstrate IL-1 induced inflammatory cytokine expression in the CNS requires a bi-cellular system and HA could be a candidate for IMAF.

Each year approximately 1.7 million people sustain a traumatic brain injury (TBI) in the US alone. Associated with these head injuries is a high prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms including irritability, depression, and anxiety. Neuroinflammation, due in part to microglia, can worsen or even cause neuropsychiatric disorders after TBI. For example, mounting evidence demonstrates that microglia become “primed” or hyper-reactive with an exaggerated pro-inflammatory phenotype following multiple immune challenges. Microglial priming occurs after experimental TBI and correlates with the emergence of depressive-like behavior as well as cognitive dysfunction. Critically, immune challenges are various and include illness, aging, and stress. The collective influence of any combination of these immune challenges shapes the neuroimmune environment and the response to TBI. For example, stress reliably induces inflammation and could therefore be a gateway to altered neuropathology and behavioral decline following TBI. Given the increasing incidence of stress-related psychiatric disorders after TBI, the degree in which stress affects outcome is of particular interest. This review aims to highlight the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis as a key mediator of stress-immune pathway communication following TBI. We will first describe maladaptive neuroinflammation after TBI and how stress contributes to inflammation through both anti- and pro-inflammatory mechanisms. Clinical and experimental data describing HPA-axis dysfunction and consequences of altered stress responses after TBI will be discussed. Lastly, we will review common stress models used after TBI that could better elucidate the relationship between HPA axis dysfunction and maladaptive inflammation following TBI. Together, the studies described in this review suggest that HPA axis dysfunction after brain injury is prevalent and contributes to the dynamic nature of the neuroinflammatory response to brain injury. Experimental stressors that directly engage the HPA axis represent important areas for future research to better define the role of stress-immune pathways in mediating outcome following TBI.

The population of aged individuals is increasing worldwide and this has significant health and socio-economic implications. Clinical and experimental studies on aging have discovered myriad changes in the brain, including reduced neurogenesis, increased synaptic aberrations, higher metabolic stress, and augmented inflammation. In rodent models of aging, these alterations are associated with cognitive decline, neurobehavioral deficits, and increased reactivity to immune challenges. In rodents, caloric restriction and young blood-induced revitalization reverses the behavioral effects of aging. The increased inflammation in the aged brain is attributed, in part, to the resident population of microglia. For example, microglia of the aged brain are marked by dystrophic morphology, elevated expression of inflammatory markers, and diminished expression of neuroprotective factors. Importantly, the heightened inflammatory profile of microglia in aging is associated with a 'sensitized' or 'primed' phenotype. Mounting evidence points to a causal link between the primed profile of the aged brain and vulnerability to secondary insults, including infections and psychological stress. Conversely, psychological stress may also induce aging-like sensitization of microglia and increase reactivity to secondary challenges. This review delves into the characteristics of neuroinflammatory signaling and microglial sensitization in aging, its implications in psychological stress, and interventions that reverse aging-associated deficits.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) promotes inflammation along the neuroaxis that jeopardizes plasticity, intrinsic repair and recovery. While inflammation at the injury site is well-established, less is known within remote spinal networks. The presence of bone marrow-derived immune (myeloid) cells in these areas may further impede functional recovery. Previously, high levels of the gelatinase, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) occurred within the lumbar enlargement after thoracic SCI and impeded activity-dependent recovery. Since SCI-induced MMP-9 potentially increases vascular permeability, myeloid cell infiltration may drive inflammatory toxicity in locomotor networks. Therefore, we examined neurovascular reactivity and myeloid cell infiltration in the lumbar cord after thoracic SCI. We show evidence of region-specific recruitment of myeloid cells into the lumbar but not cervical region. Myeloid infiltration occurred with concomitant increases in chemoattractants (CCL2) and cell adhesion molecules (ICAM-1) around lumbar vasculature 24 h and 7 days post injury. Bone marrow GFP chimeric mice established robust infiltration of bone marrow-derived myeloid cells into the lumbar gray matter 24 h after SCI. This cell infiltration occurred when the blood-spinal cord barrier was intact, suggesting active recruitment across the endothelium. Myeloid cells persisted as ramified macrophages at 7 days post injury in parallel with increased inhibitory GAD67 labeling. Importantly, macrophage infiltration required MMP-9.

