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The vast literature on earnings inequality has so far largely ignored the role played by hours of work. This paper argues that in order to understand earnings dispersion we need to consider not only the dispersion of hourly wages but also inequality in hours worked as well as the correlation between the two. We use data for the US, the UK, France, and Germany over the period 1991-2016 to examine the evolution of inequality in hours worked and of the correlation between individual hours and wages, assessing their contribution to recent trends in earnings inequality. We find that, other than in the US, hours inequality is an important force, and that it has increased over the period under analysis. The elasticity of hours with respect to wages has also played a key role, notably in the two continental economies. This elasticity used to be negative, thus tending to reduce inequality as those with lower hourly wages worked longer hours, but has increased over the past decades, becoming nil or positive, and hence eroding an important equalizing force. The paper examines which are the potential factors behind the change in the elasticity, notably the role of trade and labour market institutions

This paper investigates the effects of firm-level gender equality bargaining on the motherhood penalty using French administrative data. To tackle the endogeneity issue, we exploit the 2010 reform that introduced financial penalties for firms with 50 employees or more not complying with their obligation of negotiating on gender equality. This change led to a strong acceleration of gender equality bargaining after 2010 but only for firms with 50 employees or more. As a consequence, women who had their first child in concerned firms after 2010 are more likely to be employed in firms covered by a text related to gender equality. Controlling for firms' size effect and time trends as well as a set of other individuals' and firms' characteristics, we identify the causal effect of gender equality bargaining on earnings impact of motherhood. Our estimates show that forcing firms to promote measures related to gender equality has reinforced the motherhood penalty. While the causal effect of this reform is close to zero just after the first child birth, it turns out to be significantly negative 5 years after. Our results suggest that some measures mentioned in GE texts, especially those favouring work-life balance, may act as an indirect discrimination towards mothers.

International audience; Tests of labor supply models often rely on wages. However, wage variation alone generally cannot disentangle the classical time separable model and its extensions: reference dependent preferences (income targeting) and time nonseparable preferences (disutility spillovers; timing-specific preferences). We set up a novel laboratory experiment in which individuals choose their working time. We vary, independently, wages, historical income paths, and cumulative past work. We also vary the timing of experimental sessions. Statistical tests and stochastic revealed preference methods cannot reject the classical model in favor of income targeting or disutility spillovers, but the data suggest that labor supply varies by time-of-the-day.

International audience; Around the world, myriad workers perform micro-tasks on online platforms to train and calibrate artificial intelligence solutions. Despite its apparent openness to anyone with basic skills, this form of crowd-work fails to fill gender gaps, and may even exacerbate them. We demonstrate this result in three steps. First, inequalities in both the professional and domestic spheres turn micro-tasking into a ‘third shift’ that adds to already heavy schedules. Second, the human and social capital of male and female workers differ– leaving women with fewer career prospects within a tech-driven workforce. Third, female micro-work reproduces relegation of women to lower-level computing work observed in the history of science and technology.

International audience; This paper analyzes assortative mating and its contribution to inequality in France. We first provide descriptive evidence on the statistical association in several socioeconomic attributes of partners. Second, we assess the contribution of assortative mating to earnings inequality between couples. We provide a new method for assessing the contribution of assortative mating to inequality in couple's potential earnings, that accounts for selection bias arising from labor force participation. Our results indicate a strong degree of assortative mating in France. The correlation in earnings is around 0.17 for annual earnings, around 0.35 for full-time equivalent earnings and up to 0.49 when using multi-year average earnings. Assortative mating tends to increase inequality among couples. For annual earnings, the effect accounts for 3 to 9% of measured inequality. The effect of assortative mating on household potential earnings is much larger and amounts to 10 to 20% for observed inequality. JEL codes: J12, J22, D31

Rapport de recherche TEPP; In 2010, a new reform of the French pension system took place. It consisted in delaying the pension eligibility age by 2 extra-years within a rather short transition period as only the 1950-1955 generations were concerned. While the stated objective of the reform was the increase of senior workers’ labour supply and the reduction of the pension insurance deficit, a number of studies have shown that similar reforms usually induce collateral effects as well, including shifts towards alternative insurance schemes such as unemployment or disability. In this paper, we use administrative data from the Hygie panel 2005-2015 to assess another indirect effect; namely the effect on sick-leave. This, we believe, is an important issue as if such an effect turns out to be significant, then that would imply that while the reform aimed at reducing the pension insurance deficit, it actually also widened that of the public health insurance. We consider alternative measures of sickness absence and show that the reform has indeed resulted in a significant increase in these. This is true for the whole population although the highlighted effects are gender-sensitive: While the estimated effects on the probability of sick leave are higher for women, they are lower when it comes to the duration of absence spells.; En 2010, la France a réformé son système de retraite en augmentant de 2 ans l’âge d’ouverture des droits avec une période de transition relativement courte, ne s’étendant qu’entre les générations 1950 et 1955. Si l’objectif affiché est bien l’augmentation de l’offre de travail des seniors et la réduction du déficit des caisses de l’assurance-retraite, plusieurs études montrent que ce type de réforme engendre aussi des effets collatéraux comme le déversement vers des régimes alternatifs tels que le chômage ou l’invalidité. Dans cet article, nous mobilisons la base administrative Hygie 2005-2015 pour explorer un autre de ces effets indirects : celui sur les absences-maladie. Si un tel effet s’avérait significatif, cela impliquerait qu’en cherchant à réduire le déficit des caisses d’assurance-retraite, la réforme a aussi creusé celui de l’assurance-maladie. Nous considérons alternativement diverses mesures de l’absence-maladie et montrons que la réforme des retraites a bel et bien entrainé une augmentation significative des arrêts-maladie et ce, pour l’ensemble de la population, mais avec des effets différenciés selon le genre : plus prononcés pour les femmes s’agissant de la probabilité d’arrêt et du nombre d’arrêts, ils le sont moins s’agissant de la durée de ces arrêts.

