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Si les « mauvais genres » ont fait l’objet, deja depuis les annees 1980, de reflexions sur leur place en classe de francais, il n’en va pas de meme pour celui de la fantasy, en plein essor depuis une vingtaine d’annees, depuis le succes de Harry Potter. Apres avoir analyse les relations entre fantasy, cultures juveniles et culture de masse, nous mettons en evidence la position ambivalente de l’institution scolaire par rapport au genre, en essayant d’en comprendre les raisons. Le potentiel didactique de la fantasy est alors interroge, particulierement en termes de lecture et de culture litteraires (approche des genres, de l’intertextualite, analyse d’images, immersion fictionnelle). In fine, il s’agit de montrer comment ce genre, repute particulierement immersif, pourrait neanmoins favoriser le developpement d’authentiques postures de sujet-lecteur chez les eleves, au college comme au lycee.

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International audience; The amount of attentional resources necessary to walk in children, and how they evolve during childhood remains unclear. This study examined children's gait parameters in different dual-task conditions. 53 children, divided into two age groups (7-9 and 10-12 years old), and 18 adults walked on a mat in three different cognitive conditions: watching a video (video condition), listening its soundtrack (audio condition), and without any additional task (control condition). Questions were asked at the end of the video and audio conditions to make sure that participants were paying attention to the stimuli. A GAITRite® system was used for recording the gait data. Results showed an increase of velocity and step duration, and a decrease of cadence and percentage of double limb support duration from 7 years of age to adulthood during dual-task walking compared with single-task walking. This improvement seemed to be linear from 7 years to adults' age. The interference of dual-task on gait was larger for the video than for the auditory task and decreased with age. We concluded that walking requires a significant amount of attentional resources in children and that children rely more than adults on visual processes for walking.

International audience; Simultaneous execution of motor and cognitive tasks is embedded in the daily life of children. 53 children of 7-12 years and 22 adults (study 1), 20 healthy children and 20 children of 7-12 years with cerebral palsy (study 2) performed a Stroop-animal task simultaneously with a standing or a walking task in order to determine the attentional demand of postural control and locomotion. Dual-task cost decreased with advancing age in healthy children during balance. CP and healthy children were similarly affected by dual-task constraints during standing and walking. Children with diplegia were more affected by the DT during the postural task than children with hemiplegia. We found that adults could benefit from dual-tasking for standing. The integrated model of task prioritization might explain our results regarding postural reserve of each population.

El desarrollo de las estrategias de mantenimiento del equilibrio postural y locomotor durante la infancia y la adolescencia no es lineal. Dichas estrategias alcanzan su madurez en la edad adulta. En el transcurso de esta larga adquisicion se observan varios periodos de transicion. Numerosos factores contribuyen de manera determinante en la buena (normal) o mala (patologica) adquisicion de las estrategias posturales y locomotrices. Las caracteristicas filogeneticas y ontogeneticas, el aprovechamiento de las informaciones sensoriales, la estabilizacion cefalica y pelvica, ademas del gasto atencional, son factores que deben considerarse para comprender los patrones del desarrollo postural y locomotor en el ser humano. Suele suceder que algunas anomalias como la marcha digitigrada, la torsion del esqueleto, la enfermedad motriz cerebral o el autismo perturban el desarrollo postural, por lo que es fundamental profundizar en su conocimiento.

International audience; In this study, we utilized transformed spatial mappings to perturb visuomotor integration in 5-yr-old children and adults. The participants were asked to perform pointing movements under five different conditions of visuomotor rotation (from 0° to 180°), which were designed to reveal explicit vs. implicit representations as well as the mechanisms underlying the visual-motor mapping. Several tests allowed us to separately evaluate sensorimotor (i.e., the dynamic dimension of movement) and cognitive (i.e., the explicit representations of target position and the strategies used by the participants) representations of visuo-proprioceptive distortion. Our results indicate that children do not establish representations in the same manner as adults and that children exhibit multiple visuomotor representations. Sensorimotor representations were relatively precise, presumably due to the recovery of proprioceptive information and efferent copy. Furthermore, a bidirectional mechanism was used to re-map visual and motor spaces. In contrast, cognitive representations were supplied with visual information and followed a unidirectional visual-motor mapping. Therefore, it appears that sensorimotor mechanisms develop before the use of explicit strategies during development, and young children showed impaired visuomotor adaptation when confronted with large distortions.

