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Insertion sequences (IS) are ubiquitous bacterial mobile genetic elements, and the mutations they cause can be deleterious, neutral, or beneficial. The long-term dynamics of IS elements and their effects on bacteria are poorly understood, including whether they are primarily genomic parasites or important drivers of adaptation by natural selection. Here, we investigate the dynamics of IS elements and their contribution to genomic evolution and fitness during a long-term experiment with Escherichia coli. IS elements account for ~35% of the mutations that reached high frequency through 50,000 generations in those populations that retained the ancestral point-mutation rate. In mutator populations, IS-mediated mutations are only half as frequent in absolute numbers. In one population, an exceptionally high ~8-fold increase in IS150 copy number is associated with the beneficial effects of early insertion mutations; however, this expansion later slowed down owing to reduced IS150 activity. This population also achieves the lowest fitness, suggesting that some avenues for further adaptation are precluded by the IS150-mediated mutations. More generally, across all populations, we find that higher IS activity becomes detrimental to adaptation over evolutionary time. Therefore, IS-mediated mutations can both promote and constrain evolvability., Insertion sequences (IS) are common mobile genetic elements in bacteria, but their effects on bacterial evolution are not well understood. Here, Consuegra and colleagues investigate the dynamics and fitness consequences of IS elements in E. coli over 50,000 generations.

Adaptive diversification is an essential evolutionary process, one that produces phenotypic innovations including the colonization of available ecological niches. Bacteria can diverge in sympatry when ecological opportunities allow, but the underlying genetic mechanisms are often unknown. Perhaps, the longest-lasting adaptive diversification seen in the laboratory occurred during the long-term evolution experiment, in which 12 populations of Escherichia coli have been evolving independently for more than 65,000 generations from a common ancestor. In one population, two lineages, S and L, emerged at ~6500 generations and have dynamically coexisted ever since by negative frequency-dependent interactions mediated, in part, by acetate secretion by L. Mutations in spoT, arcA, and gntR promoted the emergence of the S lineage, although they reproduced only partially its phenotypic traits. Here, we characterize the evolved mechanism of acetate consumption by the S lineage that enabled invasion and coexistence with the L lineage. We identified an additional mutation in acs that, together with the arcA mutation, drove an early restructuring of the transcriptional control of central metabolism in S, leading to improved acetate consumption. Pervasive epistatic interactions within the S genome contributed to the exploitation of this new ecological opportunity. The emergence and maintenance of this long-term polymorphism is a complex multi-step process.

International audience; Insertion sequence (IS) elements are present in almost all bacterial genomes and are mobile enough to provide genomic tools to differentiate closely related isolates. They can be used to estimate genetic diversity and identify fitness-enhancing mutations during evolution experiments. Here, we determined the genomic distribution of eight IS elements in 120 genomes sampled from Escherichia coli populations that evolved in glucose- and phosphate-limited chemostats by comparison to the ancestral pattern. No significant differential transposition of the various IS types was detected across the environments. The phylogenies revealed substantial diversity amongst clones sampled from each chemostat, consistent with the phenotypic diversity within populations. Two IS-related changes were common to independent chemostats, suggesting parallel evolution. One of them corresponded to insertions of IS1 elements within rpoS encoding the master regulator of stress conditions. The other parallel event was an IS5-dependent deletion including mutY involved in DNA repair, thereby providing the molecular mechanism of generation of mutator clones in these evolving populations. These deletions occurred in different co-existing genotypes within single populations and were of various sizes. Moreover, differential locations of IS elements combined with their transpositional activity provided evolved clones with different phenotypic landscapes. Therefore, IS elements strongly influenced the evolutionary processes in continuous E. coli cultures by providing a way to modify both the global regulatory network and the mutation rates of evolving cells.

