Search

Lighting is a complex management tool in turkey production, controlled by three parameters; daylength, intensity, and chromaticity. As light-emitting diodes (LED) increase in popularity as alternatives to traditional light sources, research regarding LED impacts on commercial-type turkey production is lacking. Therefore, turkey hens of the same strain were reared under experimental brooding and grow-out conditions with six lighting treatments. An environmentally and light controlled facility (ECF) consisted of 5,000 Kelvin (K) LED or 5,000K + far-red LED (639nm) (RED) with either 12h short or 18h long daylength to test LED spectra. In the remaining treatments, hens were exposed to sunlight in a curtain-sided facility (CSF) as two treatments 1) natural decreasing daylength from September to November (NAT) or 2) natural daylight + 5,000 K LED lighting with an 18h long blocked daylength (BLK). The intensity was 9 footcandles in the ECF and naturally fluctuating in the CSF. Hen's performance was evaluated at 5, 9, and 14 weeks for eye development and feather coverage. Hens brooded and grown-out under NAT light had significantly increased body weight gain compared to BLK hens for the same period. Hens reared with RED LED spectrum had significantly increased eye anterior-posterior distance than birds raised in the NAT treatment. A significant reduction in red heat signature on the breast tissue in the NAT treatment compared to all other 18h treatments indicated improved feather coverage. However, these same results were not observed during serum thyroid hormone analysis. While turkey hens reared under different lighting programs had similar ending performance, lighting parameters significantly affected bird performance during the growing period, bird's eye development, and body feather coverage. Therefore, potential effects on growth patterns and physiology should be considered when choosing a LED lighting program for turkeys

Two battery trials were conducted to determine the effects of dietary direct-fed microbial (DFM) and dietary fat inclusion on broiler chick and turkey poult performance and dietary apparent metabolizable energy, nitrogen corrected (AMEn) when fed corn, wheat, and soy diets. For both experiments, a 2 x 2 factorial experimental design was used with supplemental fat at low (1%, LF) or high (6%, HF) levels and DFM inclusion (0 or 0.91 kg/ton) as main effects. Dietary treatments were randomly assigned to 72 cages of birds and fed for 21 days. Growth performance was measured weekly, and cecal contents were collected for volatile fatty acid (VFA) analysis on day 21. Fat supplementation resulted in increased body weight gain (BWG) in both broilers and turkeys. Specifically, in LF diets, DFM inclusion resulted in increased BWG compared to the non-DFM treatments. Cumulative feed conversion ratio (FCR) was improved in HF treatments and the LF with DFM treatment compared to the LF with no DFM. In both trials, as expected, feeding HF diets resulted in increased AMEn. However, the DFM inclusion resulted in a greater uplift in AMEn in LF diets for both broilers and turkeys. In either trial, diet did not impact cecal VFA concentrations; thus, the impact on DFM on VFA production remains uncertain. In conclusion, the performance of broiler chicks and turkey poults was improved by DFM inclusion in reduced fat diets which was associated with increased energy digestibility as measured by AMEn.

Poultry production has experienced a major shift with the prohibition of the use of antimicrobials and antibiotics as growth promoters. The industry in general, and more specifically turkey producers, are facing a changing world in that many consumers have a perception and certain beliefs about food production while the truth maybe something else. Additionally, perception has become a reality when it comes to consumer acceptance, which affects consumer purchasing behavior. In this regard, in many cases and genres, the public perception of antibiotic use in turkey production can be generally negative. The truth that antibiotics and other antimicrobials can be beneficial to both turkeys and consumers is lost. Therefore, turkey producers are accepting the challenge to rear turkey flocks without growth promoting antibiotics or antimicrobials. In some cases and some locales, this has become the law. In other markets, consumer desires and purchasing habits are the driving force for change. Turkey producers are scrutinizing production practices to ascertain and provide the optimal environment for turkey production. In addition, alternatives to antibiotics are being developed, tested, evaluated, and used for turkey production in increasing frequency. These include, but not limited to, probiotics (direct-fed microbials), prebiotics, organic acids, essential oils, spices, and plant and yeast extracts. Researchers are joining forces with turkey producers to develop use plans for these feed additives that, in most cases, are not the same as for antibiotic administration. Turkey producers have become proactive in developing these plans and are preparing to provide exceptional quality products that will meet consumer acceptance. However, more research focusing specifically on turkeys is certainly needed so that these alternative approaches can be optimized to meet the turkey production necessities.

The commercial turkey of today is a descendant of wild, then domesticated, turkeys from North America originating in regions of old Mexico. The modern commercial turkey enjoys a wide range of acceptance in many countries. Turkey production evolved rapidly from 1950 forward with many changes in production and management. Turkey production changed from range rearing to mostly total confinement. Rearing birds under increased density in confinement facilities has created both opportunities and challenges. Once confined, organic materials have been used as bedding (also referred to as litter). There have been many materials evaluated and used for bedding. Availability, cost, and bird performance were early key considerations. More recently, bird health and welfare are now important considerations as well. Optimal management programs of the modern turkey reared in confinement can be elusive and difficult to define. However, controlling litter moisture which aids in reducing ammonia and footpad dermatitis should be a key management component of confinement rearing. Therefore, bedding choice and litter management in turkey production require thoughtful consideration and active management.

Ammonia (NH3) produced inside livestock houses can adversely affect animal welfare and performance and degrade the environment. In broiler houses, NH3 levels are mitigated by applying acidifiers to the litter but acidifiers provide short-term NH3 suppression requiring heavy or repeated applications. Microbial additives may provide longer-term NH3 control through nitrogen (N) immobilization and nitrification. The objective of this 50-d lab study was to evaluate the impact of two microbial additives (Environoc 301 and Environoc 501), 2% glucose, and distilled water (control) treatments applied to broiler litter on NH3 emissions and litter properties. During the first 34 d, glucose significantly but modestly reduced NH3 emissions vs. the other treatments which were not significantly different from one-another. For the entire study, when glucose was excluded (due to lost replicates), the three treatments were not significantly different. The unreplicated glucose treatment had higher final litter nitrate concentration than the other treatments. Litter properties were unaffected by the two microbial additive and control treatments. The effectiveness of glucose in reducing NH3 emission could have been due to greater N immobilization and nitrification vs. the other treatments. More research on cost-effective labile carbon sources and higher application rates to achieve greater NH3 reduction is required.

Sodium bisulfate (SB) was evaluated on its ability to improve broiler growth and intestinal structure with(out) a coccidia challenge. One thousand two hundred Cobb500 day-old males were randomly assigned within 4 experimental groups with a 2 × 2 factorial design, with (out) SB in the diet and with(out) a day 0 coccidia challenge using a 10× dose of a commercial vaccine. At day 7, oocysts per gram of feces were determined. At day 0, 14, 28, and 41, BW and feed consumption were measured. At day 21, 20 birds per treatment were subjectively scored for coccidia lesions, and jejunal histologic samples were collected for villi measurements. Twenty additional birds were given fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran to determine gut permeability. At day 41, 10 birds per treatment had histologic samples collected. Statistical analysis was conducted in JMP Pro 14 using GLM procedure to compare disease state and diet. Means were separated using Dunnett's test (P ≤ 0.05) with the nonchallenged standard diet treatment that is considered the control. All parameters measured indicated an effect due to the coccidia inoculation. Therefore, effects of diet on (non)challenged treatments were determined using a Student t test (P ≤ 0.05). Limited differences due to diet were seen for the nonchallenged production data. Sodium bisulfate had a thinner villi base width (P = 0.04) on day 21 and greater villi height (P = 0.03), smaller base width (P = 0.04), thicker muscularis (P = 0.03), and lower crypt: height ratio (P = 0.01) on day 41. Challenged SB had similar gut permeability to the nonchallenged control (P = 0.94) on day 21. There was no difference in flock uniformity, feed intake, oocysts per gram of feces, or lesion scores between challenged treatments. Challenged SB had greater BW on day 14 (P < 0.0001), 28 (P < 0.0001), and 41 (P = 0.02). Feed conversion ratio from day 0 to 14 was also lower (P = 0.0002). Challenged SB had smaller crypts (P = 0.02) and therefore a smaller crypt: height ratio (P = 0.03) on day 21. Challenged control had a larger apical width (P = 0.03) and thicker muscularis (P = 0.04) on day 41. Overall, the addition of SB during coccidial enteropathy aided in BW, feed conversion ratio, and villi health with no observed effects on parasite cycling.