International audience; Several studies in adults having observed the effect of eye movements on postural control provided contradictory results. In the present study, we explored the effect of various oculomotor tasks on postural control and the effect of different postural tasks on eye movements in eleven children (7.8 ± 0.5 years) and nine adults (30.4 ± 6.3 years). To vary the difficulty of the oculomotor task, three conditions were tested: fixation, prosaccades (reactive saccades made toward the target) and antisaccades (voluntary saccades made in the direction opposite to the visual target). To vary the difficulty of postural control, two postural tasks were tested: Standard Romberg (SR) and Tandem Romberg (TR). Postural difficulty did not affect oculomotor behavior, except by lengthening adults' latencies in the prosaccade task. For both groups, postural control was altered in the antisaccade task as compared to fixation and prosaccade tasks. Moreover, a ceiling effect was found in the more complex postural task. This study highlighted a cortical interference between oculomotor and postural control systems.

ispartof: Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine vol:58 issue:6 pages:354-356 ispartof: location:Netherlands status: published

Objective The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of age, segmental acceleration and sensory context on anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) in a forward leg raising task. Methods Three groups of 11 children, aged 8, 10 and 12, and 12 adults, aged 20 to 26, were instructed to perform this movement at maximal ( MAXIMAL ) and sub-maximal segmental accelerations and in normal ( CONTROL ), no vision ( NV ) and perturbed proprioception conditions ( VIB ). The generation and calibration of APAs were examined through the centre of foot pressure displacements: The onset, duration and amplitude of APAs were particularly explored. The EMG activity of the tibialis anterior (TA stance ) and gastrocnemius medialis (G stance ) of the stance leg was also recorded. Results Two phases were clearly identified on the ML axis: A thrust and an unloading phase. Effect of age : At 8 and 10, (1) the unloading duration was shorter, and (2) the onset of APAs on the ML axis appeared later than in 12-year-old children and in adults. Effect of the segmental acceleration : (1) a greater amplitude of the thrust and unloading phases, (2) a shorter unloading duration, and (3) a later onset of ML APAs and of the TA stance activity were observed at maximal acceleration in all groups. Effect of the sensory context : No difference was found between the CONTROL and NV conditions. When the proprioceptive feedback was altered, (1) the thrust and unloading durations increased, and (2) the onset of the APAs on the ML axis occurred earlier. Conclusion All children exhibited an anticipatory behaviour, but the adults’ behaviour was reached at 12 only. Our results also indicated a change in the generation and calibration of APAs in the VIB condition, suggesting that proprioceptive information is essential for both dimensions of the APAs. Significance The development of the APAs was not related to the segmental acceleration and to the sensory context of the forthcoming movement in children aged 8–12. It is very likely that the participants built up an internal representation of this movement.

Partant du constat de la place tres marginale des lettres medievales dans le secondaire en France et particulierement au lycee, nous nous proposons de montrer le paradoxe d’une telle situation, etant donne le profit culturel et didactique que representent les lettres medievales pour l’enseignement de la litterature et pour l’enseignement en general. En effet, les lettres medievales seraient a meme de developper de nombreuses competences litteraires mais aussi de nombreux savoirs culturels au lycee, tout en posant la question des valeurs esthetiques, ethiques, qui definissent une societe. Une fois ces enjeux repertories, nous nous interrogeons sur les obstacles a leur enseignement dans le secondaire depuis les annees 1970, qui semblent desormais s’aplanir au regard d’autres phenomenes culturels susceptibles de favoriser leur presence dans l’enseignement secondaire. Mais surtout, la litterature medievale, par son alterite, ne peut que conduire a un renouvellement de l’approche des textes en classe ; ainsi, elle presente tout particulierement des affinites electives avec les demarches preconisees depuis quelques decennies par la recherche en didactique de la litterature, fondees sur le concept de lecture litteraire. Cette reflexion se termine alors sur quelques modestes propositions pour une veritable place des lettres medievales dans l’enseignement secondaire.

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The present study focused on the influence of neck vibration on the perception of the head and trunk midline position (orientation and localization). The orientation of the head and trunk was investigated by the rolling adjustment of a rod on their midline while their localization was investigated by the adjustment of the position of a visual dot as being straight-ahead the eyes or the sternum. The first experiment investigated whether a head-trunk dissociation was induced by the unilateral vibration of neck muscles in upright and restrained subjects. Results showed that the subjective orientation and localization of whole-body midline were shifted toward the vibrated side. The second experiment determined the effect of the neck muscles vibration when the subjects were lying on their side. The effect of vibration disappeared when the side of vibration was opposed to the side of postural inclination and it was stronger than in the upright position when the side of vibration and the side of postural inclination were congruent. Whereas, results suggested that the input from neck muscle proprioceptors participates directly to the elaboration of the egocentric space, the question may be raised as to how the sensory cues interacted in their contribution to the neural generation of an egocentric, body centred coordinate system.