International audience; MADS-box transcription factors play crucial roles in organ and cell differentiation in organisms ranging from yeast to humans. Most of the work on plant MADS-box proteins focused on their roles in floral development whereas less information is available on their function in fruit maturation. We cloned three distinct tomato cDNAs using a RT-PCR approach, encoding LeMADS1, LeMADS5 and LeMADS6 factors and whose mRNAs mostly accumulate in tomato flowers and fruits. Phylogeny analysis indicates that LeMADS1, 5 and 6 belong to the MEF2-like family. When transiently expressed in tobacco leaves or in human cells, LeMADS1, 5 and 6 are targeted to the cell nucleus. As the endogenous target genes of these putative transcription factors are unknown, the transcriptional activity of these proteins was characterized in a heterologous system and we showed that, when fused to a Gal4-DNA-binding domain, they repress the transcription of heterologous reporter genes. Since histone deacetylases control MEF2 transcriptional activity and since a putative histone deacetylase binding site was present in LeMADS1, 5 and 6, we tested the potential interaction between these factors and HDAC5 deacetylase. Surprisingly, in this heterologous system, LeMADS1, 5 and 6 interacted with HDAC5 N-terminal region. Our data suggest that, like mammalian MEF2A, plant MADS-box transcriptional activity might be regulated by enzymes controlling chromatin acetylation.

International audience; DNA supercoiling is the master function that interconnects chromosome structure and global gene transcription. This function has recently been shown to be under strong selection in Escherichia coli. During the evolution of 12 initially identical populations propagated in a defined environment for 20,000 generations, parallel increases in DNA supercoiling were observed in 10 populations. The genetic changes associated with the increased supercoiling were examined in one population, and beneficial mutations in the genes topA (encoding topoisomerase I) and fis (encoding a histone-like protein) were identified. To elucidate the molecular basis and impact of these changes, we quantified the level of genetic, phenotypic, and molecular parallelism linked to DNA supercoiling in all 12 evolving populations. First, sequence determination of DNA topology-related loci revealed strong genetic parallelism, with mutations concentrated in 3 genes (topA, fis and dusB), although the populations had different alleles at each locus. Statistical analyses of these polymorphisms implied the action of positive selection and, moreover, suggested that fis and dusB, which belong to the same operon, have related functions. Indeed, we demonstrated that DusB regulates the expression of fis by both experimental and phylogenetic analyses. Second, molecular analyses of five mutations in fis and dusB affecting the transcription, translation and protein activity of Fis also revealed strong parallelism in the resulting phenotypic effects. Third, artificially increasing DNA supercoiling in one of the two populations that lacked DNA topology changes led to a significant fitness increase. The high levels of molecular and genetic parallelism, targeting a small subset of the many genes involved in DNA supercoiling, indicate that changes in DNA superhelicity have been important in the evolution of these populations. Surprisingly, however, most of the evolved alleles we tested had either no detectable or slightly deleterious effects on fitness, despite these signatures of positive selection.

International audience; Summary The role of a subfamily of lipid globule-associated proteins, referred to as plant fibrillins (FIB1a, -1b, -2), was determined using a RNA interference (RNAi) strategy. We show that Arabidopsis plants with reduced levels of these plastid structural proteins are impaired in long-term acclimation to environmental constraint, namely photooxidative stress imposed by high light combined with cold. As a result, their photosynthetic apparatus is inefficiently protected. This leads to the prevalence of an abnormal granal and stromal membrane arrangement, as well as higher photosystem II photoinhibition under stress. The visible phenotype of FIB1-2 RNAi lines also includes retarded shoot growth and a deficit in anthocyanin accumulation under stress. All examined phenotypic effects of lower FIB levels are abolished by jasmonate (JA) treatment. An atypical expression pattern of several JA-induced genes was observed in RNAi plants. A JA-deficient mutant was found to share similar stress phenotypic characteristics with FIB RNAi plants. We conclude a new physiological role for JA, namely acclimation of chloroplasts, and that light/cold stress-related JA biosynthesis is conditioned by the accumulation of plastoglobule-associated FIB1-2 proteins. Consistent correlative data suggest that this FIB effect is mediated by plastoglobule (and triacylglycerol) accumulation as the potential site for initiating the chloroplast stress-related JA biosynthesis.

International audience; The protein termed fibrillin is involved in the formation of lipoprotein structures, such as plastoglobules and fibrils in certain chromoplast types, which have been implicated in the over-production of pigments due to a sink effect. In order to examine its effect in differentiating chromoplasts of a non-fibrillar type, the pepper fibrillin gene was expressed in tomato fruit. Both the transcript and protein were found to accumulate during tomato fruit ripening from an early mature green stage. However, formation of carotenoid deposition structures in tomato chromoplasts, such as fibrils, was not observed. Nevertheless, a two-fold increase in carotenoid content and associated carotenoid derived flavour volatiles (6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, geranylacetone, beta-ionone and beta-cyclocitral) was observed. An unexpected phenotypic observation in the transgenic fruit was the delayed loss of thylakoids in differentiating chromoplasts, leading to the transient formation of plastids exhibiting a typical chromoplastic zone adjacent to a protected chloroplastic zone with preserved thylakoids. An in vitro assay has been developed to monitor fibrillin activity on thylakoids: data were obtained suggesting a membrane protection role for fibrillin, more specifically against moderate uncoupling effects.

