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Background/Objectives: Crickets are recognized as an alternative source of chitosan. This study aimed to assess the potential of cricket-derived chitosan as a natural source to develop chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs). Methods: Chitosan were isolated from different cricket species, including Gryllus bimaculatus, Teleogryllus mitratus, and Acheta domesticus. The isolated chitosan were characterized by their functional groups, crystallographic and thermal properties, molecular structure, morphology, water solubility, molecular weight, binding capacity, irritation potential, and cytotoxicity in comparison to commercial shrimp-based chitosan. CNPs were developed through an ionotropic gelation method, followed by the evaluation of particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. Results: The findings of this study indicate that chitosan can be successfully isolated from the three cricket species, with yields ranging from 4.35% to 5.22% w/w of the dried material. The characteristics of cricket-based chitosan were similar to those of commercial chitosan, except that the cricket-based chitosan displayed a higher crystallinity and a lower molecular weight. Additionally, CPNs were successfully produced from cricket-based chitosan using sodium citrate as a crosslinking agent. All cricket-based chitosan exhibited no irritation or cytotoxicity. Chitosan derived from A. domesticus however was found to be the most suitable to develop CPNs, as it produced the smallest particle size (522.0 ± 12.1 nm) with a comparatively narrow PDI (0.388 ± 0.026) and an acceptable positive zeta potential (34.2 ± 4.4 mV). Conclusions: Cricket-derived chitosan compares favorably with crustacean-derived chitosan and showed potential for a range of applications, including the use as a nanocosmeceutical delivery system in topical and cosmetic formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive phenolic compounds like hydroxytyrosol (OH-Tyr), tyrosol (Tyr), and their precursors have different health-promoting properties, mainly based on their strong antioxidant capacity. However, their presence in extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) is scarce since they are primarily contained in the by-products of oil production, such as olive pomace (OP). The aim of this work was to extract and encapsulate OP phenolic compounds into chitosan–tripolyphosphate nanoparticles (NPs) using an ionotropic gelation lyophilization approach to increase their resistance to environmental and chemical stress. NPs resulted in a monodisperse (PDI: 0.21) population of cationic NPs (ζ-potential: 33 mV, size: 229 nm) with an encapsulation efficiency (EE%), expressed as total phenolic content (TPC) and total OH-Tyr + Tyr content, of 64–65%. Mannitol and maltodextrin DE 19 (MD-19) were evaluated as lyoprotectants to counteract irreversible NP aggregation during lyophilization. The NP powder freeze dried using 0.7% of MD-19 showed the best performance, returning a monodispersed population of particles after rehydration. The antioxidant capacity of the obtained NPs was confirmed both in cell-free assays and in a THP-1 cell model of oxidative stress. This method represents a promising way to deliver health-promoting olive phenols for nutraceutical purposes and, hence, to valorize otherwise wasted by-products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional oral vaccine delivery in poultry is challenging due to vaccine degradation in the gastrointestinal (GI) environment and the need for cold-chain storage. Microencapsulation offers a solution by protecting vaccines from GI degradation and improving stability. Natural polymers like alginate and cashew gum have mucoadhesive properties, making them promising candidates for oral vaccine delivery. This study developed cashew-alginate microbeads and a powdered dose form for oral vaccine delivery in chickens. The microbeads were created using ionotropic gelation, while the powdered form was obtained via freeze-drying. These formulations were characterized for size, shape, and stability using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), light microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX). Peak adhesion time (PAT) was determined using chicken intestinal and esophageal tissues, and antigenicity was assessed with in-vitro hemagglutination (HA) and hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays. The microbeads exhibited a spherical shape with a porous structure, suggesting enhanced antigen accommodation. Hemagglutination Inhibition tests indicated that the experimental vaccine remained effective without cold-chain storage for three months. These findings suggest that cashew-alginate microbeads are promising for oral vaccine delivery in poultry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Epalrestat is the most common Aldose reductase inhibitor (ARI) approved for blood glucose management in several countries and has also shown efficacy in preventing the onset of diabetic neuropathy (DN), and diabetic retinopathy. The present study aims to formulate and evaluate the effectiveness of