It has been suggested that movements to visible or remembered targets are differently sensitive to the Müller-Lyer (ML) illusion. Indeed, when the target is continuously visible, movements rely on the veridical object characteristics, whereas remembered movements are thought to reflect the perceived characteristics of the object. The aim of the present study was to determine how movements to visible or remembered targets are influenced by the ML illusion in children aged 7 to 11 years old. Participants were asked to make a perceptual judgment or to point a shaft extremity of the ML configurations (Closed, Control, and Open) in three visual conditions (Closed Loop, Open Loop-0-s delay, and 5-s delay). Perceptual (Perceived Length, PL) and motor (Movement Magnitude, MM, and Peak velocity, PV) variables were measured. Results showed that PL was influenced to the same extent by the ML illusion in the three visual conditions. Moreover, it appears that in subjects as young as 7 years old, the activation of the ventral system features may give rise to the perceptual illusion effect observed in all three experimental conditions. However, regardless of the subject's age, MM and PV were only sensitive in the delay condition, suggesting that delayed movements are also mediated by the ventral stream. These data suggested that the distinction between perception and motor visual pathways appears quite early during childhood (before 7 years). Our data also demonstrated that children were relying on both visual processing streams during perceptual as well as visuomotor tasks during remembered movements.

The aim of the present study was to analyze, in children aged 6, 8 and 11, the developmental trend of the attentional cost related to the programming and execution of pointing movements, using a dual-task paradigm. Our results showed that the attentional cost associated to the programming and the first phase of the pointing movement decreased non linearly with age, in particular a plateau between 8 and 11 was observed. This confirmed that the developmental trend of the control of pointing movements is characterized by a no monotonic evolution in which feedforward processes were predominantly used in the younger children, feedback processes were predominantly used in older children (since age 8), and one-line over feedforward processes were used in adults.

On clearing fields, Ntumu farmers in southern Cameroon leave some large trees. The seed rain beneath 30 such remnant trees (12 species) was compared with that 10 m away from the edges of their crowns. Of a total of 39 765 seeds recorded in 90 seed traps over 2 y, 73.6% were of species different from the tree associated with each set of traps (‘foreign seed rain’). Seed rain included 100 morphospecies, two-thirds of which possessed endozoochorous seeds. Seeds of the pioneer tree Musanga cecropioides accounted for 71.4% of total foreign seed rain; seeds of this and other animal-dispersed species accounted for 94.5% of the total. Seed rain was 25 times higher beneath remnant trees than 10 m away. Mean species richness of monthly seed rain was three times higher beneath remnant trees than 10 m away. Both fleshy-fruited and wind-dispersed species of remnant trees attracted seed-dispersing animals which greatly enhanced the seed rain; attraction thus did not depend solely on presence of fleshy fruits. Seed rain was lower when human activity in fields was intense and increased during the period of growth of the last crops, which were not usually weeded. Heavy seed rain just before fallow may contribute significantly to regeneration, as does the presence of remnant trees.

The aim of the present study was twofold: first, to investigate the effects of spatial precues on the execution of rapid aiming in children aged 7, 9, and 11 and second, to provide a kinematic support to the investigation of the role of precues in aiming tasks performed under temporal constraints. Four precuing conditions were used, where participants received: (a) no precue of any type, (b) advance information on direction, (c) advance information on amplitude, and (d) complete information on the forthcoming movement. Our results showed that precuing the spatial dimensions of movement shortens reaction times, that such shortening is a function of the number of precued parameters, and that spatial precues modify the kinematics of the children's rapid aiming movements. Peak velocity increased with direction and/or amplitude, suggesting that precues play a significant role in motor preparation. Moreover, the accuracy results indicate that direction precuing induces a proactive directional regulation. Finally, direction and amplitude appear to be independently specified in children.

International audience; : The spatiotemporal features of walking in toddlers are known to be related to the level of maturation of the central nervous system. However, previous studies did not assess whether there could be an effect of clothes on the acquisition of walking. In this study, it was hypothesized that clothes modify the toddlers' walking. To test this hypothesis, 22 healthy toddlers divided into 3 groups of walking experience were assessed in four clothing conditions (Diaper+Trousers; Diaper+Pants of tracksuit; Diaper; Underwear). Results revealed significant effects of clothing on velocity and step length of toddlers from 6 to 18 months of walking experience. These results suggested that biomechanical constraints induced by the textile features alter the walking of toddlers. Therefore, in studies of toddler's gait, the clothing worn should be carefully mentioned and controlled.