Stay-at-home policies due to the Covid-19 pandemic have drastically increased housework and childcare. During the lockdown, couples were harshly challenged by this novel situation which could notably redistribute roles and/or could also lead to intrahousehold conflicts. In this paper, we use individual data collected from an online survey on French partnered women during the confinement of the 2020 Spring to investigate the lockdown’s effects on the household chores allocation and tensions in the couple. We show that the lockdown did not offer an opportunity to strongly renegotiate the housework and childcare division between the partners, as women still did the lion’s share during this period. Men only changed their participation in household chores when they became a ”quasi-leisure” because of the pandemic (as for shopping or playing with child). We also document that an unbalanced division of the increased household chores during the lockdown, in particular on cleaning and childcare, is directly linked to an increase of the intrahousehold conflicts. To conclude, this period did not structurally affect gender roles and stereotypes at home, despite minor intrahousehold changes.

A l’aide d’un echantillon de panel de plus de 3 000 menages ruraux chinois interroges pendant 21 ans, cette etude estime l’evolution des roles relatifs du statut familial et de l’avantage comparatif en matiere de capital humain dans la determination de la division du travail au sein du menage, dans le contexte d’un developpement rapide du marche. Elle constate que le developpement du marche a ameliore le statut des femmes et a modifie la regle traditionnelle « les femmes a l’interieur et les hommes a l’exterieur ». Le developpement du marche a egalement affecte davantage de jeunes travaillant a des emplois remuneres a l’exterieur, et a laisse une part plus importante de personnes âgees et d’adolescents dans des activites semi-marchandes et des tâches menageres a la campagne. Ces resultats montrent une importance croissante du capital humain par rapport au statut familial dans la determination de l’allocation du temps.Codes JEL: D13, J22, O12.

International audience; In 2009, a system of pay-for-performance (P4P) was offered to physicians in France via the Contrat d’Amélioration des Pratiques Individuelles (CAPI). This study assesses the causal impact of CAPI on their behaviour in terms of care provision. Based on a panel of general practitioners in private practice observed before (2005 and 2008) and after (2011) its introduction, we use an instrumental variables approach, applied to a model in first-differences in order to correct the endogeneity biases linked to the fact that signing up to CAPI is a choice. We show that, unlike other practitioners, those who have signed up to CAPI have not reduced their number of consultations per patient or the amount of prescriptions per patient. They have also increased, to a greater extent than others, the proportion of their patients who they treat as the primary care doctor(i.e. the médecin traitant). Moreover, CAPI has enabled them to increase their fees per patient with, as a consequence, a higher treatment cost for the Social Security system.

Frictional labor markets impose a fundamental trade-off: individuals may work on their own at any time, but can only take a potentially better-paid wage job after spending some time looking for it, suggesting that intertemporal considerations affect how people choose their occupation. We formalize this intuition under the job search framework and show that a sufficiently high subjective discount rate can justify the choice for own-account work even when it pays less than wage work. With this simple model, we estimate a lower bound for the discount rate that is implicit in the occupational choice of urban own-accountworkers in Brazil. We find that at least 65% of those workers appear to discount the future at rates superior to those available in the credit market, which suggests constrained occupational choice. Finally, we show that the es- timated time preference lower bound is positively associated with food, clothing, and housing deprivation.

This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 645763.; The purpose of this study is to account for the increase in non-regular workers, namely, part-time and dispatched workers, in the Japanese economy from the early 2000s. Our contribution is that we use a firm-level panel dataset extracted from an administrative survey and distinguish between the short-run and long-run determinants of non-regular labor demand. Using the estimated parameters of the labor demand function, we decompose the rate of increase in the macroeconomic non-regular worker ratio into determinant factor contributions. Our major results can be summarized as follows. First, the firm-level determinants of the demand for part-time and dispatched workers significantly differ. Second, our results suggest that the non-regular job creation stimulated by the increased female labor supply plays an essential role relative to direct demand-side factors. Third, the microeconomic demand conditions for non-regular labor are widely dispersed among firms. Neither the demand factors examined in this study nor industrial differences can explain this heterogeneity.

A significant literature in the social sciences addresses the impact of child-bearing and rearing on marital stability and on mothers’ labour market outcomes. Much less is known about older mothers’ employment and marriage patterns when the adult children leave the parental nest. This study aims to shed light on these issues using longitudinal labour force data for France. Exploiting retirement laws for identification purposes, and taking a regression discontinuity approach, we find that older women’s retirement probability is positively associated with an empty nest. We also conclude that an empty nest is negatively associated with older mothers’ marriage probability. There is scope for better targeting of both family and retirement policies for older mothers during those critical years when adult children leave the parental nest.