Industry standards for turkey stocking densities are variable and may not represent the more rapidly growing strains currently available. Therefore, a study was completed to evaluate 4 stocking densities: a nominal density (0.3525 m2/bird), 10% tighter density (0.3169 m2/bird), 10% looser density (0.3882 m2/bird), and 20% looser density (0.4238 m2/bird) on the effects on large white, commercial male turkeys with regard to performance from 5 to 20 wk of age. Brooding stocking density was fixed for all pens of birds with 60 birds per replicate pen at 0.46 m2/bird to 5 wk of age. Density treatments were applied from 5 to 20 wk by altering pen size with pen population held constant at 60 per pen. There were 4 pens of birds per density treatment. Birds were weighed individually at 0, 5, and 20 wk of age and performance parameters were calculated. There were no differences in bird performance at 5 wk, which was expected because stocking density was fixed. From 5 to 20 wk and at 20 wk, birds that were reared at the nominal standard (0.3525 m2/bird) and 10% tighter density (0.3169 m2/bird) had significantly lower body weight compared with the 10% looser density (0.3882 m2/bird) and 20% looser density (0.4238 m2/bird) (P = 0.03 and 0.01, respectfully). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) tended (P = 0.08) to be improved for birds reared at looser density. In addition, based on linear regression, as stocking density decreased (i.e., m2/bird increased), BW (P

Coccidiosis is a high-prevalence disease that annually entails huge costs for the poultry industry. Control of coccidiosis in poultry production is based on the use of coccidiostats and vaccines. However, along with the problem of drug resistance, there is a concern about food safety and drug residues in poultry products. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of sodium bisulfate (SBS) in comparison with monensin (M) and their combination (SBSM) effects on controlling coccidiosis in broilers. In a randomized design, 300 chickens (Ross 308) were divided into 5 treatments and 4 replications (15 birds per replicate). All birds, except the negative control (NC), were orally inoculated with 4 Eimeria species on 14 D of age. Treatments included were as follows: NC, an unsupplemented basal diet, nonchallenged; positive control, a basal diet unsupplemented, challenged with Eimeria spp; a basal diet supplemented with 5 g/kg of SBS; a basal diet supplemented with 1 g/kg of M; and a basal diet supplemented with 5 g/kg SBS and 1 g/kg M (SBSM). Oocyst shedding per gram (OPG) of the faecal sample from each experimental unit was counted on 5 to 14 D after inoculation. Two chicks from each experimental unit were euthanized to investigate intestinal lesions on day 5 after inoculation. The NC birds showed the highest BW gain and the lowest feed conversion ratio. The birds in the SBSM group had improved feed consumption compared with the M group in the prechallenge period (P < 0.05). All supplemented treatments resulted in a significant decrease in OPG. The M and SBSM treatments showed more efficacy than the SBS group (P < 0.05) in reducing OPG. There was a significant reduction in cecal lesions owing to supplementation with SBS, but the effect of SBS in the upper part of the intestine was lower than the M and SBSM groups (P < 0.05). Based on the results of this study, SBS has protective effects against coccidiosis in ceca, and the combination of M and SBS (SBSM) did not show any further improvement effect compared with M alone on the control of coccidiosis.

Salmonella and Campylobacter are considered major public health burdens worldwide, and poultry are known to be one of the main reservoirs for these zoonotic pathogens. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of a commercial probiotic or direct-fed microbial (DFM) Calsporin (CSP), and prebiotic or mannan oligosaccharide (MOS) (IMW50) on ultrastructural changes and the villous integrity of intestinal mucosa in turkey poults challenged with Salmonella and Campylobacter. A 21-day battery cage study was conducted using 4 dietary treatments including a basal diet (corn and soybean–based) nonsupplemented and uninfected as a negative control (NC); basal diet supplemented with 0.05% DFM (CSP); basal diet supplemented with 0.05% MOS (IMW50); and basal diet supplemented with 0.05% mixture of DFM and MOS at equal proportions. Female large white turkey poults aged 336 days were obtained from a local commercial hatchery and randomly distributed in electrically heated battery cages with 12 treatments of 4 replicates per treatment containing 7 poults per pen. The first 16 pens were not infected with bacteria, poults in pens 17-32 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 cfu Salmonella Heidelberg, and the poults in pens 33-48 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 cfu Campylobacter jejuni. Feed and water were provided ad libitum throughout the study. At day 21, ileal tissue samples from 1 bird per cage were collected for intestinal integrity and ultrastructural examination by scanning and electron microscopy. DFM and MOS supplementation was effective in both challenged and nonchallenged (not infected with Salmonella and Campylobacter) birds. Goblet cells and mucus were increased, with the presence of large numbers of segmented filamentous bacteria in DFM- and MOS-supplemented groups compared with birds in control treatments. The number and size of villi were reduced in poults exposed to Salmonella and Campylobacter. Results show that CSP and IMW50 provide protection of ileal mucosal integrity in poults exposed to Salmonella or Campylobacter.

Chromium propionate (Cr Prop) is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine for supplementation to broiler diets up to 0.20 mg Cr/kg diet. A 49-D study was conducted to: 1) determine the safety of Cr Prop when supplemented at 2 and 10 times (×) the approved feeding level over the normal life span of broilers, and 2) determine the effects of supplementing Cr Prop on Cr concentrations of tissues consumed by humans. On day zero, 216 Ross 708 broilers were stratified by weight within sex and randomly assigned to treatments. Dietary treatments were 0 (control), 0.40, and 2.0 mg supplemental Cr/kg diet from Cr Prop. There were 6 replicate cages each of male and female broilers per treatment. At the end of the study blood was collected for determination of plasma biochemical measurements and tissue samples were collected for Cr analysis. Supplementing 0.40 mg Cr/kg diet (2×) did not adversely affect broiler performance, mortality, plasma biochemical measurements or Cr concentrations in breast muscle, skin with adhering fat, or liver. Chromium propionate supplemented at 2.0 mg Cr/kg (10×) did not affect Cr concentrations in breast muscle or skin with adhering fat, but increased (P0.05) liver Cr concentrations. Supplementing Cr Prop at 10× the approved feeding level decreased feed intake and gain in male but not female broilers from days 21 to 49. Results of this study support the safety of Cr Prop in broiler diets, and indicate that Cr Prop supplementation to broiler diets at 2 or 10× the approved feeding level does not present a human health concern.

SUMMARY A study was conducted to evaluate bedding source and the inclusion of rolled, unheated soybeans on the growth performance of male turkeys when reared to market age. Pine shavings are the most common poultry bedding material, however recently, increased marketplace competition has significantly reduced its availability and necessitated the need for economical alternatives. Additionally, the development of new varieties of soybeans with low levels of antinutritional factors have created an opportunity for dietary inclusion with minimal processing. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of Miscanthus grass as an alternative to pine shavings litter and to evaluate 2 novel, low trypsin inhibitor soybean varieties as a potential ingredient for turkeys. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 4 factorial design with main effects of litter type (Miscanthus grass or pine shavings) and dietary treatment. Diets were defined based on the soy protein source: LO (novel, unheated low oligosaccharide and trypsin inhibitor soybean), LT (novel, unheated low trypsin inhibitor soybean), SBM (commercial solvent extracted soybean meal), or CB (unheated conventional soybeans). Bedding type did not affect BW gain or feed intake at market, however, a tendency for improved FCR was observed when turkeys were raised on Miscanthus grass (P = 0.073). Turkey toms fed diets containing low trypsin inhibitor soybeans had improved BW gain and feed intake with a lower overall FCR compared to turkeys fed diets containing conventional raw whole soybeans. Therefore, there was improved digestibility of the novel soybean lines. Nutrient utilization of the novel low trypsin inhibitor soybeans, however, remained inferior to diets containing solvent extracted soybean meal, which yielded the heaviest BW and lowest FCR with similar feed intake to the low trypsin inhibitor soybean diets.