OBJECTIVE. The intestinal microbiota plays a substantial role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (FP) is underrepresented in IBD patients and have been suggested to have anti-inflammatory effects in mice. Increased intestinal permeability is common in IBD but the relationship between FP and intestinal barrier function has not been investigated. Our aim was to study treatment with FP supernatant on intestinal barrier function in a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) colitis mice model. MATERIAL AND METHODS. C57BL/6 mice received 3% DSS in tap water ad libitum during five days to induce colitis. From day 3 the mice received a daily gavage with FP supernatant or broth during seven days. Ileum and colon were mounted in Ussing chambers for permeability studies with (51)Cr-EDTA and Escherichia coli K-12. Colon was saved for Western blot analyses of tight junction proteins. RESULTS. DSS-treated mice showed significant weight loss and colon shortening. Gavage with FP supernatant resulted in a quicker recovery after DSS treatment and less extensive colonic shortening. Ileal mucosa of DSS mice showed a significant increase in (51)Cr-EDTA-passage compared to controls. (51)Cr-EDTA passage was significantly decreased in mice receiving FP supernatant. No significant differences were observed in passage of E. coli K12. Western blots showed a trend to increased claudin-1 and claudin-2 expressions in DSS mice. CONCLUSIONS. Supernatant of FP enhances the intestinal barrier function by affecting paracellular permeability, and may thereby attenuate the severity of DSS-induced colitis in mice. These findings suggest a potential role of FP in the treatment of IBD.

International audience; Aims: Adipose tissue secretes various proteins referred to as adipokines, being involved in inflammation. It was recognized that mesenteric adipose tissue (MAT) is altered by inflammation, and pathologies such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The aim of this study was to investigate the alterations of the mesenteric adipose tissue in two experimental colitis models in mice adapted to obtain moderate colonic inflammation. Main methods: Colonic inflammation was obtained using two models, either DSS dissolved in drinking water or intra-colonic instillation of DNBS. The expression of adipokines (leptin and adiponectin) and inflammatory markers (IL-6, MCP-1, F4/80) was studied by qRT-PCR in the MAT of treated and control mice. Key findings: Observations of the colon and IL-6 plasma level determination demonstrated that DNBS treatment led to stronger inflammation. Colitis induced a decrease of mRNA encoding to leptin and adiponectin in MAT. In contrast, colonic inflammation led to an increase of mRNA encoding to IL-6, MCP-1 and F4/80, a specific marker of macrophages. Significance: The mesenteric adipose tissue, in two models of moderate colitis, shows a loss of adipose profile and a strong increase of inflammatory pattern, close to the observations made in MAT of IBD patients. These data suggest that these pro-inflammatory modifications of MAT have to be taken into account in the pathophysiology of IBD. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

International audience; Obese people suffer from postural deficits and are more subject to falls than their lean counterpart. To improve prevention and post-fall rehabilitation programs, it seems important to better understand the posturo-kinetic disorders in daily life situations by determining the contribution of some key factors, mainly morphological characteristics and physical activity level, in the apparition of these disorders. Twelve severe android obese and eight healthy non obese adults performed a reaching task mobilizing the whole body. To further determine the origin of the postural and motor behavior differences, non obese individuals also performed an experimental session with additional constraints which simulated some of the obese morphological characteristics. Impact of the sedentary lifestyle was also studied by dissociation of the obese in two subgroups: physically " active " and physically " inactive ". Movement kinetics and kinematics were characterized with an optoelectronic system synchronized to a force platform. The mechanical equilibrium pattern was evaluated through the displacements of the Centre of Mass (CoM) and the centre of foot pressure within the Base of Support (BoS). Results showed that obesity decreased movement speed (≈-23%, p