Alginate beads of epalrestat in Streptozotocin-induced (STZ) diabetic rats in order to effectively manage the diabetes. Method: Various formulations of Sodium cross-linked alginate beads containing epalrestat (F1 to F9) were prepared based on full factorial design by ionotropic gelation method. The formulations were characterized for particle size, % Drug entrapment efficiency (DEE), Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray Diffraction Study (X-RD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and In-Vitro Release Studies. Optimized formulation (F6) [containing sodium alginate (2.5%w/v), epalrestat (2.5%w/v), and calcium chloride (2.5%w/v)] was subjected to in-Vivo efficacy testing in diabetic rats. Result: Epalrestat-loaded beads were prepared (F1 to F9; Size = 3.21 μm; DEE = 97%) successfully using sodium alginate as polymer and calcium chloride solution as the crosslinking agent by modified ionotropic gelation method Optimized formulation showed a % DEE of 97% and highest drug release of 95% at the end of 10 hrs. Drug Release Kinetic of optimized formulation followed first-order kinetic. Further, the hypoglycemic effect was observed over a longer period 50% reduction after 2 hrs and continued till 4 hrs. In addition, normoglycemia was maintained till 12 hrs (20% reduction) in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Conclusion: The formulation F6 was found to be superior compared to all the other formulations because the percentage drug entrapment efficiency was highest and there was no chemical interaction took place between the drug and polymer (Confirmed by DSC and XRD studies). In-vivo study showed prolonged hypoglycaemia till 12 hrs with a maximum reduction at 2 hrs Compared to plain drug suspension (20% reduction till 5 hrs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The peel of Citrus limon is a colossal organic byproduct of the juice industry containing a significant quantity of bioactive polyphenols with diverse therapeutic potentials. As they are often underutilized the present investigation aims to valorize and promote the utilization of these polyphenols through encapsulation in a hydrocolloid-based hydrogel matrix for prolonged shelf-life and sustainable delivery. The hydrogels were prepared by blending sodium alginate and pectin through ionotropic gelation which achieved ∼86.72 % polyphenol encapsulation efficiency. The polyphenol-encapsulated hydrogels had maintained the shelf life and effectively preserved >95 % of polyphenols at 30 °C with no discernible variation for >30 days. Multiple physicochemical investigations were performed on the prepared formulation. Additionally, the release kinetics of polyphenols from beads were examined in a simulated gastrointestinal environment. The result showed that ∼87.54 % of entrapped polyphenol was released after 9 h and the pattern was found controlled release type and pH-responsive. The degree of fluctuation of a few specific polyphenolic compounds was noted and evaluated using principal component analysis. Furthermore, the encapsulating procedure protected a considerable amount of antioxidant activity (>60 %) while demonstrating good hemocompatibility. Therefore, the produced formulation may be used by the juice industries to create a valorization step using the byproduct. [Display omitted] • Citrus limon peel polyphenols were encapsulated in hybrid network hydrogel. • Suitable sustained release profile observed along with bioavailability. • Variation of selected polyphenols was assessed using principal component analysis. • In silico study revealed the biocompatibility of the polyphenols. • New valorization step added to the processing of juice industry byproduct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Olive phenolic compounds like hydroxytyrosol (OH-Tyr), tyrosol (Tyr), and their precursors have different health-promoting properties, mainly based on their strong antioxidant capacity. However, their presence in extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) is scarce since they are primarily contained in the by-products of oil production, such as olive pomace (OP). The aim of this work was to extract and encapsulate OP phenolic compounds into chitosan–tripolyphosphate nanoparticles (NPs) using an ionotropic gelation lyophilization approach to increase their resistance to environmental and chemical stress. NPs resulted in a monodisperse (PDI: 0.21) population of cationic NPs (ζ-potential: 33 mV, size: 229 nm) with an encapsulation efficiency (EE%), expressed as total phenolic content (TPC) and total OH-Tyr + Tyr content, of 64–65%. Mannitol and maltodextrin DE 19 (MD-19) were evaluated as lyoprotectants to counteract irreversible NP aggregation during lyophilization. The NP powder freeze dried using 0.7% of MD-19 showed the best performance, returning a monodispersed population of particles after rehydration. The antioxidant capacity of the obtained NPs was confirmed both in cell-free assays and in a THP-1 cell model of oxidative stress. This method represents a promising way to deliver health-promoting olive phenols for nutraceutical purposes and, hence, to valorize otherwise wasted by-products.