Bedding (litter) is essential to poultry performance and health and can have an environmental impact after use in the poultry facility such as a soil amendment or as an alternative energy source. Pine shavings are the most common bedding used for turkey production. However, the increase in its price and its increasing scarcity in some areas have created new research opportunities for reusing litter as bedding. Improvement in feed pellet quality has been reported to improve poultry performance. However, the reports for turkeys are limited and dated. This study's objective was to determine how the improvement of feed pellet quality and the use of biochar added to a combination of used turkey brooder house litter and Miscanthus grass as bedding affects turkey performance, small intestine morphology, and ammonia production. Nicolas Select (Aviagen Turkeys, Lewisburg, WV) male poults (816) were randomly assigned to 48 concrete litter floor pens on the day of hatch. The experiment used a completely randomized block design with a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments: 2 levels of fines in the feed and 4 bedding treatments. The bedding treatments were a constant level of used turkey brooder house litter combined with a varying combination of biochar and Miscanthus grass. Turkey's body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined. Differences in treatment means were considered to be statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05 using a mixed model in SAS 9.4. Turkeys fed the feed with improved pellet quality had a higher BW from 3 to 17 wk (17.0 ± 0.1 kg) than turkeys fed an increased abundance of fines (16.72 ± 0.1 kg). Turkeys fed feed with increased pellet quality had a lower FI (45.6 vs. 48.1 ± 0.4 kg) and improved FCR (2.20 vs. 2.31 ± 0.01) from 0 to 20 wk. Litter treatment with 20% biochar resulted in higher BW at 20 wk (20.91 ± 0.16 kg) because of increased BWG at 11 wk over the rest of the biochar levels (3.7 ± 0.1 kg). Strategies to reduce the abundance of fines in feed through feed formulation, feed manufacturing, feed transport, and in-house feed management should be considered to increase male turkeys' performance. There may be opportunities to use biochar as a litter amendment to improve turkey health and performance.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary inclusion of a novel low trypsin inhibitor soybean (LTI) fed as mash or crumbled pellet form on the productive performance and digestibility in turkey poults from hatch to 21 d. A total of 336 Hybrid Converter turkey poults were allocated in groups of 7 to 6 treatments, each with 8 replicate cages. Treatments were arranged as a 3 × 2 factorial with inclusion level of the low trypsin-inhibitor soybean (0, 20, and 40% LTI) and feed form (mash and crumbled pellet). A single batch of feed was mixed for each inclusion level and divided into 2 aliquots: one remaining as mash and the other conditioned at 82°C for approximately 30 s, pelleted and then crumbled. On d 7, 14, and 21 posthatching, BW, and feed intake (FI) were recorded and BW gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) calculated. Excreta samples were collected from d 19 to 21 and pooled by cage. At d 21, intestines were excised, pancreas weights recorded (PRW), and ileal contents collected. There were no interactions (linear, P > 0.05) between LTI inclusion and feed form on BW, BWG, FI, or FCR at d 7 or 21. Increasing LTI resulted in a linear reduction in BW at 7, 14, and 21 d (P < 0.006). Poults fed crumbles were significantly heavier at d 21 than those fed mash feed (P < 0.027) with no interaction of LTI level with feed form. FCR was not significantly greater with increasing LTI. However, poults fed crumbles had a better, lower FCR that those fed mash feed from d 0 to 21 (P < 0.018). There was a significant interaction between feed form and LTI level at 14 d (P < 0.031), but not 7 or 21 d. Pancreatic hypertrophy (PRW) increased linearly with increasing LTI (P < 0.001) with a significant linear interaction with feed form (P < 0.001). Poults fed crumbles had less pancreatic hypertrophy. At 21 d of age, dietary fat digestibility (ALD, %) was linearly reduced with increasing LTI (P < 0.001). However, poults fed crumbles had significantly better fat absorption than poults fed mash (91.2 vs. 85.8%) (P < 0.001), and there was a significant linear interaction between feed form and LTI level (P < 0.001). AMEn was significantly better for the poults fed crumbles compared to mash (3228 vs. 3132 kcal/kg) (P < 0.001), and there was a significant linear interaction between feed form and LTI level (P < 0.001). Based on the results this trial, it is possible to include up to 20% unheated full fat LTI soybeans into poult starter diets after pelleting. Pelleting improves nutrient utilization, allowing for greater incorporation of the LTI soybean in the crumbled diet compared to the mash diet.

High levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in avian sperm cause more susceptibility to lipid peroxidation. Aging in roosters reduces the antioxidant capacity of sperm and thus fertility. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different levels of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) as a feed supplement to improve the semen quality and fertility parameters of aged broiler breeder roosters and identification of its most effective level. A total of forty-two roosters at 45 wk of age were randomly assigned to 7 treatments (0, 15, 40, 70, 95, 120, and 145 mg ALA/bird per day) for 8 wk. Semen parameters and body weight were assessed biweekly, and testosterone plasma levels were determined in the 8th wk of the experimental period. Artificial insemination was performed at the end of the experiment to evaluate the fertility potential. The dietary administration of ALA had no significant effects on body weight, semen volume, average path velocity, linearity, straightness, wobble, the amplitude of lateral head displacement, beat-cross frequency, sperm concentration, morphology, plasma testosterone level, fertility, or hatchability (P > 0.05). Alpha-lipoic acid supplementations resulted in a significant decrease in seminal malondialdehyde concentration and immotile (type D) sperms (P

Based on research reports, feed characteristics can increase poult growth via several factors. Two rearing experiments (EXP) were conducted to test the effects of feed form and ingredient quality in turkey poults. Bird performance and the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and cecum morphology were observed in both EXP. Poults were reared in battery cages (48 cages in EXP 1 and 72 cages in EXP 2). Four dietary treatments with differing feed form and function factors were evaluated in EXP 1. A completely randomized block design with a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments consisting of 2 levels of fines, 2 soybean meal (SBM) sources, and 2 levels of an enzyme cocktail (Rovabio Advance) was tested in EXP 2. Poult BW, BW gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined in both EXP. Apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (AMEn) was determined in EXP 2. Differences were considered to be statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05. Feeding increased feed crumble particle size with fewer fines in the starter feed resulted in an increased BWG accompanied by an increased FI. Reduced feed fines reduced AMEn when the dietary enzyme cocktail was not present. The feed formulation with 60% CP SBM resulted in a lower FI and an improved FCR. The enzyme cocktail interacted synergistically with screening and fed SBM source factors on the AMEn and FCR. It was concluded that both the feed form and quality, as used in this study, affect poult performance.