Several changes in the human sensory systems, like presbycusis or presbyopia, are well-known to occur with physiological ageing. A similar change is likely to occur in proprioception, too, but there are strong and unexplained discrepancies in the literature. It was proposed that assessment of the attentional cost of proprioceptive control could provide information able to unify these previous studies. To this aim, 15 young adults and 15 older adults performed a position matching task in single and dual-task paradigms with different difficulty levels of the secondary task (congruent and incongruent Stroop-type tasks) to assess presumed age-related deficits in proprioceptive control. Results showed that proprioceptive control was as accurate and as consistent in older as in young adults for a single proprioceptive task. However, performing a secondary cognitive task and increasing the difficulty of this secondary task evidenced both a decreased matching performance and/or an increased attentional cost of proprioceptive control in older adults as compared to young ones. These results advocated for an impaired proprioception in physiological ageing. ispartof: Age vol:34 issue:5 pages:1179-94 ispartof: location:Netherlands status: published

International audience; BACKGROUND: In human pathology, the "creeping fat" (CF) of the mesentery is unique to Crohn's disease (CD). CF is usually referred to as an ectopic extension of mesenteric adipose tissue (MAT). However, since no animal model developing CF has ever been established, very little is known about this type of fat-depot expansion and its role in the development of the disease. METHODS: We developed and standardized an experimental protocol in mice that reproducibly induces CF development when a severe colonic inflammation is obtained by intracolonic instillation of DNBS. RESULTS: Macro-microscopic observations revealed a fatty appearance of CF. Yet when compared to MAT from the same animals, CF contains very little triglycerides, few adipocytes, and we observed a very low expression and protein levels of both adipose markers (hormone-sensitive lipase, perilipin) and adipocytokines (leptin, adiponectin). The decreased expression of perilipin in CF was also observed by immunohistochemistry. Conversely, the expression of proinflammatory and fibrous markers (Pref-1) was much higher in CF than in MAT. These observations were fully consistent with those made on CF recovered from five CD patients and compared with subcutaneous and mesenteric fat from the same patients. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, this work reports an original experimental mice model of CF. In this model we establish for the first time that CF only occurs in severe colonic inflammation and shows an inflammatory, fibrous but not an adipose pattern.

International audience; How sensory organization for postural control matures in children is not clear at this time. The present study examined, in children aged 7 to 11 and in adults, the postural control modifications in quiet standing when somatosensory inputs from the ankle were disturbed. Since the reweighting of sensory inputs is not mature before 10, we hypothesized that postural stability was more affected in children than in adults when somatosensory inputs were altered and that this postural instability decreased as age increased during childhood. 37 children aged 7 to 11 years and 9 adults participated in the experiments. The postural task was a semi-tandem position with the right foot in front of the left one. Postural performance was measured by means of a force platform. Two experimental conditions were presented to the participants to maintain quiet standing: With or without altered somatosensory inputs (i.e., with or without ankles vibration). Results showed that postural stability--and thus how the reweighting process of the visual/somatosensory inputs matured--increased non-monotonically between 7 years of age and adult age: There was a linear improvement of postural stability from 7 to 10, followed by a more steady behaviour between 10 and 11 and then postural stability increased to reach the adults' level of performance.

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International audience; In the present study we aimed to determine the attentional cost of postural control during adolescence by studying the influence of a cognitive task on concurrent postural control. 38 teenagers aged 12 to 17 years and 13 young adults (mean age=26.1) stood barefoot on a force platform in a semi-tandem position. A dual-task paradigm consisted of performing a Stroop or a COUNTING BACKWARD task while simultaneously standing quietly on a firm or foam support surface. Different centre of pressure (CoP) measures were calculated (90% confidence ellipse area, mean velocity, root mean square on the antero-posterior (AP) and medio-lateral (ML) axes). The number and percentage of correct responses in the cognitive tasks were also recorded. Our results indicate (1) higher values of surface, ML mean velocity and ML RMS in the COUNTING BACKWARD task in adolescents aged 12 to 15 than in teenagers aged 16 to 17 and in adults, regardless of the complexity of the postural task and, (2) better cognitive performances in the Stroop than in the COUNTING BACKWARD task. The difference in the dual-task performance between the different age groups and particularly the existence of a turning point around 14-15 years of age might be due to 1) difficulties in properly allocating attentional resources to two simultaneous tasks and/or, 2) the inability to manage increased cognitive requests because of a limited information processing capacity in adolescents aged 14-15 years.