This paper investigates the impact of survivors insurance on marital behavior. We study the 1996 Dutch reform which considerably tightened eligibility rules to survivors' benefits. Exploiting a discontinuity in date of birth eligibility to survivors insurance and using a rich and exhaustive of the Dutch population administrative dataset, we carry out a regression discontinuity design and we find no evidence of the reform on divorce probability. Exploring possible explanations for our zero-effect result, we study how labor supply responses can compensate the income drop the reform induced. We find a strong increase in the labor force participation of widows after the reform. However this response does not completely offset the decrease in income generated form the cut in survivors benefits.

I provide estimates of the compensated elasticity of labor income with respect to the Marginal Net-of-Tax Rate on the 2006-2015 period for France. I exploit not only income tax reforms but also means-tested benefits reforms. I use semiparametric graphical evidence and a classic 2SLS estimation applied to a rich data set including both financial and sociodemographic variables. I obtain an estimated compensated elasticity around 0.2-0.3 in response to income tax reforms, around 0.1 in response to in-work benefit reforms, while I found no statistically significant response to family allowance reforms. I show that the difference between elasticities contradicts the prediction of the classical labor supply model. One possible explanation is that income tax reforms are more salient and better perceived than benefit reforms. This suggests that benefit reforms may be more efficient in reducing inequalities than income tax reforms due to their lesser behavioral responses. Another contribution is to highlight heterogeneous elasticities depending on income, age, family configuration and education. Results are very robust to a large number of robustness checks, unlike previous studies on the US economy.

International audience; The aim of this article is to examine the extent to which the reform of parental leave, which came into force in January 2015, may have changed the likelihood of mothers using this system, since the parental leave benefit no longer covers the entire period from birth to the child’s schooling. To identify the causal impact of this reform, we use the data from the Labour Force Survey and implement an empirical methodology that combines a discontinuity design with a difference-in-differences approach. This reform has reduced the likelihood of taking full-time parental leave by around 10 percentage points. In addition, the mothers most affected by this reform are the least educated and private sector employees.; L’objectif de cet article est d’étudier dans quelle mesure la réforme du congé parental, entrée en vigueur en janvier 2015, a pu modifier la probabilité des mères d’avoir recours à ce dispositif, l’indemnisation ne couvrant plus désormais l’intégralité de la période allant de la naissance jusqu’à la scolarisation de l’enfant. Pour identifier l’effet causal de cette réforme, nous exploitons les données de l’enquête Emploi et mettons en œuvre une méthodologie combinant régression sur discontinuité et doubles différences. Cette réforme a eu pour conséquence de réduire la probabilité de recourir au congé parental à temps plein d’environ 10 points de pourcentage. En outre, les mères les plus particulièrement affectées par cette réforme sont les moins diplômées et les salariées du secteur privé.

The coronavirus pandemic (Covid-19) is threatening the well-being of citizens in most countries of the world, however women and men could be affected in different ways. This study uses a gender-sensitive computable general equilibrium model linked to a micro model to assess the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on poverty and inequality in Bolivia. This paper simulates both a moderate and severe scenario, to represent the pandemic. The results reveal negative effects for all economic agents that worsen in proportion to the severity of the scenario. In addition, female-headed households in general and those headed by unskilled women in particular are the most affected, as they experience significant reductions in employment and the largest increases in household burdens. This is due to the significant presence of female labour in the sectors most affected by Covid-19. Likewise, both simulations lead to increases in poverty and inequality, with women being more affected than men, mainly under the severe scenario, which ultimately results in Bolivian women becoming a highly vulnerable group.

The coronavirus pandemic (Covid-19) is threatening the well-being of citizens in most countries of the world, however women and men could be affected in different ways. This study uses a gender-sensitive computable general equilibrium model linked to a micro model to assess the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on poverty and inequality in Bolivia. This paper simulates both a moderate and severe scenario, to represent the pandemic. The results reveal negative effects for all economic agents that worsen in proportion to the severity of the scenario. In addition, female-headed households in general and those headed by unskilled women in particular are the most affected, as they experience significant reductions in employment and the largest increases in household burdens. This is due to the significant presence of female labour in the sectors most affected by Covid-19. Likewise, both simulations lead to increases in poverty and inequality, with women being more affected than men, mainly under the severe scenario, which ultimately results in Bolivian women becoming a highly vulnerable group.

The coronavirus pandemic (Covid-19) is threatening the well-being of citizens in most countries of the world, however women and men could be affected in different ways. This study uses a gender-sensitive computable general equilibrium model linked to a micro model to assess the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on poverty and inequality in Bolivia. This paper simulates both a moderate and severe scenario, to represent the pandemic. The results reveal negative effects for all economic agents that worsen in proportion to the severity of the scenario. In addition, female-headed households in general and those headed by unskilled women in particular are the most affected, as they experience significant reductions in employment and the largest increases in household burdens. This is due to the significant presence of female labour in the sectors most affected by Covid-19. Likewise, both simulations lead to increases in poverty and inequality, with women being more affected than men, mainly under the severe scenario, which ultimately results in Bolivian women becoming a highly vulnerable group.