Sperm can be selected as a natural vector for the production of transgenic animals. Methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MBCD) removes cholesterol from the phospholipid membrane of sperm and improves the efficiency of DNA uptake by sperm. In experiment 1, fresh sperm was treated with various concentrations of MBCD. The direct effects of MBCD on sperm parameters were monitored. In experiment 2, different concentrations of MBCD (0, 1, 2, and 4 mmol) were assessed for the transfection of genetically exogenous construction to rooster sperm. Washed semen was divided into 5 equal groups for the incubation and transfection with a pcDNA3.1+/hG-CSF vector (exogenous DNA) as follows; Treatment I—Control (washed semen without DNA); Treatment II—Control (washed semen with DNA); Treatment III—(washed semen incubated with DNA and 1 mmol MBCD); Treatment IV—(washed semen incubated with DNA and 2 mmol MBCD); and Treatment V—(washed semen incubated with DNA and 4 mmol MBCD). We demonstrated that rooster spermatozoa spontaneously can uptake exogenous DNA; this was assessed using exogenous DNA amplification (sperm genomic DNA used as a template for PCR reaction) after DNase I treatment. In addition, total motility (TM), progressive motility (PM), velocity parameters [curvilinear velocity (VCL), straight linear velocity (VSL), sperm track straightness (STR), linearity (LIN)], membrane integrity (MI), and membrane functionality were posttransfectionally evaluated. The concentrations of 1 and 2 mmol MBCD significantly (P < 0.05) improved the motion characteristics and membrane integrity of fresh sperm. The presence of hG-CSF in rooster sperm was detected by PCR and based on sperm analyses MBCD (1 mmol) improved the percentage of motility (98.9 ± 0.81), membrane functionality (64 ± 1.64), and MI (76.2 ± 1.65) after transfection when compared with the other groups (P < 0.05). For the production of transgenic chicken, hens were inseminated (AI) by transfected sperm treated with 1 and 0 mmol MBCD. A PCR analysis of the blood samples and dead embryo tissues of chicks did not reveal the transgene integration.

Solar heating has great potential to displace fossil fuels in agricultural and industrial space heating. The conventional metal transpired solar collectors (mTSC) is highly-efficient but its high cost has impeded its adoption. While the plastic TSC (pTSC) would be less-expensive than the mTSC, it requires perforation. Since a high absorptance, non-woven landscape fabric is widely available and inexpensive, it could be cost-effective solar collector. The landscape fabric collector (fTSC) was compared with mTSC (anodized aluminum) and pTSC for temperature rise (ΔT) and efficiency (η) at two suction velocities (Vs). The mTSC and pTSC had porosity of 1.2% while the fTSC had a porosity of 80%. At 0.047 m/s, the fTSC produced higher average ΔT (by at least 2 °C) and average η (by at least 10%) than the mTSC and pTSC that were similar in performance. At the higher Vs of 0.060 m/s, the fTSC slightly outperformed the mTSC while the pTSC had the lowest ΔT and η. Superior performance of the fTSC was likely due to lower energy losses than the other two collectors as was indicated by its scanning electron microscope images. Modeling the fTSC as a simplified packed bed may be appropriate and challenges have been identified. Practical scale-up suggestions are provided. The fTSC is the least expensive solar air heater for space heating.

Solar heat could displace fossil fuel to reduce energy cost for brooding livestock and poultry. A transpired solar collector (TSC), consisting of a perforated dark-colored metal surface, can provide considerable heating but metal TSCs (mTSCs) are expensive. Since a perforated black plastic sheet will be less-expensive, a plastic TSC (pTSC) was evaluated. The 1.49 m2 pTSC (porosity of 1.2%) supplemented a propane heater in a room housing 240 turkey poults; an adjacent room without a pTSC, with 240 poults was the control. Monitoring was performed over two flocks of poults. A custom-built controller bypassed the pTSC during nighttime or when the room did not require heating to bring in fresh air. The pTSC gave a maximum temperature rise of 25.4 °C at a solar irradiance (I) of 882 W/m2 and suction velocity (Vs) of 0.033 m/s over 15 min. Over 178 h of operation, with an average I of 668 ± 295 W/m2 and average Vs of 0.036 m/s, the pTSC increased air temperature by an average of 8.1 ± 4.2 °C. Probably due to higher ventilation rate and an oversized propane heater, propane use was not reduced in the Test room with the pTSC vs. the Control room. The Test room had lower CO2 and CO concentrations due to higher ventilation, which may have improved turkey performance. The metal TSC gave a slightly higher temperature rise at a lower Vs but the less-expensive pTSC could be a more cost-effective solar air heater that could readily be scaled up for agricultural and other applications in many parts of the world. Scale-up considerations seem feasible and are presented for a 10,000-poult brooder barn.

Feed costs represent a significant portion of the cost of poultry production. This study, in 3 experiments, was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a heat-stable xylanase (XYL) as a dietary supplement and its effect on digesta viscosity, nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn), and live performance in broiler chicks. Experiment 1: the objective was to determine the effects of the amount and type of enzyme supplementation on digesta viscosity, AMEn, and bird performance using 7 diets. The dietary treatments were: no supplementation (C), 5 levels of XYL (1 to 16 ppm), or supplementation with a carbohydrase cocktail (CC). Experiment 2: the objective was to determine the interaction of the dietary XYL and the energy content of the feed. There were 2 levels of XYL (0 and 20 ppm) and 3 dietary energy levels (2,770, 2,920, and 3,070 kcal/kg ME). Experiment 3: the objective was to determine the interaction of the dietary XYL and feed form. The treatments were: 5 levels of XYL (0 to 40 ppm) and 2 feed forms (mash and crumble). Broiler chicks were reared in battery cages to 21 d. Statistical analysis of the data was completed using Proc GLM of SAS (9.2) (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).In experiment 1, increasing XYL (0 to 16 ppm) resulted in a decrease in digesta viscosity and an increase in AMEn. The XYL included as low as 1 ppm resulted in a significant increase in AMEn which reached 5% with 16 ppm XYL. In contrast, increase in BWG (4%) above values with the basal diet was greatest with 1 ppm XYL. In experiment 2, the caloric content of the diet influenced the increase in AMEn with inclusion of XYL, 8% and 6% increases with 2,920 kcal/kg and 3,070 kcal/kg diets, respectively. Without addition of XYL, BWG was significantly lower when fed the diet with the highest energy content. In experiment 3, feed form x XYL influenced the effect of XYL on BWG. The BWG was greater when birds were fed the crumble diet with XYL vs when they were fed the mash feed with XYL. The xylanase proved effective for broilers to 21 d when fed the diets used herein with changes in digesta viscosity, increased dietary AMEn, and improved bird performance represented by either BW gain or FCR.

Salmonella and Campylobacter are leading human foodborne pathogens commonly associated with poultry and poultry products, and several methods to control these pathogens have been applied to poultry production. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of CALSPORIN, (CSP), a direct-fed microbial (DFM), and yeast cell wall (Saccharomyces cervisiae, IMW50, a mannanoligosaccharide (MOS)-based prebiotic, on performance, levels of Salmonella and Campylobacter in the feces, and intestinal histomorphometry in turkey poults. A 21-day battery cage study was conducted using 4 dietary treatments, including: an unsupplemented basal diet (corn and soybean-based) as negative control (NC); basal diet supplemented with 0.05% DFM; basal diet supplemented with 0.05% MOS; and basal diet supplemented with 0.05% mixture of DFM and MOS at equal proportions. Female Large White turkey poults (n = 336) were randomly distributed in 6 electrically-heated battery cages with 4 treatments and 12 replicates per treatment (7 poults per replicate pen). The first 16 pens were not inoculated with bacteria, while poults in pens 17 to 32 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 CFU Salmonella Heidelberg and the poults in pens 33 to 48 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 CFU Campylobacter jejuni. Feed consumption, body weight, and feed conversion ratio were measured weekly and at the end of the experiment. At day 21, fresh fecal samples from each pen were collected for Salmonella and Campylobacter enumeration and ileal tissue samples were collected from 1 bird per pen for histomorphology examination. DFM and MOS supplementation was accompanied with reduced levels of Salmonella shed by the treated birds compared to the control group, and with increased body weight (P ≤ 0.05). The surface area of villi increased in the MOS-supplemented group compared to the control group (P ≤ 0.05). There was a significant difference in V:C ratio between supplemented groups and control group (P ≤ 0.05). Based on these results, there is potential for CALSPORIN and IMW50 to reduce Salmonella shedding in feces, enhance ileal mucosal health, and improve growth performance of turkey poults.