The aim of the present study was to investigate memory effects, force accuracy, and variability during constant isometric force at different force levels, using auditory biofeedback. Two types of transition trials were used: a biofeedback-no biofeedback transition trial and a no biofeedback-biofeedback transition trial. The auditory biofeedback produced a low- or high-pitched sound when participants produced an isometric force lower or higher than required, respectively. To achieve this goal, 16 participants were asked to produce and maintain two different isometric forces (30$\pm$5% and 90N$\pm$5%) during 25s. Constant error and standard deviation of the isometric force were calculated. While accuracy and variability of the isometric force varied according to the transition trial, a drift of the force appeared in the no biofeedback condition. This result suggested that the degradation of information about force output in the no biofeedback condition was provided by a leaky memory buffer which was mainly dependent on the sense of effort. Because this drift remained constant whatever the transition used, this memory buffer seemed to be independent of short-term memory processes., Comment: Human Movement Science (2011) epub ahead of print

International audience; The present experiment assessed, in children aged 7-11 and in adults, whether postural control is affected by cognitive processes and vice versa. Using a dual-task, the level of difficulty of a Stroop task and bipedal quiet stance varied alternatively. We hypothesised that the interference between cognitive and postural tasks was non-linear during childhood with a so-called turning point around 8. Twenty-seven children 7- to 11-years-old and nine adults participated in the experiments. The postural task was executed in a semi-tandem Romberg position. Two cognitive conditions (congruent and non-congruent Stroop conditions) and two postural situations (with and without perturbed proprioceptive inputs) were presented simultaneously with the instruction to respond as correctly as possible while remaining as stable as possible. Results showed that, in the Vib condition, CoP mean velocity decreased with the increased cognitive complexity only in children aged 7. Moreover, the data showed a non-linear decrease in postural sway during childhood, whatever the level of complexity of the cognitive and/or postural tasks. CoP mean amplitude and mean velocity decreased between 7 and 8, and again between age 11 and adults. This study (1) confirmed that the interference between mental activity and postural control can be attributed mainly to attentional limitations, (2) showed the existence of a turning point around 8 in the development of this capacity, and (3) suggested that the mature level of attentional resources was not reached until age 11. Further research is needed to assess the development of attention implied in a cognitive/postural dual-task, including probably another so-called turning point during the adolescence.

Balance problems are often related to a loss of plantar-sensitivity in elderly people. The purpose of this study was to explore the contribution of plantar cutaneous inputs induced by a spike support surface to the control of stance. Nineteen elderly (mean age 69.0 years, range 62-80) and 19 young adults (mean age 25.9 years, range 21-32) were instructed to stand (standing session) or to walk (walking session) for 5 min with sandals equipped with spike insoles (spike condition). Both sessions also involved a no spike condition in which participants stood or walked for 5 min without these insoles (no spike condition). In all conditions, postural responses were assessed during unperturbed stance and were performed (1) immediately after putting the spike or the no spike insoles, and (2) 5 min after standing or walking with them. Sway parameters, such as centre of foot pressure mean location, surface area, mean speed, root mean square and median frequency on the antero-posterior and medio-lateral axes, were calculated. As postural performances are often related to plantar-surface sensitivity, cutaneous sensitivity threshold was also evaluated with Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. Although no immediate effect of the spike insoles was found, results indicated that standing or walking for 5 min with sandals equipped with spike insoles led to a significant improvement of quiet standing in the elderly. Balance improvement was also observed in young adults. The results provided evidence that wearing sandals with spike insoles can contribute, at least temporarily, to the improvement of unperturbed stance in elderly people with relatively intact plantar cutaneous sensation. Further research is needed to assess the effects of longer and discontinuous stimulations with spike insoles on postural control.

The present study examined, in children aged 4-11 and in adults, the postural control modifications when attention was oriented voluntary on postural sway. Since (1) there are less attentional resources in children than in adults, (2) the selective attention processing improves with age, i.e., children use a different strategy to focus their attention than adults, and (3) adults' postural stability decreases when attention is focused on postural sway, we hypothesized that postural stability was less affected in children than in adults when attention was focused on postural sway. Fourty four children aged 4- to 11-year-old and 11 adults participated in the experiments. The postural control task was executed in a Romberg position. Two experimental conditions were presented to the subjects, (1) to look at a video on a TV screen without instruction about the posture, and (2) to fixate a cross placed at the center of the TV screen with the instruction to remain as stable as possible. Postural performance was measured by means of a force platform. Results from this study (1) confirmed a non-monotonic improvement of postural stability during the ontogenetic period without reaching the adults' level at the age of 11, (2) suggested that children, aged 4-11, are able to focus their attention on the control of posture, and (3) showed that the automatic control of posture increases postural stability since the age of 4.