With the aim to develop a callus-based tool to study the activity of transgenes, we induced callus from a segregating population of a tobacco transgenic plant expressing a single copy of a transgene designed to overexpress a pectin methylesterase isoenzyme (pmeu1). Pectin methylesterase (PME) activity in the whole plant showed 4-fold induction whereas in callus tissue we found up to 20-fold induction. Furthermore, determination of PME activity of 38 segregating transgenic calluses showed the presence of four groups: calluses with activity like control (calluses-c), calluses with 5-fold induction (calluses-5); calluses with 10-fold induction (calluses-10) and calluses with 20-fold induction (calluses-20) of PME activity. Based on the expected Mendelian segregation of azygous:hemizygous:homozygous, we placed calluses-c, calluses-10 and calluses-20 as azygous, hemizygous and homozygous, respectively. This is a behavior that can be explained by the gene-dosage phenomena. Chi-square statistics was used to test whether the calluses-5 are azygous (χ2= 4.24) or either homozygous or heterozygous (χ2= 0.034). The Chi-square critical value is χ2 (α=0.05, 1 df)= 3.84 which allowed to conclude that calluses-5 are either homozygous or heterozygous. Next, we tested whether calluses-5 are either hemizygous (χ2= 6.36) or homozygous (χ2= 0.314). The critical value of χ2 (α=0.05, 2 df)= 5.99 was highly significant for concluding that calluses-5 are homozygous for the transgene. This is a behavior that can be explained by the co-silencing phenomena. It is concluded that the use of callus tissue can allowed to find changes in expression of transgenes that are difficult to observe in the whole plant.

The Arabidopsis IMMUTANS gene encodes a plastid homolog of the mitochondrial alternative oxidase, which is associated with phytoene desaturation. Upon expression in Escherichia coli, this protein confers a detectable cyanide-resistant electron transport to isolated membranes. In this assay this activity is sensitive to n-propyl-gallate, an inhibitor of the alternative oxidase. This protein appears to be a plastid terminal oxidase (PTOX) that is functionally equivalent to a quinol:oxygen oxidoreductase. This protein was immunodetected in achlorophyllous pepper (Capsicum annuum) chromoplast membranes, and a corresponding cDNA was cloned from pepper and tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) fruits. Genomic analysis suggests the presence of a single gene in these organisms, the expression of which parallels phytoene desaturase and ζ-carotene desaturase gene expression during fruit ripening. Furthermore, thisPTOX gene is impaired in the tomato ghostmutant, which accumulates phytoene in leaves and fruits. These data show that PTOX also participates in carotenoid desaturation in chromoplasts in addition to its role during early chloroplast development.

Background DNA duplications constitute important precursors for genome variation. Here we analyzed an unequal duplication harboring a beneficial mutation that may provide alternative evolutionary outcomes. Results We characterized this evolutionary event during experimental evolution for only 100 generations of an Escherichia coli strain under glucose limitation within chemostats. By combining Insertion Sequence based Restriction Length Polymorphism experiments, pulsed field gel electrophoresis and two independent genome re-sequencing experiments, we identified an evolved lineage carrying a 180 kb duplication of the 46’ region of the E. coli chromosome. This evolved duplication revealed a heterozygous state, with one copy harboring a 2668 bp deletion that included part of the ogrK gene and both the yegR and yegS genes. By genetically manipulating ancestral and evolved strains, we showed that the single yegS inactivation was sufficient to confer a frequency dependent fitness increase under the chemostat selective conditions in both the ancestor and evolved genetic contexts, implying that the duplication itself was not a direct fitness contributor. Nonetheless, the heterozygous duplicated state was relatively stable in the conditions prevailing during evolution in chemostats, in striking contrast to non selective conditions in which the duplication resolved at high frequency into either its ancestral or deleted copy. Conclusions Our results suggest that the duplication state may constitute a second order selection process providing higher evolutionary potential. Moreover, its heterozygous nature may provide differential evolutionary opportunities in alternating environments. Our results also highlighted how careful analyses of whole genome data are needed to identify such complex rearrangements.