Salmonella and Campylobacter are frequent colonizers of the intestinal tracts of poultry and have often been associated with human foodborne illness. The entry, transmission, and prevalence of both pathogens have been extensively studied in chickens but little information is available for turkeys. This project monitored turkey breeder hens and toms from d of hatch to 65 wk of age with the objective of determining routes of transmission for Salmonella and Campylobacter throughout the turkey production cycle. Breeder poults were separated by sex and then into 2 groups (control and inoculated) for each sex. The inoculated group was orally gavaged with marker strains of both Salmonella and Campylobacter. The inoculated groups (toms and hens) were placed on the opposite side of a growout house from the uninoculated groups. Fecal samples, intestinal samples and organs, feed, drinkers, and potential vectors such as insects and mice, were analyzed at different times until 65 wk. Monitoring showed that Campylobacter spread rapidly and cross-contaminated turkeys throughout the growout house. For both Salmonella and Campylobacter, naturally occurring strains that were first isolated in control groups at wk 3 and 4, respectively, outcompeted marker strains several wk post inoculation and persisted in the flock. The most common naturally occurring strains were C. jejuni (tetracycline resistant), C. coli (kanamycin resistant), and S. Agona. Campylobacter and Salmonella also were isolated from flies and from a mouse, confirming the importance of proper pest control and biosecurity to reduce the spread of the bacteria.

During commercial production, turkeys may be exposed to several different types of stressors related to environmental conditions and management practices. Historically, antibiotics have been used to aid in the alleviation of the impacts of stressful situations, and alternatives to antibiotics related to reducing stress are being researched. This study consisted of three rearing trials and had two objectives: (1) Investigate the effects of common U.S. turkey production practices, including environmental and management induced stress, on turkey hens grown to 63 days, and (2) Determine the response of stressed birds to dietary supplementation with fermentation derived functional metabolites. Treatments consisted of a positive control (stressed but not supplemented), a negative control (non-stressed and not supplemented) and two treatment groups that were stressed and supplemented with different products (Original XPC™ or AviCare™). Supplemental products were administered in a dry (feed) and liquid (drinking water) form, and consisted of fermentation derived functional metabolites. Products were evaluated on their effectiveness to mitigate stress responses and turkey performance. Birds were exposed to some combinations of the following stressors: feed and water withdrawal, cold, heat, and crowding. Although the stressors in this study were applied for less than 24 h, they produced significant physiological responses. Blood corticosterone levels, measured immediately after stress, were significantly higher in positive control birds than in negative control birds. In addition, stressed birds had reduced body weights and increased FCR after stress. Stressed birds, supplemented with products had mixed, but generally positive response as measured by bird performance. Based on the response to stress, as observed by alterations in blood corticosterone levels and differences in performance between the two control groups, researchers induced an effective stress model. The use of supplementary products consisting of fermentation derived functional metabolites shows promise for reducing negative impacts of a mixture of stressors.

Watering systems utilized in broiler production can impact bird performance. Many companies have increased water flow rates (WFR) in their nipple drinkers (ND) system during brooding above the manufacturers recommended level, then make adjustments in WFR during the grow period. This has increased moisture and early caking problems in litter. The objective of this study was to determine how birds perform on different WFR rates during brood and grow periods while observing litter condition. Seven WFR treatments were evaluated for broilers reared from 1 to 42 d age: 50 mL/min, 75 mL/min, 100 mL/min, 120 mL/min, 50 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 75 mL/min 8 to 42 d, 75 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 100 mL/min 8 to 42 d, and 100 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 120 mL/min 8 to 42 d. Chicks were identified and randomly allocated in a randomized complete block design. BW, cumulative feed consumption (FC), FCR (feed:BW), litter moisture (%), and litter moisture under the ND were determined weekly to 42 d. Mortality (MO) was recorded daily. Birds tended to have heavier BW on d 35 when (P = 0.08) on the higher WFR (75, 100, and 120 mL/min) in comparison to birds on the lowest WFR (50 mL/min). No differences were observed for FC, FCR, or MO. Birds on treatments with higher WFR (100 and 120 mL/min) and treatments which were increased to higher WFR (75 to 100 mL/min and 100 to 120 mL/min) utilized greater amounts of water as compared to birds receiving lower WFR (50 and 75 mL/min). The 100 and 120 mL/min WFR resulted in higher percent litter moisture (P ≤ 0.01) under the ND but decreased at the end of the growing period. In conclusion, as birds become heavier, they attempt to utilize larger amounts of water from ND with greater WFR without any beneficial effect on bird performance. As WFR increase, litter moisture under the ND will initially increase but then decrease as the birds age.

Due to its potential environmental and public health impacts, emissions of ammonia (NH3) as well as several other gases from US livestock farms may be regulated. Broiler houses are important sources of NH3 emissions. However, there are no emissions data from roaster (8–12 wk old broilers, ∼4 kg ea.) houses. Producers treat the litter in broiler houses with acidifiers, such as sodium bisulfate (SBS, NaHSO4) to reduce ammonia production and protect bird health. However, there is very little data on the effect of acidifiers, particularly at high application rates on ammonia emissions. The impact of different SBS application rates [High (0.95–1.46 kg m−2, whole house), Medium (0.73 kg m−2, whole house), Low (0.37–0.49 kg m−2, whole house), and Control (0.37–0.49 kg m−2, brood chamber)] on ammonia emissions was evaluated in commercial roaster houses over 22 months spanning eight flocks. Ammonia emission from each fan was measured with an acid scrubber that operated only when the fan operated. Emissions were calculated using >95% measured data with the rest being estimated using robust methods. Exhaust ammonia–N concentrations were inversely correlated with the SBS application rates. Emission rates on animal unit (AU, where 1 AU = 500 kg live-mass) basis (ER, g d−1 AU−1) were reduced by 27, 13, and 5%, respectively, in the High, Medium, and Low treatments vs. the Control treatment (mean: 100 g d−1 AU−1, range: 86–114 g d−1 AU−1). Emission rates for the Control treatment measured in this study on roasters were mostly higher than ERs in the literature. Differences in ERs are not only due to diet, environmental and management conditions, but also due to measurement methods.

Footpad dermatitis (FPD) and walking ability are both parameters used on poultry welfare audits. One survey was conducted to determine the correlation between FPD severity, gait score (GS), BW, and litter condition on turkeys at market age. A total of 41 commercial tom flocks of 16 to 19 wk of age were evaluated. On each visit, 50 toms were selected, weighed, and evaluated for GS and FPD. Litter score (LS) was also recorded according to moisture content and caking. Data analyses consisted of pairwise correlations and 3 separate multiple linear regression models using FPD, GS, and BW as response variables. Fixed effects included LS, season, FPD, GS, and BW. Based on pairwise correlations, FPD was correlated with LS, BW, GS, and age. Gait score was correlated with LS, BW, and age. Body weight was correlated with LS. With multiple linear regression analysis it was observed that LS and BW were the parameters that were associated the most with FPD severity and GS. As litter condition worsened and BW increased, FPD and GS worsened. Moreover, a seasonal effect was observed on both FPD and GS. Colder seasons, winter and autumn, were associated with increased FPD severity and GS. A negative effect of FPD and GS was observed on BW. In conclusion, FPD and GS are correlated with BW at market age and litter condition is a major factor in FPD development and walking ability in turkeys.