Potentiometric and spectroscopic studies indicate that 2-amino-2-deoxy- d -mannose (ManN), its methyl α-glycopyranoside, and methyl 2-amino-2-deoxy-α,β- d -galactopyranoside are good chelating agents for cupric ions. The stability constants for the complexes with the manno compounds are higher than those of 2-amino-2-deoxy- d -galactose (GalN) and 2-amino-2-deoxy- d -glucose (GlcN). The primary binding site is the amino group and the most effective secondary site in the manno compounds is HO-3. Comparison of the co-ordination abilities of GalN, GlcN, ManN, and their methyl glycopyranosides indicates that various hydroxyl groups can be involved in the binding of metal ions. The stability constants of the Ni(II) and Co(II) complexes with ManN are also presented.

The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate the effects of a neutral preparation during the foreperiod on motor and postural programming processes in a voluntary upper limb movement. The foreperiod duration (300, 500, 700 and 900 ms) and the postural condition (sitting vs standing) were manipulated using a neutral preparation (no advanced information during the preparatory signal). Thirteen subjects performed a raising arm movement with 1 kg load at the wrist. Premotor time, latency of the anticipatory postural adjustments and the vertical torque were calculated. A previous experiment showed that the optimal foreperiod duration (i.e. leading to the shortest premotor time) increased from sitting to standing in a selective preparation (Cuisinier et al. in Brain Res Bull 66(2):163-170, 2005). The present experiment replicated this finding in a neutral preparation. It was found that (1) this optimal foreperiod duration still increased from 500 ms in sitting to 700 ms in standing in a neutral preparation, (2) this increased optimal foreperiod duration resulted from a greater level of alertness necessary to control a more constrained posture in standing than in sitting, and (3) the existence of a temporal modulation in the central organization of the postural and focal commands was according to the foreperiod duration.

The study examined, in children aged 7 and adults, the postural control when a cognitive task (modified Stroop) of varying level of difficulty is executed simultaneously. Postural difficulty also varied (with or without vibrations of the ankle joint). We hypothesized that children's performance was more affected than adults', when the difficulty of the cognitive and postural tasks increased. Results (i) demonstrated that the presence of a concurrent cognitive task affected postural sway at all ages; (ii) confirmed that the interference between mental activity and postural control can be attributed mainly to general capacity limitations and (iii) showed a degradation of the postural criteria in children but not of the cognitive ones, when the postural condition was constraining.

This study examined age-related differences in the coordinative mechanism of the reach-to-grasp movement in three groups of children aged 6, 8, and 11 year, and in healthy adults. Three prehension conditions were manipulated: an unimanual and a bimanual self-driven tasks in which the reaching and grasping of the object were performed by participants, and a bimanual externally-driven task, in which the experimenter brought the object into the vicinity of the participant which grasped it. Classical kinematics data-peak velocities of the reaching and the grasping, the time to onset grip opening, maximum grip opening and grip closure-were calculated. Moreover, to obtain equivalent kinematics variables for all age groups, relative time to peak velocity (% of reaching duration), relative maximum grip opening (% of object size), and percentage of the four types of phase plans between reaching velocity and grip size have been calculated for each group of age. Our main results showed (1) a high variability at age 6, (2) an age-related change between the 6- and 8-year old for almost all of the dependent variables, and (3) a significant difference between the 11-year olds and adults. In summary, at 6 years, the interdependence between the reaching and grasping programs was unstable. A transitory feedback-based coordination between reaching and grasping appeared at 8 years of age. Finally, the adults' relationship between reaching and grasping was not attained at the age of 11.

The present study focused on the influence of gravity-based information on the orientation and localization of the perceived body midline. The orientation was investigated by the rolling adjustment of a rod on the subjects' Z-axis and the localization by the horizontal adjustment of a visual dot as being straight ahead. Experiment 1 investigated the effect of the dissociation between the Z-axis and the direction of gravity by placing subjects in roll tilt and supine postures. In roll tilt, the perception of the body midline orientation was deviated in the direction of body tilt and the perception of its localization was deviated in the opposite direction. In the supine body orientation, estimates of the Z-axis and straight-ahead remained veridical as when the body was upright. Experiment 2 highlighted the relative importance of the otolithic and tactile information using diffuse pressure stimulation. The estimation of body midline orientation was modified contrarily to the estimation of its localization. Thus, subjects had no absolute representation of their egocentric space. The main hypothesis regarding the dissociation between the orientation and localization of the body midline may be related to a difference in the integration of sensory information. It can be suggested that the horizontal component of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) contributed to the perceived localization of the body midline, whereas its orientation was mainly influenced by tactile information.