Immune-activated microglia from aged mice produce exaggerated levels of cytokines. Despite high levels of microglial interleukin (IL)-10 in the aged brain, neuroinflammation was prolonged and associated with depressive-like deficits. Because astrocytes respond to IL-10 and, in turn, attenuate microglial activation, we investigated if astrocyte-mediated resolution of microglial activation was impaired with age. Here, aged astrocytes had a dysfunctional profile with higher glial fibrillary acidic protein, lower glutamate transporter expression, and significant cytoskeletal re-arrangement. Moreover, aged astrocytes had reduced expression of growth factors and IL-10 receptor-1 (IL-10R1). After in vivo lipopolysaccharide immune challenge, aged astrocytes had a molecular signature associated with reduced responsiveness to IL-10. This IL-10 insensitivity of aged astrocytes resulted in a failure to induce IL-10R1 and transforming growth factor β and resolve microglial activation. In addition, adult astrocytes reduced microglial activation when co-cultured ex vivo, whereas aged astrocytes did not. Consistent with the aging studies, IL-10R(KO) astrocytes did not augment transforming growth factor β after immune challenge and failed to resolve microglial activation. Collectively, a major cytokine-regulatory loop between activated microglia and astrocytes is impaired in the aged brain.

Amplified neuroinflammatory responses following an immune challenge occur with normal aging and can elicit or exacerbate neuropathology. The mechanisms mediating this sensitized or “primed” immune response in the aged brain are not fully understood. The alarmin high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) can be released under chronic pathological conditions and initiate inflammatory cascades. This led us to investigate whether HMGB1 regulates age-related priming of the neuroinflammatory response. Here, we show that HMGB1 protein and mRNA were elevated in the hippocampus of unmanipulated aged rats (24-month-old F344XBN rats). Furthermore, aged rats had increased HMGB1 in the CSF, suggesting increased HMGB1 release. We demonstrate that blocking HMGB1 signaling with an intracisterna magna (ICM) injection of the competitive antagonist to HMGB1, Box-A, downregulates basal expression of several inflammatory pathway genes in the hippocampus of aged rats. This indicates that blocking the actions of HMGB1 might reduce age-associated inflammatory priming. To test this hypothesis, we evaluated whether HMGB1 antagonism blocks the protracted neuroinflammatory and sickness response to peripheral Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) infection in aged rats. ICM pretreatment of aged rats with Box-A 24 h before E. coli infection prevented the extended hippocampal cytokine response and associated cognitive and affective behavioral changes. ICM pretreatment with Box-A also inhibited aging-induced potentiation of the microglial proinflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide ex vivo . Together, these results suggest that HMGB1 mediates neuroinflammatory priming in the aged brain. Blocking the actions of HMGB1 appears to “desensitize” aged microglia to an immune challenge, thereby preventing exaggerated behavioral and neuroinflammatory responses following infection. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The world9s population is aging, highlighting a need to develop treatments that promote quality of life in aged individuals. Normal aging is associated with precipitous drops in cognition, typically following events that induce peripheral inflammation (e.g., infection, surgery, heart attack). Peripheral immune stimuli cause exaggerated immune responses in the aged brain, which likely underlie these behavioral deficits. Here, we investigated whether the alarmin high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) mediates age-associated “priming” of the neuroinflammatory response. HMGB1 is elevated in aged rodent brain and CSF. Blocking HMGB1 signaling downregulated expression of inflammatory pathway genes in aged rat brain. Further, HMGB1 antagonism prevented prolonged infection-induced neuroinflammatory and sickness responses in aged rats. Overall, blocking HMGB1 “desensitized” microglia in the aged brain, thereby preventing pathological infection-elicited neuroinflammatory responses.