Probiotics are beneficial microbes that have a beneficial effect on humans as well as animals. Despite their advantages, probiotics face viability challenges during storage and while passing through the upper gastrointestinal tract. This study was designed to develop an encapsulated system of Saccharomyces boulardii (SB) probiotics to overcome challenges with oral administration and develop a colon-targeted delivery system. Pectin and sodium carboxy methyl cellulose encapsulated microbeads of probiotics: polymer ratio (1:1, 1:2, and 1:3) were prepared using the ionotropic gelation technique and then coated with Eudragit® S 100 and cellulose acetate phthalate. They were then evaluated for efficacy and compared for bead size, flow properties, entrapment efficiency, percent yield, swelling index, mucoadhesive ness, in vitro release and viability of probiotics. The microencapsulated probiotics showed higher viability in the colon as compared to gastric and intestinal environments. Hence, microencapsulation is a potential delivery system for the administration of viable probiotics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current research, acyclovir-loaded microbeads were formulated via ionotropic gelation using sodium alginate-gellan gum and sodium alginate-xanthan gum. In the preparation of these acyclovir-loaded microbeads, aluminium chloride and barium chloride were used as cross-linking agents. All these ionotropically-gelled acyclovir-loaded alginate-gellan gum microbeads and alginate-xanthan gum microbeads exhibited good percent yields (85.07 ± 1.58 to 92.17 ± 3.02%) and drug entrapment efficiencies (74.09 ± 1.38 to 95.16 ± 3.37%). Acyclovir-loaded alginate-gellan gum microbeads exhibited comparatively smaller average particle sizes (0.54 ± 0.02 to 0.71 ± 0.03 mm) than those of acyclovir-loaded alginate-xanthan gum microbeads (0.60 ± 0.02 to 0.82 ± 0.04 mm). Acyclovir-loaded alginate-xanthan gum microbeads exhibited comparatively higher swelling than that of acyclovir-loaded alginate-gellan gum microbeads. A sustained pattern of acyclovir release over 240 min was noticed by these microbeads. Surface morphology analysis of the best microbeads formulation (on the basis of sustained acyclovir release data) was done by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These kinds of ionotropically-gelled alginate-based microbeads might be advantageous to facilitate enhanced patient compliances with minimal dosing frequency and enhanced oral bioavailability.

The present work aims to design jackfruit gum-based curcumin-loaded nanoparticles (CUR-NPs) for improved drug entrapment and modified release of CUR using ionotropic gelation. Briefly, the optimization of CUR-NPs was confirmed using a 3² response surface methodology. The diffractogram and thermogram of CUR-NPs confirmed reduction of crystallinity of CUR (optimized batch: F5) due to jackfruit gum and genipin cross-linked polymeric network. The particle size and zeta potential analysis confirmed formation of nanosized and stable CUR-NPs, respectively. Also, the nanoparticles demonstrated 83.99 ± 1.23% entrapment efficiency, whereas they showed 98.36 ± 0.96% of CUR release within 12 h at pH 7.4. The CUR-NPs exhibited good mucoadhesive properties due to the presence of jackfruit gum. Finally, the MTT assay showed a decrease in colorectal cancer cell viability due to tailored CUR release from CUR-NPs. In conclusion, jackfruit gum-genipin-based CUR-NPs offered high entrapment efficiency, tailored releases of CUR, good mucoadhesive property and improved anticancer activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Encapsulation is a popular approach used to incorporate lipophilic bioactive molecules in food matrices. In the present work, soybean oil emulsions with different oil volume fractions (ϕ = 0.17 and ϕ = 0.26) stabilized by whey protein aggregates (WPAg), were mixed with sodium alginate (SA) suspensions and atomized over a calcium gelling bath using an airbrush atomization system to obtain emulsion microgel particles (EMP). Rheological measurements of the mixtures of microgel‐stabilized emulsions and SA suspensions showed a significant increase in viscosity when the oil volume fraction was increased. The analysis of the flow curves showed that viscosity decreased with the increase of shear rate for both systems indicating shear thinning behavior. No difference in the size distribution curves of EMP obtained with different oil fractions was observed. The average D4,3 and span values were 509 ± 56 μm, 1.14 ± 0.08 (ϕ = 0.17), and 527 ± 51 μm, 1.19 ± 0.06 (ϕ = 0.26). The encapsulation efficiency in both cases was acceptable (89 ± 5% for ϕ = 0.17 and 74 ± 8% for ϕ = 0.26), and none of the microparticles showed oil release after 2 months of storage. Results showed that the airbrush atomization system to obtain alginate‐based EMP is simple, low‐cost, and does not require heating, making it appropriate for the effective encapsulation of labile lipophilic compounds in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The main