This paper explores the pathways that underlie the diffusion of women's participation in the labor force across generations. I exploit a severe exoge-nous shock to the sex ratio, World War I in France, which generated a large inflow of women in the labor force after the war. I show that this shock to female labor transmitted to subsequent generations until today. Three mechanisms of intergenerational transmission account for this result: parental transmission, transmission through marriage, and transmission through local social interactions. Beyond behaviors, the war also permanently altered beliefs toward the role of women in the labor force. (JEL J16, J22, N34, Z13)

Highlights • We look at the effect of COVID-19 and associated lockdowns on population well-being • We use Google Trends data to measure changes in well-being related topic search-terms • We find an increase in searches for boredom, loneliness, worry and sadness • We find a decrease in searches for stress, suicide and divorce • We see evidence of mean-reversion in some (but not all) of the well-being measures, The COVID-19 pandemic and government intervention such as lockdowns may severely affect people’s mental health. While lockdowns can help to contain the spread of the virus, they may result in substantial damage to population well-being. We use Google Trends data to test whether COVID-19 and the associated lockdowns implemented in Europe and America led to changes in well-being related topic search-terms. Using difference-in-differences and a regression discontinuity design, we find a substantial increase in the search intensity for boredom in Europe and the US. We also found a significant increase in searches for loneliness, worry and sadness, while searches for stress, suicide and divorce on the contrary fell. Our results suggest that people’s mental health may have been severely affected by the pandemic and lockdown.

International audience; Using spatial variation in World War I military fatalities in France, we show that the scarcity of men due to the war generated an upward shift in female labor force participation that persisted throughout the interwar period. Available data suggest that increased female labor supply accounts for this result. In particular, deteriorated marriage market conditions for single women and negative income shocks to war widows induced many of these women to enter the labor force after the war. In contrast, demand factors such as substitution toward female labor to compensate for the scarcity of male labor were of second-order importance.

Article traduit en anglais par la Revue Economique.; International audience; Une généralisation du modèle d’allocation du temps de Gary Becker (supposant un coût d’opportunité du temps endogène) permet d’explorer la substitution des dépenses monétaires et des temps alloués par les ménages provoquée par des modifications importantes de leur revenu, en période de forte expansion ou de récession. Cette analyse définit un multiplicateur positif de revenu et un diviseur négatif des temps alloués à la production domestique, et permet d’explorer un fondement microéconomique possible de la loi d’Okun ainsi qu’une diminution de l’effet négatif des récessions sur le bien-être des ménages.

International audience; We analyse the effects of retirement of one partner on time devoted to home production by both partners in a couple. Using longitudinal data on couples in Germany, we control for fixed household specific effects and allow for endogeneity of retirement using both a regression discontinuity approach and variation in the early and full retirement age across cohorts and with labour market history. Furthermore, we separately estimate the effect of retirement and the effect of lay-off due to an exogenous shock (i.e. plant closure) for each spouse. For both men and women, a transition from work to retirement significantly increases the amount of their own home production. Similar effects are found for other (layoff induced) exits from work. We find much smaller negative cross-effects of retirement or other exits from work on time spent on home production done by the male partner; the effect of the husband's retirement on the wife's home production is not statistically significant.

International audience; Using data in the United States, UK and Germany, we show that women whose working hours exceed those of their male partners report lower life satisfaction on average. By contrast, men do not report lower life satisfaction from working more hours than their female partners. An analysis of possible mechanisms shows that in couples where the woman works more hours than the man, women do not spend significantly less time doing household chores. Women with egalitarian ideologies are likely to perceive this unequal division of labour as unfair, ultimately reducing their life satisfaction.

This paper analyzes the link between asset bubbles, endogenous labor and capital. The question is whether endogenous labor, per se, can explain a crowding-in effect of the bubble, i.e. higher levels of capital and labor. With respect to the existing literature, our contribution is twofold. First, we explicitly and theoretically derive the conditions to have a crowding-in effect of the bubble. Second, the utility function we consider allows us to show that this result does not require an arbitrarily high elasticity of intertemporal substitution in consumption. Our result still holds for a unit value of this elascticity (Cobb-Douglas utility).

We study the design of child-care policies when redistribution matters. Traditional mothers provide some informal child care, whereas career mothers purchase full time formal care. The sorting of women across career paths is endogenous and shaped by a social norm about gender roles in the family. Via this social norm traditional mothers’ informal child care imposes an externality on career mothers, so that the market outcome is inefficient. Informal care is too large and the group of career mothers is too small so that inefficiency and gender inequality go hand in hand. In a first-best world redistribution across couples and efficiency are separable. Redistribution is performed via lump-sum transfers and taxes which are designed to equalize utilities across all couples. The efficient allocation of child care is obtained by subsidizing formal care at a Pigouvian rate. However, in a second-best setting, a trade-off between efficiency and redistribution emerges. The optimal uniform subsidy is lower than the “Pigouvian” level. Conversely,under a nonlinear policy the first-best “Pigouvian” rule for the (marginal) subsidy on informal care is reestablished. While the share of high career mothers continues to be distorted downward for incentive reasons, this policy is effective in reconciling the objectives of reducing the child care related inefficiency and achieving a more equal income distribution across couples. Our results continue to hold when the norm is defined within the mothers’ social group, rather than being based on the entire population.