Transpired solar collector (TSC) ducts were installed at a swine nursery and a turkey brooder farm in eastern North Carolina (NC), USA. Each farm had a Test (TSC duct-equipped) and an identical, adjacent Control treatment. Five swine herds and six turkey brooder flocks were monitored over two heating seasons (2010–2012). Propane uses were reduced by 55 and 27 L/m 2 -yr, respectively, in the swine and turkey barns; reductions were highly variable among herds or flocks and the modest reductions were due to warm weather and use of attic ventilation. Over a 14-d period, both the swine and turkey TSC units increased ambient temperature in the barns by ∼6 °C with a maximum increase of 22.5 °C in the turkey TSC. In the swine and turkey houses, calculated energy additions by the TSC were 433 and 81 MJ/yr-m 2 of collector surface area, or 16 and 3 L/m 2 , respectively, of propane saved. Calculated propane savings were much lower than measured values. Short-term efficiencies were higher in the swine TSC (>61%) vs. the turkey TSC (39–50%) probably due to the lower face velocity of the turkey TSC which increased collector heat losses. While barn CO 2 , RH, and temperature values were unaffected by the TSC, it was unclear why animal performance in the Test treatment was better. Simple payback periods for the TSC ducts at both farms were favorable (

SUMMARY The reutilization of litter is currently a common practice in broiler production due to several environmental and economic factors. The application of litter amendments in broiler houses is a popular practice that can reduce ammonia emissions from recycled litter by converting them to nonvolatile ammonium. Sodium bisulfate (SBS) is one of the acidifiers frequently used in broiler houses. Broilers raised to 9 wk may require higher acidifier application rates to prevent unhealthy NH3 levels throughout the flock than broilers raised to smaller sizes. A study with 6 flocks of roasters was conducted under commercial conditions to evaluate 4 levels of SBS. In a farm with 8 houses, 4 treatments were evaluated. In the control treatment 0.49 kg/m 2 of SBS was applied to the brood chamber, whereas the low, medium, and high treatments received 0.49, 0.73, and 1.46 kg/m 2 , respectively, in the whole house. Data were obtained as the average of 2 houses with approximately 21,000 broilers per house in each of the 6 flocks evaluated. Results indicated no significant differences due to treatments on final average BW, FCR, mortality, or the majority of condemnation parameters. The significant reductions in NH3 levels observed in the whole flock across all 6 flocks receiving SBS treatments did not significantly improve broiler live performance or affect condemnations at the processing plant.

SUMMARY High ammonia levels in broiler houses can reduce bird performance. Broiler producers commonly use acidifiers to reduce ammonia build-up. In addition to improving broiler performance, acidifiers can also provide other ancillary benefits such as reducing propane and electricity use and increasing cake (caked litter) N content. In this 2-yr study involving 9 flocks, 4 levels of an acidifier (sodium bisulfate) were applied to commercial roaster houses in eastern North Carolina. The control treatment had a sodium bisulfate application rate of up to 0.1 lb/ft2 to the brood chamber, whereas the high, medium, and low treatments had application rates of up to 0.3, 0.15, and 0.1 lb/ft2, respectively, to the whole house. No treatment effect was observed on propane or electricity use. However, compared with published studies involving smaller broilers, roasters required lesser amounts of propane and electricity. Linear regressions of propane and electricity use as a function of ambient temperature may help with decision making in roaster production. Brooding accounted for 88% of propane consumption. Reduced pH in the high treatment compared with the other treatments led to significantly higher ammonium concentration in the cake.

SUMMARY Broiler production has the potential to cause water and air pollution. Acidifiers such as sodium bisulfate (SBS) can reduce ammonia (NH3) emissions from broiler houses; NH3 is an important air pollutant that also affects bird health. Due to their longer grow-outs, roasters may require higher acidifier application rates to prevent unhealthy NH3 levels during the flock than ordinary broilers. Changes in NH3 emission with acidifier use may affect the partitioning of the input nitrogen (N) among the different N output pathways. Accounting for these output pathways through N mass balance provides a complete picture of N as it cycles through the roaster house. In a 2-yr study involving 9 flocks of roasters, 4 levels of SBS were applied to the litter in commercial roaster houses. Whereas the control treatment received up to 0.49 kg/ m 2 to the brood chamber, the high, medium, and low treatments received up to 1.46, 0.73, and 0.49 kg/m 2 , respectively, to the whole house. Ammonia-N emission decreased and N removed in cake and litter increased with SBS application rate. Nitrogen output components were averaged over the 4 treatments and expressed as percent of total N input or per unit mass of live weight (LW). Ammonia-N emission during grow-out, bird N exported, and cake and litter N removed accounted for 17.3% or 11.2 g/kg of LW, 38.9% or 25.1 g/kg of LW, and 22.4% or 14.4 g/kg of LW, respectively. We accounted for 79.1% of the total N inputs, with NH3-N losses during layout probably constituting the bulk of the unaccounted N. In addition to uncertainties in measurements of inputs and outputs, other factors that limited the ability to close the N mass balance were exclusion of feathers during cake and litter sampling, soil N leaching, and nitrous oxide emissions.

SUMMARY The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the relative bioavailability of Zn from Zn propionate relative to feed-grade Zn sulfate using BW gain and bone Zn as response criteria. For the first 7 d posthatching, chicks were fed a semipurified starter diet deficient in Zn (22 mg of Zn/kg). From d 8 to 21 birds were fed a control (20 mg of Zn/kg) semipurified diet containing ground corn, soy protein concentrate, and dextrose. The control diet was supplemented with 0, 6, or 12 mg of Zn/kg of diet from feed-grade Zn sulfate or organic Zn propionate. Using corn in the diet increased the level of phytate, an important Zn antagonist in nonruminant animals. As supplemental dietary Zn increased, a dose-dependent increase was observed in feed intake, weight gain, total Zn intake, tibia Zn concentration, and total tibia Zn. Zinc supplementation improved FE (feed:gain), but not in a dose-dependent manner. Relative bioavailability of Zn was determined using weight gain, tibia Zn concentration, and total tibia Zn, assuming a value of 100% for feed-grade Zn sulfate. Using relative slope assay, relative bioavailability of Zn propionate was 119, 116, and 116% compared with Zn sulfate, respectively. We concluded, based on these results, that bioavailability of Zn from organic Zn propionate is greater than feed-grade Zn sulfate in the presence of dietary phytate.

Locomotion problems in meat poultry have multifactorial etiology. A better understanding of normal gait and its influences on biomechanical aspects of leg bones among turkey genetic lines is important to prevent skeletal disorders and locomotion issues. The objective of this experiment was to determine the possible differences in gait kinetic and kinematic parameters of turkey strains and their effects on bone biomechanical properties. Four genetic lines, named A, B, C, and D, were obtained and raised in 48 floor pens with new pine shavings. Leg health issues were classified at 16 and 33 d of age. Fifteen turkeys from each strain with apparent normal legs and gait at 33 d of age were selected for gait analysis. These 15 turkeys were trained to walk on a pressure sensitive walkway and video was recorded to calculate articulation movements. These data also were analyzed to obtain kinetic and kinematic parameters of the gait cycle collected at 47, 84, 107, and 145 d of age. At 20 wk all turkeys were sacrificed, and legs were collected and frozen for analysis. Weights and morphologic measurements of the femur, tibia, and shank were recorded. Bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC) were obtained using DEXA. Femur and tibia strength were evaluated by a 4-point bending test and torsion test, respectively. Gait parameters changed as toms aged and some differences were observed among lines. Genetic lines differed on BMD, but not on BMC. Strain D had a higher BMD and smaller diaphyseal angle than strain C, characteristics that were correlated with stronger bones. Strain D also had the lowest incidence of leg problems while strain C had the highest. Furthermore, the D strain had a smaller vertical motion of the toe than strains C and B at 47 d and strain A at 145 d, indicating that the D strain had a more efficient gait. In summary, genetic strains differ significantly on gait parameters, which in turn impacts bone biomechanics.