objective was to develop and optimize a multiparticulate system of 5-fluorouracil through the Box–Behnken design (BBD) and desirability function and coating of the optimized batch for increased therapeutic efficacy and targeting for the treatment of colorectal cancer. Method: It is essential to understand the factors and quality aspects involved in the formulation of a multiparticulate system through optimization. The ionotropic gel method was used to create an optimized batch, with selected independent factors such as sodium alginate, pectin concentrations, and curing time on the response variables such as particle size and entrapment efficiency of 5-fluorouracil-loaded microparticle. The relationship between the independent and dependent variables was examined by utilizing the contour, response surface designs, mathematical calculations, and desirability function produced by Design-Expert. Result: The ionotropic gelation process was used to create an optimized batch, and the generated microparticles had a 674 µm particle size and a 90.81% drug entrapment efficiency. The observed answers were very similar with a bias of less than 5% when compared to the expected value and desirability function. A second layer of Eudragit S100 was applied to the improved formulation. The coated microbeads released pH 1.2 at a rate of less than 10%. After 10 h, more than 55.12% of the drug was released into the intestinal area (pH 6.8). The kinetics investigation demonstrated that the created formulation for the Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas models possessed linearity, as shown by the plots, with R2 values of 0.9887 and 0.9236, respectively. This outcome supported the formulation's extended-release behavior. Conclusion: It was suggested that the drugs would be delivered to the desired place using the microbeads created in this study. The developed microbeads were probably made of small particles that contained a high percent drug entrapment. According to the findings, multiparticulate can be a possible carrier for the delivery of drugs to the colon, and the Box–Behnken design and desirability function can be an active strategy for optimizing the formulation. Its cytotoxicity is maintained by being formulated as a multiparticulate, and it is also suited for administration to patients with colorectal cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stability and release properties of all bioactive capsules are strongly related to the composition of the wall material. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the wall materials during the encapsulation process by ionotropic gelation on the viability of Lactobacillus fermentum K73, a lactic acid bacterium that has hypocholesterolemia probiotic potential. A response surface methodology experimental design was performed to improve bacterial survival during the synthesis process and under simulated gastrointestinal conditions by tuning the wall material composition (gelatin 25% w/v, sweet whey 8% v/v, and sodium alginate 1.5% w/v). An optimal mixture formulation determined that the optimal mixture must contain a volume ratio of 0.39/0.61 v/v sweet whey and sodium alginate, respectively, without gelatin, with a final bacterial concentration of 9.20 log10 CFU/mL. The mean particle diameter was 1.6 ± 0.2 mm, and the experimental encapsulation yield was 95 ± 3%. The INFOGEST model was used to evaluate the survival of probiotic beads in gastrointestinal tract conditions. Upon exposure to in the vitro conditions of oral, gastric, and intestinal phases, the encapsulated cells of L. fermentum decreased only by 0.32, 0.48, and 1.53 log10 CFU/mL, respectively, by employing the optimized formulation, thereby improving the survival of probiotic bacteria during both the encapsulation process and under gastrointestinal conditions compared to free cells. Beads were characterized using SEM and ATR-FTIR techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the preparation of alginate-based microparticles with meloxicam (MLX). A poorly soluble substance classified to BCS class II, it was chosen as a model substance. The ionotropic gelation was the process used for the formation of microparticles. The impact of the carrier on the dissolution of MLX from this formulation was also investigated. Study was realized in few steps: preparation of polymer particles containing suspended MLX in their structure; drying them in various conditions (room temperature, freeze drying); morphology characterization and then assessment of impact of polymer on dissolution of the model substance. Also, DDSolver software was used for checking the similarity of release profiles. Validated UV-Vis spectrophotometric method was used for MLX determination on different steps of work. As it showed, calcium alginate particles were successfully prepared with ionotropic gelation. The drying method of prepared particles has a substantial impact on the release profiles of meloxicam, and these formulations significantly improve the MLX release from this form of the delivery system.