International audience; Empirical studies cast doubt on the efficiency assumption made in standard economic models of household behavior. In couples, the allocation of time between activities remains highly differentiated by gender. In this paper we examine whether couples deviate from efficiency in household production, using an experimental design. We compare the allocation of gendered vs. gender-neutral domestic tasks. Our results show that women in the household overspecialize in “feminine tasks” and men in “masculine tasks” compared to what their comparative advantage would require, hence revealing the influence of gender roles and stereotypes on the couples’ behavior.

We use quasi-random variation in graduation years during the onset of a very deep national recession to study the relationship between early labor market conditions and young females' family formation outcomes. A policy-pilot affecting the length of upper-secondary education in Swedish vocational schools allows us to compare females who graduated into the onset of the Swedish financial crisis of the 1990s to those graduating during the final phase of the preceding economic boom while netting out the main effect of the policy. We find that graduating straight into the recession had negative labor market consequences during the first few years but we find no evidence of permanent labor market scars. In contrast, graduating into the crisis had lasting effects on family formation outcomes of low-grade students in particular. Those who graduated into the recession because of the policy-pilot formed their first stable partnerships earlier and had their first children earlier. Their partners had lower grades, which we show to be a strong predictor of divorce, and worse labor market performance. Divorces were more prevalent and the ensuing increase in single motherhood was long-lasting. These negative effects on marital stability generated persistent increases in the use of welfare benefits despite the short-lived impact on labor market outcomes. The results suggest that young women respond to early labor market prospects by changing the quality threshold for entering into family formation, a process which affects the frequency of welfare-dependent single mothers during more than a decade thereafter.

This study presents new evidence on the effects of minimum age regulations obtained from a natural experiment. In 1998, a constitutional reform in Brazil changed the minimum working age from 14 to 16. The reform was the legislative counterpart of a broad set of measures taken by a government strongly committed to eliminating child labor. This article investigates the role of the minimum working age in this context. The setting allows for improvements upon past approaches based on comparing employment rates of children at different ages. A discontinuity in treatment is exploited, namely the fact that only children who turned 14 after the enactment date (mid-December 1998) are banned from work. According to regression discontinuity and difference-in-discontinuity designs, the null hypothesis of no overall effect of the ban cannot be rejected. Throughout the methods and specifications, an employment effect in a confidence interval of $[-0.06, \, 0.03]$ (in percentage points) is found. A detailed heterogeneity analysis is performed and provides suggestive evidence of diminishing child labor trends in regions characterized by higher labor inspection intensity, which is interpreted as a trace of there being a law. However, contrary to what has been claimed in recent studies, the law seems not to have produced sizeable effects overall, at least in the short run. Power calculations and extensive sensitivity checks support these conclusions.

International audience; In the classic equivalence scale estimations based on micro-econometric analysis, only the costs of market consumption are taken into account. We define the concept of full cost equivalence scales as integrating both monetary and the time use costs and measure it on matched French family budget and time use surveys. These data allow us to define full prices and to estimate equivalence scales conditional to possible substitution through prices. The results show higher full scales than the monetary for the preferred Independent of a Base specification. Relative to the cost of the second adult, the full child cost is also larger than the monetary for matching estimators and the Prais-Houthakker model. It shows households' capacity to substitute domestic production to market activities. In consequence the measures of income inequality diminish considerably using full income and full equivalence scales.

International audience; This article uses an allocation of time framework following Becker, to propose a new method to estimate the opportunity cost of time and price elasticities at a micro level. As expected, the estimate of the value of time performed by matching the INSEE Family Budget and Time Use surveys is close to the minimum wage rate and positively correlated with household wages, incomes and relative incomes, as well as with the presence of children. Using this estimate, full prices are derived, allowing the computation of cross-section data of price elasticities, elasticities with respect to time use, as well as to the opportunity cost of time.

This paper aims to explain why the division of domestic labor within couples differs according to their marital status.We analyze the evolution of the gender division of labor in France using time-use surveys (1985, 1999 and 2009). In1985 and in 1998, married women were performing a larger share of domestic labor than cohabiting women. In 1985this gap is explained by differences in the observed characteristics of married and cohabiting couples, whereas bythe late 1990s cohabiting couples were opting for an organization that was less unequal than that of married couples,all else being equal. In 2009, the average share of domestic labor performed by women was about the same whetherthey were cohabiting or married (72% and 73.5%), but it was significantly lower for women in civil union, which wasintroduced in 1999 (65.1%). The self-selection process of couples regarding their gender ideology might explain thisresult: the civil partnership attracts more egalitarian couples.

The authors thank the Collège des médecins du Québec for making its survey data available and the Régie de l’assurancemaladie du Québec and Marc-André Fournier for the construction of the database. This article was partly written while Fortinand Shearer were visiting the University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne.; We develop and estimate a structural model that incorporates service intensity and endogenouscontract choice into the standard labour supply framework. We apply our model to datacollected on specialist physicians working in Quebec (Canada). These physicians are typicallypaid a fee-for-service (FFS) contract. Our panel data set covers a period of policy reform whichallowed physicians either to remain on FFS or to adopt a mixed remuneration (MR) contract,under which they receive a per diem as well as a reduced FFS. We estimate the preferenceparameters of physicians governing the choice of contract and their hours worked and servicesprovided. We use our estimates to simulate labour supply elasticities, to predict (ex ante) theeffects of contracts on physician behaviour, and to evaluate selection effects. The supply ofservices is reduced under a MR contract, suggesting incentives matter. The hours spent seeingpatients is less sensitive to incentives than the supply of services. Our results suggest that areform forcing all physicians to adopt the MR system would have had substantially larger effectson physician behaviour than were measured under the observed reform.

