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Copyright of Tertium Linguistic Journal / Pólrocznik Jezykoznawczy Tertium is the property of Cracow Tertium Society for the Promotion of Language Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This study aims to compare students’ Japanese language grammar ability, between students who practice with a chatbot-based application (Gengobot) with students who do not use the application. This research was conducted using quantitative experimental research methods, with experimental class and control class. The subjects of this research were 22 Japanese language students. The results showed that the grammar ability of students who used Gengobot application as a training medium improved significantly than students who used conventional media as paper works. Factors that cause these differences are the use of cognitive and behavioristic approaches in applications, as well as the use of media, which is more practical and engaging. The questionnaire regarding student responses to the Gengobot application shows positive results. Things that need to be considered in future research are the development of the Gengobot application to be more flexible and to add more material to the application.

Abstract: Whether Japanese has verb raising or not has been one of the most contentious issues in the literature for more than 20 years. This Remark presents novel evidence for string‐vacuous head movement from the previously unexplored perspective of verb‐echo answers. We propose that such an answer form in Japanese is derived through V–T–C movement in overt syntax, followed by TP ellipsis at Phonological Form (PF), rejecting the alternative pro‐drop analysis. Our analysis is supported by a wide range of new facts on verb‐echo answers, including the indefinite pro‐drop restriction, the impossibility of voice mismatches, and adverb‐inclusive interpretations. Because our theory presupposes head movement as its central analytical premise, the results of this article indicate that Japanese grammar is equipped with string‐vacuous verb raising. We will also briefly explore some curious behaviors of verb raising in Japanese relating to the scope of negation under ellipsis and intervention effects. We will argue that this phenomenon differs fundamentally from its counterpart in European languages such as French in that the former is an optional operation in narrow syntax that only occurs if it yields new outcomes at PF and/or Logical Form (LF). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we investigate questions like What is your name again?, which presuppose that the answer was already made common-ground knowledge in the past (Sauerland 2006). We call this a remind-me presupposition. While repetitive particles can trigger a remind-me presupposition in German and English, Japanese uses a specialized particle kke to bring about such a presupposition. We argue for an account of remind-me presuppositions based on syntactic decomposition of the question speech-act into an imperative part and a make-it-known part. On this account, the repetitive particles take scope between the two parts of the decomposed question speech-act. The proposal correctly predicts how both particles interact syntactically with the periphery of the clause in slightly different ways. The interaction with polar questions corroborates our proposal that the decomposed question speech-act parts are syntactically projected parts of the question structure. Our data therefore corroborate a syntactic representation of aspects of speech-acts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper aims to re-investigate the status of Japanese honorifics in pragmatic principles, and attempts to see how various dynamic uses of honorific terms for different purposes can be unified with the idea of 'the grammar of society' (Bicchieri 2006). To reach this conclusion, the paper is organised in the following way. First, I argue that honorifics, or more precisely honorific markings, function as the grammatical conversion of what has already been strategically constructed, and solely index a social or psychological distance between the interactants. This means that honorifics present a double layer of linguistic architecture: a strategically constructed unit and honorific marking on the unit. Second, the paper examines honorific terms used in speech (plus-) level shifts to see a parallel between them and the so-called 'conventional' honorifics, and to find similar attributes shared between them, which are in many ways derived from the origin of honorifics. Finally, by re-investigating and reinstating the term 'social norm', which Bicchieri (2006) compares to 'the grammar of society', I demonstrate how honorific terms as social norms are first employed, and then applied, manipulated and pragmatically expanded for various purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a novel approach to embedding sentences into a high-dimensional space. Independent words in the sentence are located at points in the space, and the sentence is represented by a curve along these words. A set of functions that evaluates a sequence of words is designed over this space and is helpful for searching for words that are likely to follow the observed sentences. More