Beneficial mutations in diversifying glucose-limited Escherichia coli populations are mostly unidentified. The genome of an evolved isolate with multiple differences from that of the ancestor was fully assembled. Remarkably, a single mutation in hfq was responsible for the multiple benefits under glucose limitation through changes in at least five regulation targets.

Unprecedented progress during the last three decades in our understanding of the principles of a living cell, particularly the identification of genes and signaling pathways involved in cell differentiation and organ development, has brought us a broader insight into plant biological processes. Technological advancements are revealing new and fundamental knowledge at the molecular and cellular levels, knowledge that is critical towards achieving the goal of precision-based crop improvement. Modernday genetic engineering has emerged as a promising precision-based technology for boosting up food production in the world and introducing desirable traits such as nutritional enhancement and disease and pest resistance, both important components of agricultural sustainability (Chrispeels et al. 2002; Fatima et al. 2008; Negi and Handa 2008). Achieving results that benefit the world will depend on the success of applying new knowledge to real-world field scenarios. The challenge, therefore, is also to simultaneously obtain knowledge on agroecosystem structure and function to understand how manipulation and control of specific gene expression will translate into directing processes at the ecological scale (Mattoo and Teasdale 2009). Developmental traits are coordinated at various levels in a plant and involve organ-to-organ communications via long-distance signaling processes that integrate transcription, hormonal action and environmental cues. Thus, plant architecture, root–soil–microbe interactions, flowering, fruit (and seed) development, and fruit ripening (and seed germination) are highly regulated genetic programs that are also impacted by processes such as organ abscission, organ senescence (and ripening), and programmed cell death (PCD). We note that belowground processes provide the anchor for a healthy and robust plant (Mattoo and Teasdale 2009) but in this

Cell walls of Linum usitatissimum calli exhibited ca 1 μkat g−1 of pectin methylesterase activity (EC 3.1.1.11). Ion exchange and size exclusion chromatography gave three active fractions. The major one, representing 20% of the initial activity, with a chromatographic Mr of 100 000, and a SDS-PAGE one of 43 000 consisted of three isoforms with pIs of 5.5, 7.3 and 7.8, respectively. The second fraction, 3.5% of the initial activity, had a chromatographic Mr of 110 000, and was separated into five isoforms with pIs of 5.5, 7, 7.3, 7.8 and 8.8. The minor active fraction, 1 % of the initial activity, revealed one isoform (pI close to 10) but was contaminated with non-active proteins. The major active fraction had a Km of 0.147 mg ml−1 for a specific activity of 3.3 mkat g−1 and a complex behaviour in the presence of NaCl.