This paper examines the effect of fertility on parental labor-force participation in a developing country in the Balkans, with particular attention to the intervening role of childcare provided by grandparents in extended families. In order to address the potential endogeneity in the fertility decision, I exploit Albanian parental preference for having sons combined with the siblings sex-composition instrument as an exogenous source of variation. Using a repeated cross-section of parents with at least two children, I find a positive and statistically significant effect of fertility on parental labor supply for those parents who are more likely to be younger, less educated or live in extended families. In particular, IV estimates for mothers show that they increase labor supply, especially in terms of hours worked per week and the likelihood of working off-farm. Similarly, father's likelihood of working off-farm and having a second occupation increase as a consequence of further childbearing. The heterogeneity analysis suggests that this positive effect might be the result of two plausible mechanisms: childcare provided by non-parental adults in extended families and greater financial costs of maintaining more children.

This paper uses the 1998-1999 Kosovo war and the following massive displacement of people as a natural experiment in order to estimate the impact of conflict displacement on labor market and education outcomes of Kosovars after they returned from exile. I exploit the interaction of the spatial variation in conflict intensity -as measured by casualties and bombings- and distance to the Albanian border as a source of exogenous variation in the displacement status. Results indicate that displaced Kosovar men are less likely to be employed in the agricultural sector and to work on their own account, while displaced Kosovar women are more likely to be inactive. Loss of assets (e.g. land, livestock) in an agrarian skill-based economy and also loss of social networks in an informal labor market might have further decreased the probability to find employment relative to stayers. However, shortly after the return home, the results also indicate that displaced Kosovar men and women are more likely to be working off-farm, especially in the construction and public administration sectors, which indicates a relatively quick recovery. In addition, displaced Kosovar girls are more likely to be enrolled in primary school, but I find no effect on education for boys. The refugee camp experience might have provided better conditions to young Kosovar girls compared to the the precarious pre-war ``parallel" education system.

Short-time work programs were revived by the Great Recession. To understand their operating mechanisms, we first provide a model showing that short-time work may save jobs in firms hit by strong negative revenue shocks, but not in less severely-hit firms, where hours worked are reduced, without saving jobs. The cost of saving jobs is low because short-time work targets those at risk of being destroyed. Using extremely detailed data on the administration of the program covering the universe of French establishments, we devise a causal identification strategy based on the geography of the program that demonstrates that short-time work saved jobs in firms faced with large drops in their revenues during the Great Recession, in particular when highly levered, but only in these firms. The measured cost per saved job is shown to be very low relative to that of other employment policies.

International audience; Constraints that prevent women from working longer hours are argued to be important drivers of the gender wage gap in the United States. We provide evidence that in couples where the wife's working hours exceed the husband's, the wife reports lower life satisfaction. By contrast, there is no effect on the husband's satisfaction. The results still hold when controlling for relative income. We argue that these patterns are best explained by perceived fairness of the division of household labor, which induces an aversion to a situation where the wife works more at home and on the labor market.

International audience; Livelihood diversification is one of the essential climate adaptation strategies with positive outcomes on household's standard of living. Therefore, the identification of factors that are necessary for livelihood diversification are crucial. Within a gender perspective, this study analysed the determinants of livelihood diversification among farmers in the northern regions of Ghana. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select 619 farmers and the data was analysed using multivariate probit regression for the pooled and separately for the gender groups. The livelihood diversification strategies identified were crop diversification, crop-livestock diversification, crop-trade diversification, crop-agro-processing diversification and crop-professional/skilled employment. The multivariate probit results showed that socioeconomic, institutional factors, climate factors, and household assets have significant influence on each diversification strategy. The assumption of gender difference in the factors that influences livelihood diversification is appropriate since some factors which influence specific livelihood diversification for females do not have significant effect on males. Improving the financial assets, social and human assets of farmers is important to enhance the diversification of farmers. There is also the need to improve awareness of farmers on climate shocks in order to enhance diversification decisions.

This paper investigates one causal mechanism by which a student’s job can affect academic success. Students devoting time to paid work are expected to face more difficulties attending courses and to have less time to spend on homework. Our empirical analysis, which is based on five cross-sectional data sets collected in France from 1997 to 2010, examines the joint decision of work and time study of around 80,000 students enrolled from the first to the fifth year after the Baccalaureate. We turn to selection on unobservables and on observables models to account for the endogeneity of in-school work. We find that students with a paid job spend significantly less time both on attending courses and on homework. The negative impact on time devoted to studies is much higher for students working at least half-time.; Cet article étudie un mécanisme causal par l’intermédiaire duquel le travail d'un étudiant peut influencer la réussite aux examens. Les étudiants qui ont une activité rémunérée vont a priori faire face à des difficultés accrues pour assister aux cours et pour leur travail personnel. L’analyse empirique, qui s’appuie sur cinq enquêtes transversales réalisées en France de 1997 à 2010, examine la décision conjointe de travail et des temps consacrés aux études pour près de 80000 étudiants inscrits de la première à la cinquième année après le baccalauréat. Nous nous tournons vers l’estimation de modèles de sélection sur inobservables et sur observables pour tenir compte de l'endogénéité de l’activité rémunérée. Nous trouvons que les étudiants ayant un emploi rémunéré consacrent moins de temps à la fois à assister aux cours et en travail personnel. L’impact négatif sur les temps d’études apparaît beaucoup plus élevé pour ceux qui ont une activité rémunérée au moins à mi-temps.