Background and Aims: The aim of the present research work was to develop and optimize statistically carvedilol floating beads for chronotherapeutic drug delivery. Methods: Multiple unit floating pulsatile beads of carvedilol were prepared by simple ionotropic gelation method intended for chronotherapy of hypertension. Pectin and sodium alginates were used as matrix forming, polymer and sodium bicarbonate was used as floating agent. A 2³ full factorial design was applied to investigate the combined effect of three independent formulation variables namely amount of sodium alginate, sodium bicarbonate and calcium chloride on the dependent variables as % entrapment efficiency, floating lag time and drug release percentage. Results: The formulation was optimized and tested based on its drug release pattern which presented minimum drug release in 0.1 N HCl and after 6 h lag time period and showed maximum drug release in 6.8 pH phosphate buffer by burst release within 45 mins. Surface response plots were presented graphically to represent the effect of independent variables on floating lag time, entrapment efficiency and drug release in 0.1 N HCl. The generated mathematical model for each response was validated and checked by formulating three extra-design checkpoint batches. There were no significant changes in drug content, floating lag time, entrapment efficiency and drug release of the formulation following its stability studies at 40 0C and 75% relative humidity. Conclusion: It was concluded that the floating beads were successfully formulated for chronotherapy of hypertension giving site- and time specific release of drug. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenolic compounds that are present in pineapple by-products offer many health benefits to the consumer; however, they are unstable to many environmental factors. For this reason, encapsulation is ideal for preserving their beneficial effects. In this work, extracts were obtained by the combined method of solid-state fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae and ultrasound. After this process, the encapsulation process was performed by ionotropic gelation using corn starch, sodium alginate, and Weissella confusa exopolysaccharide as wall material. The encapsulates produced presented a moisture content between 7.10 and 10.45% (w.b), a solubility of 53.06 ± 0.54%, and a wettability of 31.46 ± 2.02 s. The total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant capacity of DPPH, and ABTS of the encapsulates were also determined, finding 232.55 ± 2.07 mg GAE/g d.m for TPC, 45.64 ± 0.9 µm Trolox/mg GAE for DPPH, and 51.69 ± 1.08 µm Trolox/mg GAE for ABTS. Additionally, ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) analysis allowed us to identify and quantify six bioactive compounds: rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, and quercetin. According to the above, using ionotropic gelation, it was possible to obtain microencapsulates containing bioactive compounds from pineapple peel extracts, which may have applications in the development of functional foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Specific and sustained release of nutrients from capsules to the gastrointestinal tract has attracted many attentions in the field of food and drug delivery. In this work, we reported a monoaxial dispersion electrospraying-ionotropic gelation technique to prepare multicore millimeter-sized spherical capsules for specific and sustained release of fish oil. The spherical capsules had diameters from 2.05 mm to 0.35 mm with the increased applied voltages. The capsules consisted of uniform (at applied voltages of ≤ 10 kV) or nonuniform (at applied voltages of > 10 kV) multicores. The obtained capsules had reasonable loading ratios (9.7 %−6.3 %) due to the multicore structure. In addition, the obtained capsules had specific and sustained release behaviors of fish oil into the small intestinal phase of in vitro gastrointestinal tract and small intestinal tract models. The simple monoaxial dispersion electrospraying-ionotropic gelatin technique does not involve complicated preparation formulations and polymer modification, which makes the technique has a potential application prospect for the fish oil preparations and the encapsulation of functional active substances in the field of food and drug industries.

FucoPol, a fucose-rich polyanionic polysaccharide, was used for the first time for the preparation of hydrogel membranes (HMs) using Fe3+ as a crosslinking agent. This study evaluated the impact of Fe3+ and FucoPol concentrations on the HMs' strength. The results show that, above 1.5 g/L, Fe3+ concentration had a limited influence on the HMs' strength, and varying the FucoPol concentration had a more significant effect. Three different FucoPol concentrations (1.0, 1.75 and 2.5 wt.%) were combined with Fe3+ (1.5 g/L), resulting in HMs with a water content above 97 wt.% and an Fe3+ content up to 0.16 wt.%. HMs with lower FucoPol content exhibited a denser porous microstructure as the polymer concentration increased. Moreover, the low polymer content HM presented the highest swelling ratio (22.3 ± 1.8 g/g) and a lower hardness value (32.4 ± 5.8 kPa). However, improved mechanical properties (221.9 ± 10.2 kPa) along with a decrease in the swelling ratio (11.9 ± 1.6 g/g) were obtained for HMs with a higher polymer content. Furthermore, all HMs were non-cytotoxic and revealed anti-inflammatory activity. The incorporation of FucoPol as a structuring agent and bioactive ingredient in the development of HMs opens up new possibilities for its use in tissue engineering, drug delivery and wound care management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biopolymeric nanocarriers have become potential candidates for drug delivery applications due to outstanding virtues such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, low