generally, our approach makes sentences sequentially depending on the context. We simplify Japanese grammar and subsequently implement it as a grammar that constrains simple sentences to be generated. In this study, we performed experiments in which we created a dictionary containing 2877 different independent words and constructed a semantic space from texts in eight digital archived books, consisting of 8495 independent words and 161 paragraphs in total. It was demonstrated that several meaningful sentences can be generated that are likely to follow untrained input sentences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research is to observe the advantages and disadvantages of Basic Japanese online learning through Skype and Zoom application. The range of age of the participants of the research is from twenty to thirty years old. The method applied in this is descriptive qualitative research. The source of the data for the research is the observational data from 5 participants who are basic Japanese learners. The data are in the form of pre-test, post-test, and respond from the participants. The descriptive analysis will be done to describe the result of the pre-test, post-test, and respond from the participant. The result of the analysis indicates that online learning medium can be effectively done for grammar and conversation learning. The advantage of the online media learning webinar, such as Skype and Zoom, is its capability to make the participants are able to interact written and orally and to share presentation screen through sharing display feature. Since one of the most crucial factors of online learning is internet, Zoom is more recommended compare to Skype. The observation shows that Skype is often disconnected in the middle of learning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discussion of the roles of input and output has been attracting a number of researchers in second language acquisition (e.g., DeKeyser, 2007; Doughty, 1991; Krashen, 1982; Long, 1983; Norris & Ortega, 2000; Swain, 2000), and VanPatten (2004) advocated that both structured input and structured output allow learners to process input properly. Some researchers explored the comparative effectiveness of traditional instruction and structured input (e.g., Benati, 2004), and others observed the effectiveness of structured input and structured output on receptive and productive knowledge (e.g., Keating & Farley, 2008). The present study investigated structured input and structured output in the acquisition of Japanese. Two experimental groups (N = 15 and N = 12) received either structured input or structured output activities during class on two successive days. Analyses of pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest data showed that both types of activity were equally effective in improving learners' receptive and productive knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When interpreting disjunctive sentences of the form'A or B', young children have been reported to differ fromadults in twoways. First, children have been reported to interpret disjunction inclusively rather than exclusively, accepting 'A or B' in contexts in which both A and B are true (Chierchia et al. 2001; Gualmini et al. 2001). Second, some children have been reported to interpret disjunction conjunctively, rejecting 'A or B' in contexts in which only one of the disjuncts is true (Paris 1973; Braine & Rumain 1981; Chierchia et al. 2004; Singh et al. 2015). In this article, weextend the investigation of children's interpretation of disjunction to include both simple and complex forms of disjunction, in two typologically unrelated languages: French and Japanese. First, given that complex disjunctions have been argued to give rise to obligatory exclusivity inferences (Spector 2014), we investigated whether the obligatoriness of the inference would play a role in the acquisition of the exclusive interpretation. Second, using a paradigm that makes the use of disjunction felicitous, we aimed to establish whether the finding of conjunctive interpretations would be replicated for both simple and complex forms of disjunction, and in languages other than English. Themain findings from our experiment are that both French- and Japanese-speaking children interpreted the simple and complex disjunctions either inclusively or conjunctively; in contrast, adults generally accessed exclusive readings of both disjunctions. We argue that our results lend further support to the proposal put forth in Singh et al. (2015), according to which the reason some children compute conjunctivemeanings while adults compute exclusivemeanings is that the two groups differ in their respective sets of alternatives for disjunction. Crucially, adults access conjunction as an alternative to disjunction, and compute exclusive interpretations; in contrast, children access only the individual disjuncts as alternatives, and therefore either interpret the disjunction literally or compute conjunctive inferences. More generally, our findings can be explained quite naturally within recent proposals according to which children differ from adults in the computation of scalar inferences because they are more restricted than adults in the set of scalar alternatives they can access (Barner et al. 2011; Tieu et al. 2015b, among others). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When reading sentences with an anaphoric reference to a subject antecedent, repeated-name anaphors result in slower reading times relative to pronouns (the Repeated Name Penalty: RNP), and overt pronouns are read slower than null pronouns (the Overt Pronoun Penalty: OPP). Because in most languages previously tested, the grammatical subject is typically also the discourse topic it remains unclear whether these effects reflect anaphors' subject-hood or their topic-hood. To address this question we conducted a self-paced reading experiment in Japanese, a language which morphologically marks both subjects and topics overtly. Our results show that both repeated-name topic-subject anaphors and repeated-name non-topic-subject anaphors exhibit the RNP and that both overt-pronoun topic-subject and overt-pronoun non-topic-subject anaphors show the OPP. However, a detailed examination of performance revealed an interaction between the anaphor topic marking, reference form, and the antecedent's grammatical status, indicating that the effect of the antecedent's grammatical status is strongest for null pronoun and repeated name subject anaphors and that the overt form most similar to null pronouns is the repeated name topic anaphor. We discuss the implications of these findings for theories of anaphor processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pronoun interpretation in English has been demonstrated to be sensitive to an interaction between grammatical and pragmatically driven factors. This study investigated the interpretation of pronouns in Japanese, which has both null and overt forms. Thirty-two native speakers of Japanese per experiment participated in passage completion studies with transfer-of-possession contexts (Experiment 1) or implicit causality contexts (Experiment 2), varying prompt type, aspect, and topic/nominative-marking of the previous subject. Two judges annotated reference and coherence relations in the completed passages. Japanese overt pronouns were revealed to pattern closely with English overt pronouns in their sensitivity to pragmatic factors, whereas null pronouns showed a mixed resilience to pragmatic factors. Topic-marking only showed marginal effects on reference in limited contexts. Despite different degrees of sensitivity to pragmatic factors, Japanese null and overt pronouns were both mostly subject-biased, casting doubt on the existence of a division of labor between the two forms. There was also an intrinsic link between reference and coherence relations throughout the experiments. We discuss the overall results in terms of language specificity and universality, the latter of which includes interactions between grammatical and pragmatic factors and the importance of discourse coherence in the interpretation of various pronouns across languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to Talmy's typology of the lexicalization of motion events (Talmy 1985, 2000), English is a satellite-framed language while Japanese is verb-framed. This study presents some of the verb-framed properties transferred by Japanese learners into their L2 English and investigates the possibility of restructuring the L1 schema for the lexicalization of motion events in L2 through instruction. A class experiment in which two groups of learners were instructed to focus on verbal semantics and constructions, respectively, indicates that teaching focusing on motion constructions is likely to yield better results, in the sense of fostering a more native-like rhetorical style, than teaching focusing on lexical items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japanese has many compound clause-linkage markers (hereafter "CLMs"). Some of them consist of a verbal inflectional suffix and (up to three) particles. They include eleven compound CLMs that have the Concessive conditional meaning ('even if') and/or the Concessive meaning ('even though, although'). In these eleven compound CLMs, different inflectional categories of verbs (i.e. conjugational categories) combined with different particles indicate different degrees of the speaker's belief or confidence regarding the likelihood of the existence or occurrence of a situation. That is, verbal inflectional morphology plays a crucial role in expressing modal meanings. Such a phenomenon does not seem to have been recognized for Japanese or any other language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the nature of Japanese null arguments. Although it has been more or less standardly assumed that Japanese null arguments are empty pronouns, recent literature has shown that they can also be derived via argument ellipsis based on the fact that they can yield readings that pronouns generally cannot support (Oku in A theory of selection and reconstruction in the minimalist program, ; Saito in Lang Res 43: 203-227, ; Takahashi in: Miyagawa and Saito (eds) The Oxford handbook of Japanese linguistics, Oxford University Press, New York, , in Linguist Inq 39:307-326, , among others). Most of the literature on argument ellipsis has discussed its availability, while less attention has been paid to the issue of the conditions under which ellipsis of arguments is possible. This article