Diversification events are central issues in evolution since they generate phenotypic innovation such as colonization of novel ecological niches and, ultimately, speciation. To study the ecological and molecular drivers of adaptive diversification, we used the longest still-running evolution experiment. Twelve independent populations are propagated in a glucose limited minimal medium from a common ancestor of Escherichia coli by serial daily transfers since 1988 for more than 60,000 generations. In one of the twelve populations, called Ara–2, a unique diversification event occurred: two phenotypically-differentiated lineages, named S (Small) and L (Large) according to their cell size, emerged from a common ancestor at ~ 6500 generations. The two lineages co-exist ever since, owing to negative frequency-dependent selection whereby each lineage is favored and invades the other when rare, such that no lineage gets extinct. Moreover, and before the split between the two S and L lineages, the population Ara–2 evolved a hypermutator phenotype, owing to a defect in a DNA repair gene. The objective of this thesis is to characterize the ecological, physiological and molecular mechanisms that allowed the emergence and stable co-existence of the S and L lineages.First, we used a combination of in vivo and in silico experimental evolution to determine the ecological and physiological drivers of the emergence of the polymorphism. Several ecological mechanisms including tradeoff, seasonality and character displacement are involved in the emergence and long-term persistence of diversity. In particular, we showed that the L lineage secretes acetate which generates a new ecological opportunity that the S lineage exploited. In addition, the S and L lineages became fitter and fitter over time in their respective ecological niches, respectively acetate and glucose. Second, we propagated S and L clones separately to remove competition between the two lineages. In these conditions, frequency-dependent interactions between the S and L clones evolved separately were completely abolished, revealing the importance of competition in the maintenance of the polymorphism. Third, we combined genetic, physiological and biochemical approaches to determine the role of an S-specific mutation that was previously found in arcA, encoding a global regulator, in the emergence of the S and L polymorphism. We showed that the evolved arcA allele conferred to the S lineage the capacity to growth on acetate by increasing the transcription of target genes involved in acetate consumption. During this study, we found an additional mutation, in the acs gene involved in acetate metabolism, that was also involved in the emergence of the S lineage. We further showed that these two mutations were favorable to the S lineage early during its emergence, and that other mutations occurred later that interacted epistatically with the acs and arcA evolved alleles. Therefore, these data showed that the establishment and further maintenance of the S and L polymorphism was a multi-step process involving epistatic interactions between several mutations. Fourth, we identified the long-term dynamics of mutation rates in this divergent population. A first early rise of a hypermutator was followed by a full reversion of this mutator state twice independently in each of the two S and L lineages.The emergence of a long-term bacterial polymorphism reflects a complex restructuration of the metabolic and regulatory networks in the co-existing lineages, resulting in the generation and exploitation of a new ecological opportunity. Competition and evolution of divergent resource consumption were the selective forces driving the maintenance of the polymorphism.; Les événements de diversification adaptative sont des éléments primordiaux de l'évolution. En effet, ils engendrent