toxicity and low cost. The present study involves the synthesis of such biopolymeric nanocarriers prepared from Aloe vera gel, conjugated with antihypertensive model drugs (atenolol, bisoprolol and propranolol) using ionotropic gelation polyelectrolyte complexation and the determination of entrapment efficiencies, in vitro release of these drugs from nanoparticles followed by the study of release kinetics. The synthesized antihypertensive drug-loaded nanoparticles were undertaken for characterization using Ultraviolet-Visible spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Fourier Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy and Zeta potential measurements and Powder X-ray diffraction analysis. The analysis ended up with confirmation of the semi-crystalline nature of the synthesized drug-loaded nanoparticles with an average size of 86.97±2.17 nm, 78.32±1.97 nm and 89.36±2.15 nm for atenolol, bisoprolol and propranolol loaded Aloe vera (gel) nanoparticles respectively determined with X-ray diffraction analysis. Atenolol and Bisoprolol loaded Aloe vera gel nanoparticles using barium chloride and Propranolol loaded Aloe vera gel nanoparticles using barium chloride followed Korsmeyer-Peppa’s model for drug release with Anomalous (non Fickian) transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Wound healing is a biological process that can be difficult to manage clinically. In skin wound healing, the interaction of many cells, growth factors, and cytokines reveals an outstanding biological function mechanism. Wound healing that occurs naturally restores tissue integrity, however, it is usually restricted to wound repair. Curcumin synthesised in a chitosan matrix can be used to heal skin sores. Experimental approach: The ionotropic gelation procedure required crosslinking chitosan with a tripoly­phos­phate (TPP) crosslinker to generate curcumin nanoparticles encapsulated in chitosan. Key results: The nanoparticles were between 200 and 400 nm in size, with a strong positive surface charge and good entrapment efficacy, according to SEM and TEM investigations. Curcumin and chitosan compatibility was investigated using FTIR spectroscopy. All batches showed consistent drug release, with the F5 batch having the highest curcumin release, at 75% after 16 hours. On L929 cells, scratch assays were utilised to assess wound healing. Wound closure with widths of 59 and 65 mm with curcumin and 45 and 78 mm with curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles was seen after 24 and 48 hours of examination. Conclusions: According to the findings, prepared curcumin chitosan nanoparticles are beneficial in healing skin damage.

Phytopathogens entry into plant cell is restricted by several chemical substances which hamper the natural ecosystem and are expensive. Induction of defense responses in plants by elicitors is a better alternative approach to combat phytopathogens. Controlled and steady release of elicitors from nanoparticles core will improve the bioavailability and alleviate the repeated application of molecules that triggers the hypersensitive response (HR) in plants. Here we reported the efficacy of chitosan-harpin as nanoparticles in eliciting defense responses in tobacco wherein harpin (30 ng/mL) loaded chitosan nanoparticles (H-CSNPs) were prepared by ionotropic gelation method using chitosan and sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). The nanoparticles were spherical and possess a size of about ∼160 nm with a zeta potential of 30.2 ± 0.7 mV. The FT-IR and XRD studies confirmed the formation of chitosan nanoparticles. The encapsulation efficiency of harpin was 85% and steady release was observed up to 4 h in releasing kinetics. Topical application of H-CSNPs resulted histopathological evidences which coincided with the induction HR specific marker genes viz., pathogenises related proteins and induction of defense enzymes. The harpin at nanogram concentrations with chitosan improved the bioavailability than the harpin or chitosan alone in the tobacco plant.

In this work, nanoparticles of the chitosan-poly((α,β)-DL-aspartic acid) polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) were synthesized. The purpose is to develop a biodegradable, biocompatible, and non-toxic polymeric platform as a vehicle for the encapsulation of hydrophilic drugs. The ionotropic gelation method, using solutions of chitosan and poly((α,β)-DL-aspartic acid sodium salt), allowed synthesizing particles with diameters of 142.1 ± 2.9 nm determined by DLS, while by FESEM particle diameters in the 60–200 nm range were observed. A preliminary trial showed that encapsulation of isoniazid, a hydrophilic drug to treat tuberculosis, is possible with encapsulation efficiency in the range of 5.3–5.8%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liraglutide (LIRA) is a GLP-1 analog peptide used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Owing to its degradation in the gastrointestinal tract, LIRA is administered via subcutaneous injection. Oral delivery of peptides is a challenge; however, nanotechnology can be an effective strategy against such challenges. In this study, chitosan nanoparticles were developed and characterized as alternative carriers for oral LIRA administration. Nanoparticles were prepared via ionotropic gelation using sodium tripolyphosphate as a cross-linking agent. Chitosan nanoparticles showed spherical shape, mean diameter of 323 nm, polydispersity index of 0.453, zeta potential of + 23.4 mV, as well as 24% encapsulation efficiency. Physicochemical characterization revealed the interaction of LIRA with nanoparticles and its amorphization after nanoencapsulation. In vitro release analysis showed that approximately 34.7% of LIRA was released during 102 h through an anomalous process, making the Baker–Lonsdale model the best fit for the release kinetics. Chitosan nanoparticles protected