focuses on this issue. Specifically, building on Abe's (in: Hoshi (ed.) The dynamics of the language faculty: Perspectives from linguistics and cognitive neuroscience, Kuroshio Publishers, Tokyo, ) observation that argument ellipsis is not freely available, I argue that argument ellipsis is locally phase-constrained (cf. Chomsky in Martin et al. (eds) Step by step: Essays on minimalist syntax in honor of Howard Lasnik, MIT, Cambridge, ; in Kenstowicz (ed) Ken Hale: A life in language, MIT, Cambridge, , and seq.), developing a particular phase-based approach to argument ellipsis which is shown to have consequences for Abe's (in: Hoshi (ed.) The dynamics of the language faculty: Perspectives from linguistics and cognitive neuroscience, Kuroshio Publishers, Tokyo, ) anti-c-command generalization regarding the availability of argument ellipsis and Takahashi's (in: Laurençot (eds) University of Connecticut working papers in linguistics 5, University of Connecticut, Storrs, ; in: Uchibori and Yatsushiro (eds) University of Connecticut working papers in linguistics 7: Papers in honor of Mamoru Saito, University of Connecticut, Storrs, ) 'Antecedent-Contained Deletion' in Japanese. The approach developed in this article thus provides a tool which contributes to our understanding of the context in which the ellipsis-indicating readings are/are not available with Japanese null arguments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A characteristic, though not necessary, property of so-called pitch accent languages is the existence of unaccented words. Work on unaccentedness in Japanese has found a concentration of such words in very specific areas of the lexicon, defined in prosodic terms. While unaccentedness might be some kind of default, the prosodic rationale for the way it is distributed over the lexicon is far from clear. This article investigates the underlying structural reasons for the distribution and develops a formal Optimality Theory account, which involves two well-known constraints: RIGHTMOST and NONFINALITY. The tension between the two, usually resolved by ranking (NONFINALITY ⪢ RIGHTMOST), finds another surprising resolution in unaccentedness: no accent, no conflict. Besides providing a more detailed analysis of Japanese word accent, which takes into consideration other mitigating phonological and morphological factors, the article aims to gain an understanding of the similarities and differences between pitch accent and stress accent languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of this article is to argue that Japanese allows verb-stranding verb phrase ellipsis (VVPE). For this purpose, I examine data involving null adjuncts, and propose a new generalization about the distribution of null adjuncts, which can easily be accounted for if VVPE is available in Japanese. Furthermore, I demonstrate that null adjunct sentences with overt objects are subject to the same constraint as pseudogapping sentences in English are. Given that pseudogapping is a particular instance of VP-ellipsis (Jayaseelan, in Linguist Anal 20:64-81, ; Lasnik, in Papers on minimalist syntax, MIT working papers in linguistics, , Fragments: Studies in ellipsis and gapping, ), this strongly suggests that null adjunct sentences involve VP-ellipsis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the processing of two types of Japanese causative cleft constructions (subject-gap vs. object-gap) by conducting an event-related brain potential experiment to clarify the processing mechanism of long-distance dependencies. The results demonstrated that the subject-gap constructions elicited larger P600 effects than the object-gap constructions. Based on these findings, we argue that the linear distance rather than the structural distance between the extracted argument (filler) and its original gap position is a crucial factor for determining processing costs of gap-filler dependency in Japanese causative cleft constructions. This argument indicates that (at least) some types of long-distance dependencies are sensitive to linear distance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the anaphoric usage of the Japanese determiners kono and sono are investigated. Their usages can be categorized as siteisizi (designated usage) or daikousizi (representative usage). In siteisizi, kono functions as a denotational determiner and sono as a connotational one. This paper also shows that siteisizi is a textual phenomenon while daikousizi is a syntactic one. These differences can be explained by applying Halliday & Hasan's concepts o f "reference" and "substitution" . The findings o f this paper also illustrate that Leech's "Grammar" can be considered at super-sentential levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contrary to the widely held view that Japanese overt third-person pronouns such as kare and kanozyo cannot function as bound variables, it has been sporadically reported in the literature that there are cases in which they can receive a bound-variable interpretation. The present paper attempts to provide an account of why Japanese third-person pronouns can be construed as bound variables only in a subset of the contexts in which bound pronouns in English can occur. I argue that Japanese overt third-person pronouns should be analyzed