des innovations phénotypiques telles que la colonisation de nouvelles niches écologiques et au final, la spéciation. Afin d'étudier les ressorts écologiques et moléculaires de la diversification adaptative, nous utilisons la plus longue des expériences d'évolution en cours. Depuis 1988, soit plus de 60 000 générations, douze populations indépendantes issues d'un ancêtre commun d'Escherichia coli sont propagées quotidiennement dans un milieu minimum comportant une faible quantité de glucose.Un événement unique de diversification s'est produit dans une des 12 populations (Ara–2). Deux lignées de phénotypes différents sont apparues après environ 6500 générations, les S pour «Small» et les L pour «Large», chacune présentant des tailles cellulaires différentes. Les deux lignées coexistent grâce à une sélection négative dépendant de la fréquence qui favorise la lignée la plus rare et permet de supplanter sa concurrente; ainsi, aucune des deux lignées ne s'éteint. Avant l’événement de diversification, la population Ara–2 a développé un phénotype hypermutateur suite à la mutation d'un gène de réparation de l'ADN. L'objectif de cette thèse est de caractériser les mécanismes écologiques, physiologiques et moléculaires sous-tendant l'émergence et la coexistence des lignées S et L.En premier lieu, nous avons utilisé un ensemble d'expériences d'évolution in vivo et in silico afin de déterminer les moteurs écologiques et physiologiques de l'émergence de ce polymorphisme. Plusieurs mécanismes écologiques, incluant les compromis (trade-off évolutifs), la saisonnabilité et les déplacements de caractères interviennent dans l'émergence et la persistance de la diversité au long terme. Nous avons montré que la lignée L, en produisant de l'acétate, créait une nouvelle opportunité écologique exploitée par les S. De plus, au cours du temps, les S et les L s'adaptent à leur niche écologique, respectivement l'acétate et le glucose.En second lieu, nous avons cultivé les S et les L séparément pour éliminer la compétition entre les deux lignées. Dans ces conditions, il y a perte des interactions dépendantes de la fréquence entre les S et les L. Ceci démontre l'importance de la compétition dans le maintien du polymorphisme.En troisième lieu, nous avons combiné des approches génétiques, physiologiques et biochimiques pour déterminer le rôle, dans l'émergence du polymorphisme, d'une mutation spécifique aux S survenant dans le gène arcA, codant un régulateur global. Nous avons montré que l'allèle évolué de arcA augmentait la transcription de gènes du métabolisme de l'acétate dans la lignée S. Au cours de cette étude, nous avons identifié une mutation supplémentaire dans le gène acs, impliqué dans le métabolisme de l'acétate, intervenant dans l'émergence de la lignée S. Nous avons aussi démontré que ces deux mutations étaient favorables à la lignée S au début de son émergence, puis que des mutations plus tardives agissaient de façon épistatiques avec les allèles évolués de acs et de arcA. Ainsi, ces résultats démontrent que l'établissement et le maintien du polymorphisme des S et des L est un processus en plusieurs étapes nécessitant des interactions épistatiques entre plusieurs mutations.En quatrième lieu, nous avons identifié la dynamique au long terme des taux de mutations dans cette population. L'apparition et l'invasion rapide du phénotype hypermutateur est suivie d'une réversion complète mais indépendante dans chacune des lignées S et L.L'émergence d'un polymorphisme bactérien durable reflète une restructuration complexe des réseaux métaboliques et de régulation dans ces lignées qui co-existent, ce qui aboutit à l'apparition et à l'exploitation de nouvelles opportunités écologiques. La compétition et l'évolution de l'utilisation de ressources différentes sont des forces sélectives permettant le maintien du polymorphisme.