This paper investigates one causal mechanism by which a student’s job can affect academic success. Students devoting time to paid work are expected to face more difficulties attending courses and to have less time to spend on homework. Our empirical analysis, which is based on five cross-sectional data sets collected in France from 1997 to 2010, examines the joint decision of work and time study of around 80,000 students enrolled from the first to the fifth year after the Baccalaureate. We turn to selection on unobservables and on observables models to account for the endogeneity of in-school work. We find that students with a paid job spend significantly less time both on attending courses and on homework. The negative impact on time devoted to studies is much higher for students working at least half-time.; Cet article étudie un mécanisme causal par l’intermédiaire duquel le travail d'un étudiant peut influencer la réussite aux examens. Les étudiants qui ont une activité rémunérée vont a priori faire face à des difficultés accrues pour assister aux cours et pour leur travail personnel. L’analyse empirique, qui s’appuie sur cinq enquêtes transversales réalisées en France de 1997 à 2010, examine la décision conjointe de travail et des temps consacrés aux études pour près de 80000 étudiants inscrits de la première à la cinquième année après le baccalauréat. Nous nous tournons vers l’estimation de modèles de sélection sur inobservables et sur observables pour tenir compte de l'endogénéité de l’activité rémunérée. Nous trouvons que les étudiants ayant un emploi rémunéré consacrent moins de temps à la fois à assister aux cours et en travail personnel. L’impact négatif sur les temps d’études apparaît beaucoup plus élevé pour ceux qui ont une activité rémunérée au moins à mi-temps.

This paper revisits the issue of estimating the relationship between calorie intake and income, and presents and compare estimates of this relationship for China and Vietnam. Semiparametric generalized additive models are estimated and their performances are compared to the performance of the classical double log model using the revealed performance test of Racine and Parmeter (2014). This methodology is implemented using successive waves of the Chinese Health and Nutrition Survey and of the Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey. The application delivers some new and interesting insights on nutritional transition in the two countries between 2004 and today.

International audience We document changes in labour supply, wage and education by gender and marital status using the British Household Panel Survey, 1991-2008, and seek to disentangle the main channels behind these changes. To this end, we use a version of Goussé, Jacquemet, and Robin (2016)'s search-matching model of the marriage market with labour supply, which does not use information on home production time inputs. We derive conditions under which the model is identified. We estimate different parameters for each year. This allows us to quantify how much of the changes in labour supply, wage and education by gender and marital status depends on changes in the preferences for leisure of men and women and how much depends on changes in homophily.

International audience; Using data from the 2010 European Working Conditions Survey, this study explores the determinants of health-related absences from work in European countries. The focus is on the impact of sick leave rules. Five parameters of the sickness benefit system are taken into account: the requirement to produce a doctor’s certificate on the first day of absence, the length of the qualifying period, the existence of a waiting period before receipt of benefits, the compensation level, and the duration of benefits. Employees’ absence behaviors are analyzed using multilevel logistic regressions. The results show that cross-country differences in the probability of absence are partly attributable to differences in sick leave legislation. The most significant factor is whether employers are required to continue paying full wages in case of illness. As expected, the propensity to be absent is significantly higher in countries where this rule applies.; À partir des données de l’European Working Conditions Survey de 2010, cette étude s’intéresse aux déterminants des absences au travail pour raisons de santé dans les pays européens. L’accent est mis sur l’impact des règles d’indemnisation des arrêts maladie. Cinq paramètres du système d’indemnisation sont pris en compte : l’obligation ou non de fournir un certificat médical dès le premier jour d’absence, la duréeminimale d’affiliation au régime d’assurance sociale, l’existence ou non d’un délai de carence, le niveau d’indemnisation et la durée maximale de versement des indemnités maladie. Les comportements d’absence des salariés sont analysés à l’aide de régressions logistiques multi-niveaux. Les résultats montrent que les écarts entre pays dans la probabilité d’absence au travail peuvent en partie s’expliquer par les différences de législation en matière d’indemnisation des arrêts maladie. Le fait que le salaire soit intégralement maintenu par l’employeur en cas de maladie est l’élément le plus déterminant. Comme attendu, dans les pays où cette règle s’applique, la propension à s’absenter est significativement plus élevée.

International audience; We here investigate the extent to which labour-market changes explain the decline in the time spent home cooking by married women in France between 1985 and 2010. Using time use data and Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions, we find that rising women’s employment and observed wages together account for about 60% of the fall in the time married women spent cooking. We then use a semi-parametric matching technique to construct an implicit wage rate, which better reflects the change in labour-market incentives that individuals face. The rise in women’s implicit wages explains no more than 20% of the decline in their cooking time, while the wage of their partner has no effect. Changing labour-market incentives are thus far from being the main driver of the decline in home-cooking. We also find evidence that home cooking continues to be structured by the gendered social norm of the “proper family meal”.