as epithets, claiming that they can function as bound variables only when Condition B and the so-called anti-logophoricity constraint are simultaneously satisfied. I also claim that the apparent insensitivity of the referential use of kare/ kanozyo to the anti-logophoricity constraint is attributed to the fact that Japanese (but not English) allows a structure in which a null pronoun is juxtaposed with an appositive epithet phrase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes an alternative account of the historical development of saburafu, a humiliating honorific marker in Japanese. Traugott and Dasher (2002) established a theory called Invited Inference Theory of Semantic Change (IITSC), in which saburafu is employed as a supporting case study. By inspecting saburafu's semantic changes, including aspects not discussed in IITSC, the compelling difference between IITSC and the analysis I propose is that, firstly, inspired by Keller's theory of communication (1998), it proposes semiotic ways of communication in place of pragmatic inferencing; and secondly, it shows that the ways in which the viewer and the viewed, the construct central to Langacker's viewing arrangement, are fundamental to the apprehension of honorification. This new, yet preliminary, account will be enriched by select examples especially from Old/Late Old Japanese. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A striking feature in interviews of non-Japanese speakers is that the translations of the interviewees' answers use more gender markers than would currently be heard in the replies of native speakers. Sentence-final particles such aszeandzo(indicating strong assertion, and used by men), andwaandyo(indicating mild assertion and establishing an emotional connection, and used by women) are employed much more often, almost to the point of exaggeration. This paper will explore the reasons why, and the extent to which, gender in the Japanese language is magnified in the interpreted utterances of those who don't speak the language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most people agree that tongue-twister (TT) sentences (i.e., sentences that contain the same consonants repeated) are difficult to read orally. What about silent reading? If the same difficulty is found during the silent reading of Japanese sentences, what is the implication for our understanding of the psycholinguistic nature of the Japanese script, particularly kanji? This paper attempts to answer that question by providing and explaining data that showed strong TT effects in both silent and oral reading of Japanese sentences, particularly on alveolar fricatives and bilabial stops and fricatives. The paper also suggests possible future studies and discusses pedagogical implications for reading Japanese as a second or foreign language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our paper concerns the grammar of clause combining in Finnish and Japanese conversation. We consider the patterns of clause combining in our data and focus on the verbal and non-verbal cues which allow participants to determine whether, after the end of a clause-sized unit, the turn will end or continue with another clause-sized unit, resulting in a clause combination. We conclude that morphosyntax alone cannot account for the patterns found in our data, but that the participants orient to, at least, prosodic and nonverbal cues in determining the boundaries of clauses and projecting continuation in the form of another clause. Also important for projection are fixed expressions or 'prefabs'. In addition, semantic and pragmatic factors play a role. In that sense, we explore the question of where the limits of grammar for interaction, understood as the knowledge which speakers share and which forms the basis for the creation and processing of novel utterances, should be drawn, and whether grammar should include, beyond morphosyntax, not only prosodic, pragmatic and semantic features but also bodily behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a course-centered ontology for assisting learning support systems to embody the relations among knowledge points and also among the learning materials for those knowledge points. An "individual-class-individual" ontology design (first an individual-class design, then an innovative design about relations among bottom individuals), was applied to the construction of a course-centered ontology for an existing Japanese grammar course. Furthermore, a customizable language learning support system was built to manipulate the course-centered ontology to provide an interface for the learning objects arrangement which displays the visual representation of knowledge points and their relations. The intention underlying the development of the system is to encourage instructors to orient their teaching materials to specific knowledge points and even directly to relations between knowledge points. With these orientations, the learning support system is able to provide an environment in which learners can readily distinguish between related knowledge points. Finally, based on the result of a preliminary evaluation, a study to explore the impact of learning styles and learning habits on learning performance was conducted to further evaluate our ontology-based