Corn with naturally occurring aflatoxin (AF), wheat with naturally occurring doxynivalenol (DON), and barley with naturally occurring zearalenone (ZEA) were used to make rations for feeding turkey hen poults to 6 weeks of age. Control rations with equal amounts of corn, wheat, and barley were also fed. The control rations did contain some DON while both sets of rations contained ZEA. Within each grain source, there were 4 treatments: the control ration plus 3 rations each with a different feed additive which were evaluated for the potential to lessen potential mycotoxin effects on bird performance and physiology. The additives were Biomin BioFix (2 lb/ton), Kemin Kallsil (4 lb/ton), and Nutriad UNIKE (3 lb/ton). The mycotoxin rations reduced poult body weight (2.31 vs. 2.08 ± 0.02 kg) and increased (worsened) poult feed conversion (1.47 vs. 1.51 ± 0.01) at 6 wk. Feeding the poults the mycotoxin feed also resulted in organ and physiological changes typical of feeding dietary aflatoxin although a combined effect of AF, DON, and ZEA which cannot be dismissed. The feed additives resulted in improved feed conversion to 6 wk in both grain treatment groups. The observed physiological effect of feeding the additives was to reduce relative gizzard weight for both groups and to lessen the increase in relative kidney weight for the birds fed the mycotoxin feed. In conclusion, the feed additives used in this study did alleviate the effect of dietary mycotoxins to some degree, especially with respect to feed conversion. Further studies of longer duration are warranted.

Campylobacter jejuni, a zoonotic bacterial pathogen with worldwide distribution, infects about 400 million humans in the world annually. In order to reduce C. Jejuni colonization in the gastrointestinal tracts of broilers and make chickens less susceptible to colonization, four commercial products based on organic acid, probiotics, and medicinal plants were used. In this experiment, 210 one-day-old male broiler chicks (Ross 308) were assigned to 7 treatment groups randomly with 3 replications and 10 birds in each pen. Birds were challenged on day 21 by 1 mL of 6 × 107 CFU/mL C. Jejuni live suspension and samples were collected on days 28 and 42. The immune system's efficiency was evaluated by lymphoid organ development assessment and two specific and nonspecific immune system tests. The cecal contents and liver were considered for C. Jejuni enumeration. According to the results, all treatments except one showed a significant difference from the control in terms of cecal colonization (P ≤ 0.001). Probiotic and Echinacea purpurea treatments could significantly increase the immune system's efficiency (P ≤ 0.001). In general, in this study we provide evidence that some commercial feed and water additives can reduce chickens' susceptibility to C. Jejuni colonization and also can effectively increase immune system efficiency.

SUMMARY The relative bioavailability (RB) of Mn propionate, as compared with feed-grade Mn sulfate, was determined in chicks fed a corn- and soybean meal-based diet for 14 d. Diets were supplemented with 0, 20, 100, and 500 mg of Mn/kg of diet and assessed for growth, intake, and FE. Levels of Ca and P were also increased in this diet compared with a typical production diet to see whether, when chicks were challenged with antagonists, a difference existed between inorganic Mn sulfate and organic Mn propionate. No differences were observed for any growth parameters for either mineral level or dietary source. Relative bioavailability was determined using Mn concentration in bone, assuming a value of 100% from the feed-grade Mn sulfate. The RB of Mn propionate was 139% compared with Mn sulfate when using the relative slope assay. We concluded that organic Mn propionate has an improved RB compared with the commonly used inorganic feed-grade Mn sulfate in the presence of high dietary Ca and P.

3 Abstract: A trial was conducted to observe potential changes in turkey poults reared to 21 d by feeding diets with naturally occurring mycotoxins. Two sources of corn, one each with Aflatoxin (AFL) and Deoxynevalenol (DON), were obtained. Treatments (T) were: 1) clean corn (C), 2) AFL (A), 3) DON (D) and 4) ½A+½D (AD). A marker (celite, 1.5%) was added for 21 d AMEn determination. A basal ration with ingredients except corn was mixed. The basal and corn were mixed for T feeds. Feed was pelleted and crumbled. Male poults were placed into 24 pens in petersyme batteries (7 birds/pen; 6 pens/T). Feed consumption, by pen and BW were determined by wk. At 21 d, birds were euthanized. Heart (H), spleen (S), gizzard (G), liver (L) and bursa of fabricious (B) were weighed and Breast Muscle (BM) collected for color analysis. Light microscopic analysis of HE AD = 2,758±29). Relative (R) S weight of D (0.11) fed birds was reduced versus A (0.14) but not C or AD (0.12, 0.13±0.006 g/g). The RL weight of birds fed A (2.26) and AD (2.52) were reduced versus C (2.68±0.07g/g). The A fed birds had reduced SA (by OD). Mortality, RH, RB and RG weights, G score and BM colors were not affected. There were no differences in AB. The L of the A fed birds had hepatic parenchyma with diffuse degenerative changes. The hepatocytic nuclei were swollen and had condensed nucleoli. Some hepatic cords had hepatocyte necrosis. There was some sinusoidal congestion with dilatation/congestion of few central veins. These lesions were suggestive of aflatoxin toxicity. The effects of AFL and DON in this study were reflective of what has been reported in the literature. Feeding naturally occurring mycotoxins to poults can be used as a model to study interventions.

The human pathogen Campylobacter jejuni utilizes oxidative phosphorylation to meet all of its energy demands. The genome sequence of this bacterium encodes a number of respiratory enzymes in a branched electron transport chain that predicts the utilization of a number of electron transport chain donor and acceptor molecules. Three of these electron donor enzymes: hydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, and 2-oxoglutarate:acceptor oxidoreductase (OOR), oxidize hydrogen, formate and alpha-ketoglutarate as electron donors, respectively. Mutations were created in these donor enzymes to isolate mutants in hydrogenase (HydB::CM), formate dehydrogenase (Fdh::CM), and OOR (OorB::CM), as well as a strain with insertions in both hydrogenase and formate dehydrogenase (Hyd::Fdh). These mutants are deficient in their respective enzyme activities and do not reduce the components of the electron transport chain when provided with their respective substrates. The presence of either hydrogen or formate in the media stimulated the growth of wild type (WT) C. jejuni (but not the associated mutant strains) and at least one of these alternative substrates is required for growth of the OOR mutant strain OorB::CM. Finally, the importance of hydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase and OOR as well as the complex I of C. jejuni are elucidated by chicken colonization assays, where the double mutant Hyd::Fdh, OorB::CM and nuo mutants are severely impaired in host colonization.

Two pen trials and 2 field trials were conducted to determine whether a direct-fed microbial (DFM; Primalac) was effective in improving turkey productive performance. In the pen trials, typical turkey diets were formulated with and without Primalac. All feed was provided by a commercial feed mill. In trial 1, Large White male turkey poults were placed in 48 pens (18 birds/pen, 24 pens/treatment) on the day of hatch and were reared to 20 wk. In trial 2, Large White female turkey poults were placed in 48 pens (30 birds/pen, 24 pens/treatment) on the day of hatch and were reared to 18 wk. Cumulative FCR was significantly improved for birds fed DFM feed compared with birds fed control feed at 20 wk in trial 1 and at 8 wk in trial 2. Body weight was significantly greater for birds fed DFM feed compared with birds fed the control feed through 12 wk in both trials. In 2 field trials, 2 brooder houses and 4 grow-out houses were paired on each farm (4 brooder houses and 8 grow-out houses total). All birds received the same feed provided by the integrator. The DFM was provided in the water from placement to market in 1 brooder house and in the 2 matching grow-out houses. Breeder flocks were equally represented in both brooder houses within each trial. Approximately 12,000 male poults were placed in each brooder house and were transferred to 2 grow-out houses at 5 wk. Although no statistical analyses were computed for the field trials, there was a nominal improvement in performance associated with the DFM: mean livability was increased by 3.5%, mean BW was increased by 0.9 kg (2 lb), mean total weight removed from the farms was increased by 13,706 kg (30,153 lb), mean FCR was improved by 0.165, and cost of production was reduced by $0.0195/kg ($0.043/lb) of BW by the DFM. In conclusion, the DFM product (Primalac) used in these studies was effective in improving turkey live performance.