Diversification events are central issues in evolution since they generate phenotypic innovation such as colonization of novel ecological niches and, ultimately, speciation. To study the ecological and molecular drivers of adaptive diversification, we used the longest still-running evolution experiment. Twelve independent populations are propagated in a glucose limited minimal medium from a common ancestor of Escherichia coli by serial daily transfers since 1988 for more than 60,000 generations. In one of the twelve populations, called Ara–2, a unique diversification event occurred: two phenotypically-differentiated lineages, named S (Small) and L (Large) according to their cell size, emerged from a common ancestor at ~ 6500 generations. The two lineages co-exist ever since, owing to negative frequency-dependent selection whereby each lineage is favored and invades the other when rare, such that no lineage gets extinct. Moreover, and before the split between the two S and L lineages, the population Ara–2 evolved a hypermutator phenotype, owing to a defect in a DNA repair gene. The objective of this thesis is to characterize the ecological, physiological and molecular mechanisms that allowed the emergence and stable co-existence of the S and L lineages.First, we used a combination of in vivo and in silico experimental evolution to determine the ecological and physiological drivers of the emergence of the polymorphism. Several ecological mechanisms including tradeoff, seasonality and character displacement are involved in the emergence and long-term persistence of diversity. In particular, we showed that the L lineage secretes acetate which generates a new ecological opportunity that the S lineage exploited. In addition, the S and L lineages became fitter and fitter over time in their respective ecological niches, respectively acetate and glucose. Second, we propagated S and L clones separately to remove competition between the two lineages. In these conditions, frequency-dependent interactions between the S and L clones evolved separately were completely abolished, revealing the importance of competition in the maintenance of the polymorphism. Third, we combined genetic, physiological and biochemical approaches to determine the role of an S-specific mutation that was previously found in arcA, encoding a global regulator, in the emergence of the S and L polymorphism. We showed that the evolved arcA allele conferred to the S lineage the capacity to growth on acetate by increasing the transcription of target genes involved in acetate consumption. During this study, we found an additional mutation, in the acs gene involved in acetate metabolism, that was also involved in the emergence of the S lineage. We further showed that these two mutations were favorable to the S lineage early during its emergence, and that other mutations occurred later that interacted epistatically with the acs and arcA evolved alleles. Therefore, these data showed that the establishment and further maintenance of the S and L polymorphism was a multi-step process involving epistatic interactions between several mutations. Fourth, we identified the long-term dynamics of mutation rates in this divergent population. A first early rise of a hypermutator was followed by a full reversion of this mutator state twice independently in each of the two S and L lineages.The emergence of a long-term bacterial polymorphism reflects a complex restructuration of the metabolic and regulatory networks in the co-existing lineages, resulting in the generation and exploitation of a new ecological opportunity. Competition and evolution of divergent resource consumption were the selective forces driving the maintenance of the polymorphism., Les événements de diversification adaptative sont des éléments primordiaux de l'évolution. En effet, ils engendrent des innovations phénotypiques telles que la colonisation de nouvelles niches écologiques et au final, la spéciation. Afin d'étudier les ressorts écologiques et moléculaires de la diversification adaptative, nous utilisons la plus longue des expériences d'évolution en cours. Depuis 1988, soit plus de 60 000 générations, douze populations indépendantes issues d'un ancêtre commun d'Escherichia coli sont propagées quotidiennement dans un milieu minimum comportant une faible quantité de glucose.Un événement unique de diversification s'est produit dans une des 12 populations (Ara–2). Deux lignées de phénotypes différents sont apparues après environ 6500 générations, les S pour «Small» et les L pour «Large», chacune présentant des tailles cellulaires différentes. Les deux lignées coexistent grâce à une sélection négative dépendant de la fréquence qui favorise la lignée la plus rare et permet de supplanter sa concurrente; ainsi, aucune des deux lignées ne s'éteint. Avant l’événement de diversification, la population Ara–2 a développé un phénotype hypermutateur suite à la mutation d'un gène de réparation de l'ADN. L'objectif de cette thèse est de caractériser les mécanismes écologiques, physiologiques et moléculaires sous-tendant l'émergence et la coexistence des lignées S et L.En premier lieu, nous avons utilisé un ensemble d'expériences d'évolution in vivo et in silico afin de déterminer les moteurs écologiques et physiologiques de l'émergence de ce polymorphisme. Plusieurs mécanismes écologiques, incluant les compromis (trade-off évolutifs), la saisonnabilité et les déplacements de caractères interviennent dans l'émergence et la persistance de la diversité au long terme. Nous avons montré que la lignée L, en produisant de l'acétate, créait une nouvelle opportunité écologique exploitée par les S. De plus, au cours du temps, les S et les L s'adaptent à leur niche écologique, respectivement l'acétate et le glucose.En second lieu, nous avons cultivé les S et les L séparément pour éliminer la compétition entre les deux lignées. Dans ces conditions, il y a perte des interactions dépendantes de la fréquence entre les S et les L. Ceci démontre l'importance de la compétition dans le maintien du polymorphisme.En troisième lieu, nous avons combiné des approches génétiques, physiologiques et biochimiques pour déterminer le rôle, dans l'émergence du polymorphisme, d'une mutation spécifique aux S survenant dans le gène arcA, codant un régulateur global. Nous avons montré que l'allèle évolué de arcA augmentait la transcription de gènes du métabolisme de l'acétate dans la lignée S. Au cours de cette étude, nous avons identifié une mutation supplémentaire dans le gène acs, impliqué dans le métabolisme de l'acétate, intervenant dans l'émergence de la lignée S. Nous avons aussi démontré que ces deux mutations étaient favorables à la lignée S au début de son émergence, puis que des mutations plus tardives agissaient de façon épistatiques avec les allèles évolués de acs et de arcA. Ainsi, ces résultats démontrent que l'établissement et le maintien du polymorphisme des S et des L est un processus en plusieurs étapes nécessitant des interactions épistatiques entre plusieurs mutations.En quatrième lieu, nous avons identifié la dynamique au long terme des taux de mutations dans cette population. L'apparition et l'invasion rapide du phénotype hypermutateur est suivie d'une réversion complète mais indépendante dans chacune des lignées S et L.L'émergence d'un polymorphisme bactérien durable reflète une restructuration complexe des réseaux métaboliques et de régulation dans ces lignées qui co-existent, ce qui aboutit à l'apparition et à l'exploitation de nouvelles opportunités écologiques. La compétition et l'évolution de l'utilisation de ressources différentes sont des forces sélectives permettant le maintien du polymorphisme.