The role of proprioceptive inputs in the control of goal-directed movements was examined, by means of the tendon vibration technique, in 5 to 11-year old children performing a serial pointing task. Children pointed, with movements of various amplitudes and at various positions, by alternating wrist flexions and extensions. Tendon vibration was applied to both agonist and antagonist muscles to perturb relevant muscular proprioceptive inputs during the static or dynamic phase of the task, i.e., during stops on targets or during movement execution. Constant and variable amplitude errors as well as constant position error were evaluated. Vibratory perturbation applied during movement execution resulted in a similar reduction in movement amplitude, yielding an increased constant error in all age groups and a systematic position error in the direction of the movement starting point. Perturbing proprioception during static phases preceding movement resulted in an age-related increase in the variable amplitude error, which was maximal in 5-year old children performing extension movements. The results were interpreted in terms of the use of proprioceptive information in the feedforward and feedback based components of movement control in children. In particular, the results indicated (1) developmental changes in the relative weighting of each component, (2) an increased capacity to move from one strategy to the other, depending on the availability of information, and (3) developmental changes from an alternated to an integrated control of amplitude and position in serial pointing.

International audience; The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate the time course by which children aged 6-, 8-and 10-year-old adapt and maintain their static balance. Participants (N = 30) were required to stand on a force platform with their eyes closed. Ten adult subjects served as a reference group. We analyzed moment-to-moment modifications of quiet stance equilibrium by measuring the range and speed of the center of foot pressure (COP) displacements over time (i.e., periods of 2 s). Results showed that: (1) with age, the range of the COP decreased non-monotonically, with a maximum at 8 years of age, whereas the speed of the COP decreased linearly from 6 to 10 years of age, and (2) over time, both parameters decreased and stabilized, similarly for all age groups, suggesting that the processes underlying the maintenance of an optimal postural stability are mature at least as soon as 6 years of age.

The purpose of the present experiment was to examine the motor and postural preparation processes evolving during the foreperiod (known to be optimal at 500 ms in sitting) in a voluntary upper limb movement executed while standing. The foreperiod duration (300, 500, 700 and 900 ms) and the postural conditions (sitting versus standing) were manipulated using a priming procedure. Two types of prime were provided: (1) a prime giving valid information on the side of the raising arm movement to execute, and (2) a prime giving non-valid information (prime opposite to the required side). In a sitting and standing condition, eight normal subjects performed a raising arm movement with a 1 kg load at the level of the wrist. Premotor time and acceleration of arm movement were recorded in the two postural conditions. In the standing condition, anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) were also quantified using the relative latency of electromyographic (EMG) data and the centre of foot pressure (CoP) displacements. Results (1) showed that the optimal foreperiod duration (i.e., leading to the shortest premotor time) increased as a function of postural conditions (500 versus 700 ms in the sitting and standing conditions, respectively), and (2) emphasized the existence of a temporal modulation in the central organization of the postural and focal commands according to the foreperiod duration.

International audience; The aim of the two present experiments was to examine the ontogenetic development of the dissociation between perception and action in children using the Duncker illusion. In this illusion , a moving background alters the perceived direction of target motion. Targets were held stationary while appearing to move in an induced displacement. In Experiment 1, 30 children aged 7, 9, and 12 years and 10 adults made a perceptual judgment or pointed as accurately as possible, with their index finger, to the last position of the target. The 7-year-old children were more perceptually deceived than the others by the Duncker illusion but there were no differences for the goal-directed pointing movements. In Experiment 2, 50 children aged 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 years made a perceptual judgment or reproduced as accurately as possible, with a handle , the distance traveled by the target. Participants were perceptually deceived by the illusion, judging the target as moving although it was stationary. When reproducing the distance covered by the target, children were unaffected by the Duncker illusion. Our results suggest that the separation of the allocentric visual perception pathway from the egocentric action pathway occurs before 7 years of age.

The aim of the present experiment was to study the central control of posture and movement coordination. Subjects' task was voluntarily to raise their arms in response to a visual signal, this movement generating an unloading in which the weight of the load (0 gm, 1500 gm, 3000 gm, or 4500 gm) was known in advance. Thus, subjects could predict the postural perturbation generated by the unloading. Analysis showed an effect of the unloading conditions: in the 0-gm and 1500-gm conditions, reaction time (RT) was longer than in the 3000-gm and 4500-gm conditions. This decrease in RT was exclusively due to a reduction of the premotor time, confirming the posturokinetic coordination in the programming processes. The implications of the decrease in premotor time with the increase of the perturbation for the posture/movement coordination strategies are also discussed.