Mounting evidence indicates that proinflammatory signaling in the brain affects mood, cognition, and behavior and is linked with the etiology of psychiatric disorders, including anxiety and depression. The purpose of this review is to focus on stress-induced bidirectional communication pathways between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral immune system that converge to promote a heightened neuroinflammatory environment. These communication pathways involve sympathetic outflow from the brain to the peripheral immune system that biases hematopoietic stem cells to differentiate into a glucocorticoid-resistant and primed myeloid lineage immune cell. In conjunction, microglia-dependent neuroinflammatory events promote myeloid cell trafficking to the brain that reinforces stress-related behavior, and is argued to play a role in stress-related psychiatric disorders. We will discuss evidence implicating a key role for endothelial cells that comprise the blood–brain barrier in propagating peripheral-to-central immune communication. We will also discuss novel neuron-to-glia communication pathways involving endogenous danger signals that have recently been argued to facilitate neuroinflammation under various conditions, including stress. These findings help elucidate the complex communication that occurs in response to stress and highlight novel therapeutic targets against the development of stress-related psychiatric disorders.

There is significant interest in understanding inflammatory responses within the brain and spinal cord. Inflammatory responses that are centralized within the brain and spinal cord are generally referred to as 'neuroinflammatory'. Aspects of neuroinflammation vary within the context of disease, injury, infection, or stress. The context, course, and duration of these inflammatory responses are all critical aspects in the understanding of these processes and their corresponding physiological, biochemical, and behavioral consequences. Microglia, innate immune cells of the CNS, play key roles in mediating these neuroinflammatory responses. Because the connotation of neuroinflammation is inherently negative and maladaptive, the majority of research focus is on the pathological aspects of neuroinflammation. There are, however, several degrees of neuroinflammatory responses, some of which are positive. In many circumstances including CNS injury, there is a balance of inflammatory and intrinsic repair processes that influences functional recovery. In addition, there are several other examples where communication between the brain and immune system involves neuroinflammatory processes that are beneficial and adaptive. The purpose of this review is to distinguish different variations of neuroinflammation in a context-specific manner and detail both positive and negative aspects of neuroinflammatory processes. In this review, we will use brain and spinal cord injury, stress, aging, and other inflammatory events to illustrate the potential harm and benefits inherent to neuroinflammation. Context, course, and duration of the inflammation are highly important to the interpretation of these events, and we aim to provide insight into this by detailing several commonly studied insults. This article is part of the 60th anniversary supplemental issue.

Background Neuroinflammatory signaling may contribute to the pathophysiology of chronic anxiety disorders. Previous work showed that repeated social defeat (RSD) in mice promoted stress-sensitization that was characterized by the recurrence of anxiety following subthreshold stress 24 days after RSD. Furthermore, splenectomy following RSD prevented the recurrence of anxiety in stress-sensitized mice. We hypothesize that the spleen of RSD-exposed mice became a reservoir of primed monocytes that were released following neuroendocrine activation by subthreshold stress. Methods Mice were subjected to subthreshold stress (i.e., single cycle of social defeat) 24 days after RSD, and immune and behavioral measures were taken. Results Subthreshold stress 24 days after RSD re-established anxiety-like behavior that was associated with egress of Ly6C hi monocytes from the spleen. Moreover, splenectomy before RSD blocked monocyte trafficking to the brain and prevented anxiety-like behavior following subthreshold stress. Splenectomy, however, had no effect on monocyte accumulation or anxiety when determined 14 hours after RSD. In addition, splenocytes cultured 24 days after RSD exhibited a primed inflammatory phenotype. Peripheral sympathetic inhibition before subthreshold stress blocked monocyte trafficking from the spleen to the brain and prevented the re-establishment of anxiety in RSD-sensitized mice. Last, β-adrenergic antagonism also prevented splenic monocyte egress after acute stress. Conclusions The spleen served as a unique reservoir of primed monocytes that were readily released following sympathetic activation by subthreshold stress that promoted the re-establishment of anxiety. Collectively, the long-term storage of primed monocytes in the spleen may have a profound influence on recurring anxiety disorders.