Large-scale DNA rearrangements, including inversions, amplifications, duplications, deletions, insertions, and transposition of mobile genetic elements, are major drivers of evolution and strongly impact on chromosome organization and expression, thereby altering organismal phenotypes. However, their long-term evolutionary dynamics and effects on organismal fitness are often unknown. We addressed these questions by using the longest-running evolution experiment, during which twelve independent populations are propagated from a common E. coli ancestor in a glucose-limited environment for now over 60,000 generations (26 years). Most past studies have focused on point mutations and small InDels. Using evolved clones sampled over time in all 12 populations, we characterized all large-scale DNA rearrangements by using whole genome sequences and Whole Genome MappingTM (i.e optical mapping). After 40,000 generations, we identified a total of 110 rearrangements including 82 deletions, 19 inversions and 9 duplications. Many chromosomal regions were repeatedly affected by similar rearrangements and, at least in one population, they occurred early in evolution when fitness increase was strong. Therefore, many rearrangements may be under positive selection. At the very least, these rearrangements strongly affected the structure of the chromosome during evolution.At the molecular level, we showed that ~ 70% of all rearrangements occurred by recombination between Insertion Sequence (IS) elements, illustrating their importance in mediating genome plasticity. We therefore investigated the distribution and temporal dynamics of these small mobile genetic elements in all 12 populations. We showed that IS elements were strong contributors of the total mutations after 40,000 generations. In one population, they even represented about half of the total mutations and one IS type, IS150, revealed a strong 6-fold increase in copy number, accounting for the production of most of the rearrangements detected in this population. We showed that IS150 revealed a dynamic temporal behavior with a strong expansion followed by domestication by the host. By testing three evolutionary scenarios, we demonstrated that the IS150 expansion was related to a strong fitness increase conferred by the initial transposition events that occurred before 2000 generations. Later, between 20,000 and 40,000 generations, we measured a decreased transposition frequency, likely owing to a down regulation imposed by the host. Finally, and for the first time, we developed an evolution model of IS dynamics confirming that the IS expansion was related to a threshold number of initial IS beneficial insertions. All of our data showed that large-scale chromosomal rearrangements and IS elements have played an active role in the evolutionary outcomes after 40,000 generations of bacterial evolution., Les réarrangements d'ADN à grande échelle, tels que inversions, amplifications, duplications, délétions, insertions et transposition des éléments génétiques mobiles, sont des acteurs essentiels de l'évolution. Ils ont une forte incidence sur l'organisation et l'expression des chromosomes, ce qui affecte le phénotype des organismes. Toutefois, la dynamique de ces réarrangements au cours de l'évolution et leurs effets sur l'adaptation des organismes sont souvent inconnus. Nous avons abordé ces questions en utilisant la plus longue expérience d'évolution en cours. A partir d'un ancêtre commun d'Escherichia coli, douze populations indépendantes sont cultivées dans un milieu limité en glucose depuis plus de 60 000 générations, soit 26 ans. La plupart des études antérieures ont porté sur les mutations ponctuelles et les petites insertions et délétions (InDels). En utilisant des clones isolés au cours du temps dans ces 12 populations, nous avons caractérisé les réarrangements d'ADN à grande échelle à la fois par l'analyse des séquences de génomes et par cartographie optique. A 40 000 générations, nous avons identifié 110 réarrangements parmi lesquelles 82 délétions, 19 inversions et 9 duplications. Plusieurs régions du chromosome ont été touchées à plusieurs reprises par le même type de réarrangements dans des populations indépendantes. Dans une des populations au moins, les réarrangements se sont produits au début de l'expérience d'évolution, au moment où l'augmentation de la valeur sélective est la plus élevée. Par conséquent, certains de ces réarrangements pourraient être bénéfiques dans ces conditions. Même dans le cas contraire, nous avons montré que ces réarrangements affectaient fortement la structure du chromosome au cours de l'expérience d'évolution.Au niveau moléculaire, nous avons montré que ~ 70% des réarrangements se produisent par recombinaison entre séquences d'insertion (IS), ce qui illustre l'importance de ces dernières dans la plasticité du génome. Nous avons donc caractérisé la distribution et la dynamique de ces petits éléments génétiques mobiles dans l'ensemble des 12 populations. Nous avons montré que les éléments IS ont fortement contribué à l'ensemble des mutations après 40 000 générations. Dans une population, les IS représentent même la moitié des mutations, et un des types d'IS, IS150, présente une forte prolifération avec 6 fois plus de copies à 40 000 générations, intervenant dans la plupart des réarrangements détectés dans cette population. Nous avons montré une forte dynamique temporelle d'IS150, avec une forte expansion suivie d'une domestication par l'hôte. En testant trois scenarii évolutifs, nous avons démontré que l'expansion d'IS150 était liée à une forte augmentation de la valeur sélective conférée par les événements initiaux de transposition ayant eu lieu avant 2000 générations. Plus tard, entre 20 000 et 40 000 générations, nous avons mesuré une diminution de la fréquence de transposition, probablement en raison d'une régulation négative de la transposition imposée par l'hôte. Enfin, et pour la première fois, nous avons développé un modèle d'évolution de la dynamique des IS, qui confirme que leur expansion est liée à un nombre seuil d'insertions bénéfiques initiales. Ces résultats montrent que les réarrangements chromosomiques à grande échelle et les éléments IS ont joué un rôle actif dans la trajectoire évolutive au cours de 40 000 générations d'évolution bactérienne.