more than 80% LIRA from degradation in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids and showed be mucoadhesive. Overall of results demonstrated the potential application of chitosan nanoparticles in the oral delivery of LIRA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design of nanoparticle formulations composed of biopolymers, that govern the physicochemical properties of orally delivered insulin, relies on improving insulin stability and absorption through the intestinal mucosa while protecting it from harsh conditions in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Chitosan/polyethylene glycol (PEG) and albumin coating of alginate/dextran sulfate hydrogel cores are presented as a multilayer complex protecting insulin within the nanoparticle. This study aims to optimize a nanoparticle formulation by assessing the relationship between design parameters and experimental data using response surface methodology through a 3-factor 3-level optimization Box–Behnken design. While the selected independent variables were the concentrations of PEG, chitosan and albumin, the dependent variables were particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and insulin release. Experimental results showed a nanoparticle size ranging from 313 to 585 nm, with PDI from 0.17 to 0.39 and zeta potential ranging from −29 to −44 mV. Insulin bioactivity was maintained in simulated GI media with over 45% cumulative release after 180 min in a simulated intestinal medium. Based on the experimental responses and according to the criteria of desirability on the experimental region's constraints, solutions of 0.03% PEG, 0.047% chitosan and 1.20% albumin provide an optimum nanoparticle formulation for insulin oral delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ionotropic gelation technique was chosen to produce vitamin D3-loaded microparticles starting from oil-in-water (O/W) Pickering emulsion stabilized by flaxseed flour: the hydrophobic phase was a solution of vitamin D3 in a blend of vegetable oils (ω6:ω3, 4:1) composed of extra virgin olive oil (90%) and hemp oil (10%); the hydrophilic phase was a sodium alginate aqueous solution. The most adequate emulsion was selected carrying out a preliminary study on five placebo formulations which differed in the qualitative and quantitative polymeric composition (concentration and type of alginate selected). Vitamin D3-loaded microparticles in the dried state had a particle size of about 1 mm, 6% of residual water content and excellent flowability thanks to their rounded shape and smooth surface. The polymeric structure of microparticles demonstrated to preserve the vegetable oil blend from oxidation and the integrity of vitamin D3, confirming this product as an innovative ingredient for pharmaceutical and food/nutraceutical purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to develop hydrogels from apple pectin (AP) and hogweed pectin (HP) in multiple ratios (4:0; 3:1; 2:2; 1:3; and 0:4) using ionotropic gelling with calcium gluconate. Rheological and textural analyses, electromyography, a sensory analysis, and the digestibility of the hydrogels were determined. Increasing the HP content in the mixed hydrogel increased its strength. The Young's modulus and tangent after flow point values were higher for mixed hydrogels than for pure AP and HP hydrogels, suggesting a synergistic effect. The HP hydrogel increased the chewing duration, number of chews, and masticatory muscle activity. Pectin hydrogels received the same likeness scores and differed only in regard to perceived hardness and brittleness. The galacturonic acid was found predominantly in the incubation medium after the digestion of the pure AP hydrogel in simulated intestinal (SIF) and colonic (SCF) fluids. Galacturonic acid was slightly released from HP-containing hydrogels during chewing and treatment with simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and SIF, as well as in significant amounts during SCF treatment. Thus, new food hydrogels with new rheological, textural, and sensory properties can be obtained from a mixture of two low-methyl-esterified pectins (LMPs) with different structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the preparation of alginate-based microparticles with meloxicam (MLX). A poorly soluble substance classified as BCS class II was chosen as a model substance. Ionotropic gelation was the process used for the formation of microparticles. The impact of the carrier on the dissolution of MLX from this formulation was also investigated. The study was realized in a few steps: preparation of polymer particles containing suspended MLX in their structure; drying them in various conditions (room temperature, freeze-drying); morphology characterization, and then assessment of the impact of polymer on the dissolution of the model substance. Also, DDSolver software was used for checking the similarity of release profiles. The validated UV-Vis spectrophotometric method was used for MLX determination on different steps of work. As it showed, calcium alginate particles were successfully prepared with ionotropic gelation. The drying method of prepared particles has a substantial impact on the release profiles of meloxicam, and these formulations significantly improve the MLX release from this form of the delivery system [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effect of desalinated lava seawater via electrodialysis (ED water) on the formation and properties of low methoxyl pectin (LMP) gels was investigated. Additionally, the syneresis, microstructure, gelation mechanism, and thermostability of the gel samples were analyzed. When the ED water content exceeded 25 %, pectin gels with viscosities and textures that differed from those of the sol were formed. The highest gel hardness (9.38 N) was observed when 50 % ED water was mixed with LMP. However, when 75 % ED