learning support system. The results of the study suggest three main points: (a) the experimental students who learned with our system achieved significantly better learning achievement than those who just did self-study with textbooks after studying the same target contents for 60 mins; (b) the learning achievement of experimental group was not related to either their learning style in Sequential/Global dimension or their habit of "learning from comparison"; (c) in terms of the learning perception of experimental group, compared to "Sequential learners", most "Global learners" had a stronger feeling that the comparison function is useful in improving their learning performance, and the learners who don't habitually "learning from comparison" were more likely to suffer from lack of the attention and feel more pressure than those who do habitually "learning from comparison". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Orthography has been given marginal status in theoretical linguistics, but it can offer ‘visible’ insights into the invisible mechanisms of grammar. Japanese kanji graphs, Chinese characters used to write Japanese, provide an excellent illustration of this perspective. Our core claim is that the kanji orthography reflects the working of lexeme-based morphology in Japanese grammar. Specifically, we show how the lexeme-based morphological framework developed by Mark Aronoff and Martin Maiden can explain apparently cumbersome and inefficient properties of the kanji usage, its dual pronunciation in particular. Among the findings of this study are the following: (i) the underlying mechanism of the kanji's dual pronunciation is suppletion, native and Sino-Japanese synonyms working as morphomic stems of the same paradigm; (ii) this suppletion emerged and developed as a paradigmatic strategy of synonymy avoidance; and (iii) the large-scale suppletive morphology has long been retained in Japanese because it has served advantageous functions in the maintenance of lexemic isomorphism and in lexical stock expansion. Our findings shed an entirely new light on the bafflingly complex nature of Japanese orthography; it is the complexity of morphology, a grammatical module that is deemed to be the locus of language-specificity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In these pages, some contrastive aspects of Japanese Grammar characterized by a special contrastive interest in regard to Spanish Grammar and that can be considered as difficult to be understood from the point of view of Spanish speaking people, are introduced. In order to approach these problems, some concepts of Cognitive Linguistics are applied, because they are considered useful as a tool to understand these problematic aspects. These concepts are cognitive paper, semantic role, canonic transitivity and construction. For the selection of contrastive aspects it has been made a search of the problems showed in grammars and learning books of Japanese as a Second Language, and a corpus of examples of mistakes produced by foreign students of Japanese as a second language has also been analyzed. This kind of study has obvious practical applications, as the description of languages in contrast, teaching of second languages, or understanding and correction of mistakes, lexicography, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study on the language of openings, closings and terms of address within the context of Japanese animation film "Tonori no Yamada Kun" by Isao Takahata. Topics discusses include a study of the film to find patterns of language use particularly related to research and theories explored within the study, the rich source of authentic text discourse provided by film extracts and present research is the area us using authentic texts in second language teaching and learning.

Using the eye-tracking method, the present study depicted pre- and post-head processing for simple scrambled sentences of head-final languages. Three versions of simple Japanese active sentences with ditransitive verbs were used: namely, (1) $$\text{ SO }_{\!1\!}\text{ O }_{\!2\!}\text{ V }$$ canonical, (2) $$\text{ SO }_{\!2\!}\text{ O }_{\!1\!}\text{ V }$$ single-scrambled, and (3) $$\text{ O }_{\!1\!}\text{ O }_{\!2\!}\text{ SV }$$ double-scrambled order. First pass reading times indicated that the third noun phrase just before the verb in both single- and double-scrambled sentences required longer reading times compared to canonical sentences. Re-reading times (the sum of all fixations minus the first pass reading) showed that all noun phrases including the crucial phrase before the verb in double-scrambled sentences required longer re-reading times than those required for single-scrambled sentences; single-scrambled sentences had no difference from canonical ones. Therefore, a single filler-gap dependency can be resolved in pre-head anticipatory processing whereas two filler-gap dependencies require much greater cognitive loading than a single case. These two dependencies can be resolved in post-head processing using verb agreement information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Procesamiento del Lenguaje Natural is the property of Sociedad Espanola para el Procesamiento del Lenguaje Natural and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)