4 Abstract: The objective of this research was to determine the effect of using nipple drinkers during brooding on the performance of Large White turkeys. There were 6 different drinkers tested: the control and 5 nipple drinker systems. The control was the Plasson Drinker and the nipple systems tested were the Plasson Easy Start (PES), Val-Co Turkey Drinker (VC), Lubing Traditional Nipple (LTN), Lubing EasyLine (LEL) and Ziggity TM Big-Z Activator (BZ). Three experiments were conducted with turkeys brooded using the 6 drinker types. Some nipple drinker treatments were used in the rearing periods. At 20 wk, Body Weight (BW) was reduced for toms brooded to 6 wk on the LTN and brooded and reared on the VC. The use of LEL and LTN (during brooding) resulted in improved Feed Conversion (FC) at 20 wk. Trial 2-experiment 1 with hens of two strains was terminated at 3 wk because of excessive mortality from dehydration with some drinker types. In trial 2 -experiment 2, there were no poult hydration issues. The BW of hens at 6 wk brooded on the Plasson Drinker and the VC were higher compared to the BW of hens brooded on the PES and the BZ with the BW of hens on the LEL being intermediate. The use of the LTN resulted in significantly lower hen BW compared with all other drinkers through 10 wk. By 16 wk, there were no longer differences in hen BW due to drinker type. Drinker type did not have an effect on hen FC. Nipple drinkers can be used effectively to brood turkeys with some types also being useful during the rearing period. However, poor quality, inactive, or diseased poults may be at risk for dehydration on some nipple drinker systems.

The effects of dietary supplementation of the direct-fed microbial (DFM) Primalac in mash or crumbled feed on histological and ultrastructural changes of intestinal mucosa was determined in 2 populations of poults; 1 with and 1 without a Salmonella spp. challenge. Three hundred thirty-six 1-d-old female Large White turkey poults were randomly distributed into 8 treatment groups with 6 replicates of 7 poults in each pen. The poults were placed on 1 of 4 dietary treatments in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (mash or crumble feed, with or without DFM, not-challenged or challenged at 3 d of age). The DFM groups were fed a Primalac-supplemented diet from d 1 until the last day of the experiment (d 21). At 3 d of age, 50% of the poults were challenged with 1 mL of 1010 cfu/ mL of Salmonella spp. (Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Salmonella Heidelberg, and Salmonella Kentucky) by oral gavage. The inoculated poults were housed in a separate room from nonchallenged controls. Feed and water were provided ad libitum for all birds. At d 21, 1 poult per pen (total of 6 poults per treatment) was randomly selected and killed humanely by cervical dislocation. After necropsy, the small intestine was removed, and tissue samples from duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were taken for light and electron microscopic evaluation. The DFM birds showed increased goblet cell (GC) numbers, total GC area, GC mean size, mucosal thickness, and a greater number of segmented filamentous bacteria compared with controls. Changes in intestinal morphology as observed in this study support the concept that poultry gut health and function, and ultimately bird performance, can be improved by dietary supplementation with DFM products such as Primalac as used in this study.

Leg problems and resulting mortality can exceed 1% per week in turkey toms starting at approximately 15 wk of age. Dietary supplementation of organic trace minerals (MIN) and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (HyD) may improve performance, decrease incidence of leg abnormalities, and increase bone strength. Nicholas 85X700 toms were assigned to 4 treatments consisting of a factorial arrangement of 2 concentrations of MIN (0 and 0.1% of Mintrex PSe, which adds 40, 40, 20, and 0.3 mg/kg of Zn, Mn, Cu, and Se, respectively) and 2 concentrations of HyD (0 and 92 μg/kg of HyD). Diets were formulated to be equal in nutrient content and fed ad libitum as 8 feed phases. Feed intake and BW were measured at 6, 12, 15, 17, and 20 wk of age. Valgus, varus, and shaky leg defects were determined at 12, 15, 17, and 20 wk of age. Tibia and femur biomechanical properties were evaluated by torsion and bending tests at 17 wk of age. There were no treatment effects on BW. Only MIN significantly improved feed conversion ratio through to 20 wk of age. Cumulative mortality at 3 wk of age was greater among the MIN birds, but it was lower by 20 wk (P = 0.085). The MIN decreased the incidence of varus defects at 17 wk of age; shaky leg at 12, 15, and 17 wk of age; and valgus defects at 15, 17, and 20 wk of age. There were no MIN × HyD interaction effects on individual gait problems. Maximum load and the bending stress required for tibias to break in a 4-point assay were increased with MIN supplementation, especially when HyD was also added. Maximum shear stress at failure of femoral bones in a torsion assay was increased by supplementation with both MIN and HyD together. Dietary supplementation of MIN and HyD may improve biomechanical properties of bones. Dietary MIN supplementation may improve feed conversion of turkeys, likely by decreasing leg problems.

In an attempt to develop a probiotic formulation for poultry feed, a number of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from chicken intestinal specimens and a series of in vitro experiments were performed to evaluate their efficacy as a potential probiotic candidate. A total of 650 LAB strains were isolated and screened for their antagonistic potential against each other. Among all the isolates only three isolates (TMU121, 094 and 457) demonstrated a wide spectrum of inhibition and were thus selected for detailed investigations. All three selected isolates were able to inhibit the growth of E. coli and Salmonella species, although to variable extent. The nature of the inhibitory substance produced by the isolates TMU121 and 094 appeared to be associated with bacteriocin, as their activity was completely lost after treatment with proteolytic enzymes, while pH neutralization and catalase enzyme had no effect on the residual activity. In contrast, isolate TMU457 was able to resist the effect of proteolytic enzymes while pH neutralization completely destroyed its activity. Attempts were made to study the acid, bile tolerance and cell surface hydrophobicity of these isolates. TMU121 showed high bile salt tolerance (0.3%) and high cell surface hydrophobicity compared to the other two strains studied, while TMU094 appeared the most pH resistant strain. Based on these results, the three selected LAB isolates were considered as potential ingredients for a chicken probiotic feed formulation and were identified to species level based on their carbohydrate fermentation pattern by using API 50CH test kits. The three strains were identified as Lactobacillus fermentum TMU121, Lactobacillus rhamnosus TMU094, and Pediococcus pentosaceous TMU457.

Temperature (TEM) and O(2) concentrations during the plateau stage of oxygen consumption are known to affect yolk utilization, tissue development, and thyroid metabolism in turkey embryos. Three experiments were conducted to evaluate these incubation effects on long bone development. Fertile eggs of Nicholas turkeys were used. In each trial, standard incubation conditions were used to 24 d, when the eggs containing viable embryos were randomly divided into 4 groups. Four experimental cabinets provided 4 TEM (36, 37, 38, or 39 degrees C) or 4 O(2) concentrations (17, 19, 21, or 23% O(2)). In the third experiment, 2 temperatures (36 and 39 degrees C) and 2 O(2) concentrations (17 and 23%) were evaluated in a 2 x 2 factorial design. Body and residual yolk weights were obtained. Both legs were dissected, and shanks, femur, and tibia weights, length, and thickness were recorded. Relative asymmetry of each leg section was calculated. Chondrocyte density was evaluated in slides stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Immunofluorescence was used to evaluate the presence of collagen type X and transforming growth factor beta. Hot TEM caused reduction of tibia weights and increase of shank weight when compared with cool TEM. The lengths of femur, tibia, and shanks were reduced by 39 degrees C. The relative asymmetry of leg weights were increased at 38 and 39 degrees C. Poult body and part weights were not affected by O(2) concentrations, but poults on 23% O(2) had bigger shanks and heavier tibias than the ones on 17% O(2). High TEM depressed the fluorescence of collagen type X and transforming growth factor beta. The O(2) concentrations did not consistently affect the immunofluorescence of these proteins. The chondrocyte density was affected by TEM and O(2) in resting and hypertrophic zones. In the third experiment, high TEM depressed BW, leg muscle weights, and shank length. Low O(2) reduced tibia and shanks as a proportion of the whole body. We concluded that incubation conditions affect long bone development in turkeys.