International audience

This paper reviews the literature on the impact ofwork on health. We consider work along two dimensions: (i) the intensive margin, i.e. how many hours an individual works and (ii) the extensive margin, i.e. whether an individual is in employment or not, independent of the number of hours worked. We show that most of the evidence on the negative health impact of work found in the literature is based on situations in which workers have essentially no control (no choice) over theamount of work they provide. In essence, what is detrimental to health is not so much work per se as much as the gap which may exist between the actual and the desired amount of work, both at the intensive and extensive margins., Dans cet article, nous passons en revue la littérature sur l'impact du travail sur la santé. Nous considérons le travail selon deux dimensions : (i)la marge intensive, à savoir le nombre d'heures travaillées par un individu et (ii) la marge extensive, c'est-à-dire le fait qu'un individu soit ou non en emploi, indépendamment du nombre d'heures travaillées. Nous montrons que l'effet néfaste du travail sur la santé, mis en évidence dans la littérature, est basé sur des situations dans lesquelles les salariés n'ont, pour l'essentiel, aucun contrôle (aucun choix) sur la quantité de travail qu'ils fournissent. Dans les faits, l'effet néfaste sur la santé ne proviendrait pas tant du travail en soi que de l'écart éventuel entre la quantité de travail effectivement fournie et la quantité désirée, tant à la marge intensive qu'à la marge extensive.

This paper attempts to estimate the impact of pollution abatement investments on the production technology of firms by pursuing two new directions. First, we take advantage of recent econometric developments in productivity and efficiency analysis and compare the results obtained with two complementary approaches: parametric stochastic frontier analysis and conditional nonparametric frontier analysis. Second, we focus not only on the average effect but also on its heterogeneity across ?rms and over time and search for potential nonlinearities. We provide new results suggesting that such an effect is heterogeneous both within ?rms and over time and indicating that the effect of pollution abatement investments on the production process is not monotonic. These results have relevant implications both for modeling and for the purposes of advice on environmentally friendly policy., Cet article estime l’impact des investissements anti-pollution sur la technologie en suivant deux nouvelles directions. Premièrement, il s’inspire de travaux économétriques récents en analyse de la productivité et de l’efficacité et compare les résultats obtenus en utilisant deux approches complémentaires : l’approche paramétrique des frontières stochastiques de production et celle non paramétrique de frontières de production. Deuxièmement, l’analyse ne se concentre plus sur le seul comportement moyen mais s’intéresse à l’hétérogénéité des effets des investissements anti-pollution entre les firmes dans le temps. Une attention particulière est ainsi donnée à la détection de non linéarités. Les résultats empiriques apportent un éclairage nouveau sur ces effets en montrant qu’ils sont hétérogènes à la fois entre les firmes et dans le temps et qu’ils ne sont pas monotones. De tels résultats ont une implication en termes non seulement de modélisation des effets des investissements anti-pollution sur la technologie mais aussi de recommandations pour la politique environnementale de réduction des émissions polluantes des firmes.

Mandatory reductions in the workweek can be used by governments to attempt to reduce unemployment, and are usually assumed to improve the well-being of workers. Nevertheless, the net impact of shorter workweeks on worker welfare is ambiguous ex ante and little empirical effort has been devoted to identify how worker satisfaction changes with mandatory reductions in working time. Using data from the European Community Household Panel, this paper evaluates the impact of the exogenous reductions in weekly working hours induced by reforms implemented in Portugal and France. Difference-in-difference estimation results suggest that reduced working hours generated significant and robust increases in job and leisure satisfaction of the workers affected in both countries, with the rise in the former mainly being explained by greater satisfaction with working hours and working conditions.

There is a small literature on the economic costs of terrorism. We consider the effects of the Boston marathon bombing on Americans’ well-being and time allocation. We exploit data from the American Time Use Survey and Well-Being Module in the days around the terrorist attack to implement a regression-discontinuity design. The bombing led to a significant and large drop of about 1.5 points in well-being, on a scale of one to six, for residents of the States close to Boston. The happiness of American women also dropped significantly, by almost a point, regardless of the State of residence. Labor supply and other time use were not significantly affected. We find no well-being effect of the Sandy Hook shootings, suggesting that terrorism is different in nature from other violent deaths.

A premature death unexpectedly brings a life and a career to their end, leading to substantial welfare losses. We study the retirement decision in an economy with risky lifetime, and compare the laissez-faire with egalitarian social optima. We consider two social objectives: (1) the maximin on expected lifetime welfare (ex ante), allowing for a compensation for unequal life expectancies; (2) the maximin on realized lifetime welfare (ex post), allowing for a compensation for unequal lifetimes. The latter optimum involves, in general, decreasing lifetime consumption profiles, as well as raising the retirement age, unlike the ex ante egalitarian optimum. This result is robust to the introduction of unequal life expectancies and unequal productivities. Hence, the postponement of the retirement age can, quite surprisingly, be defended on egalitarian grounds --although the conclusion is reversed when mortality strikes only after retirement.