water was added, the pore size of the LMP gel became the largest, and excess water was released from the gel, resulting in a weak gel strength (4.98 N). The formation and properties of the gel structure were found to be mainly due to the ionic bonds between the minerals in the ED water and the free carboxyl groups of pectin, and it was confirmed that the hydrogen bonds within the pectin chains also had an effect. These results suggest that the interaction between the ED water and LMP can be widely used in various industrial fields, including low-sugar gels or viscosity-enhancing agents with diverse rheological properties. [Display omitted] • Jeju lava seawater desalinated via electrodialysis (ED water) has many minerals. • The effect of ED water on low methoxyl pectin (LMP) was determined. • LMP gelation occurred at certain concentrations of ED water. • The concentration of ED water determined the extent of the gel junction region. • ED water can improve the thermal stability of pectin molecules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogels have a tridimensional structure. They have the ability to absorb a significant amount of water or other natural or simulated fluids that cause their swelling albeit without losing their structure. Their properties can be exploited for encapsulation and modified targeted drug release. Among the numerous natural polymers suitable for obtaining hydrogels, gellan gum is one gaining much interest. It is a gelling agent with many unique features, and furthermore, it is non-toxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable. Its ability to react with oppositely charged molecules results in the forming of structured physical materials (films, beads, hydrogels, nanoparticles). The properties of obtained hydrogels can be modified by chemical crosslinking, which improves the three-dimensional structure of the gellan hydrogel. In the current review, an overview of gellan gum hydrogels and their properties will be presented as well as the mechanisms of ionotropic gelation or chemical crosslinking. Methods of producing gellan hydrogels and their possible applications related to improved release, bioavailability, and therapeutic activity were described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The accumulation of chitin waste from the seafood industry is a serious environmental problem. However, this residue can be degraded by chitinases and its subproducts, such as chitosan, economically exploited. In this study, a chitinase producer bacteria, identified as Paenibacillus illinoisensis, was isolated from the Brazilian coastal city of Terra de Areia – Rio Grande Do Sul (RS) and was immobilized within alginate beads to evaluate its chitinase production. The alginate beads containing cells presented an average size of 4 mm, 99% of immobilization efficiency and increased the enzymatic activity in 40.71% compared to the free cells. The biomass during enzymatic production increased 62.01% and the total cells leaked from the alginate beads corresponded to 6.46% after 96 h. Immobilized cells were reused in a sequential batch system and remained stable for production for up to four 96-h cycles, decreasing only 21.04% of the initial activity at the end of the fourth cycle. Therefore, the methodology used for cell immobilization resulted in adequate beads to maintain cell viability during the enzymatic production, increasing enzymatic activity, showing low cell leakage from the support and appropriate recyclable capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenolic compounds that are present in pineapple by-products offer many health benefits to the consumer; however, they are unstable to many environmental factors. For this reason, encapsulation is ideal for preserving their beneficial effects. In this work, extracts were obtained by the combined method of solid-state fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae and ultrasound. After this process, the encapsulation process was performed by ionotropic gelation using corn starch, sodium alginate, and Weissella confusa exopolysaccharide as wall material. The encapsulates produced presented a moisture content between 7.10 and 10.45% (w.b), a solubility of 53.06 ± 0.54%, and a wettability of 31.46 ± 2.02 s. The total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant capacity of DPPH, and ABTS of the encapsulates were also determined, finding 232.55 ± 2.07 mg GAE/g d.m for TPC, 45.64 ± 0.9 µm Trolox/mg GAE for DPPH, and 51.69 ± 1.08 µm Trolox/mg GAE for ABTS. Additionally, ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) analysis allowed us to identify and quantify six bioactive compounds: rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, and quercetin. According to the above, using ionotropic gelation, it was possible to obtain microencapsulates containing bioactive compounds from pineapple peel extracts, which may have applications in the development of functional foods.

Multivalent ion batteries (MIBs) have received much attention as alternatives to the current lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) because of their high energy density and the possibility of using raw materials with high natural abundance. However, the mechanochemical stability and key electrochemical performance of MIB electrodes are easily impaired during cycling by the large volume expansion of active materials and sluggish ion transport, raising the necessity of developing advanced binder designs. Herein, we report a systematic investigation of polysaccharide and polyacrylic acid binders with carboxylic acid functional groups for MIBs based on Mg2+, Ca2+, Zn2+, and Al3+ in comparison with their monovalent counterpart. These binders with carboxylic acid functional groups form a rigid passivation layer on the electrode surface via the so-called egg-box mechanism involving the multivalent cations, imposing resistance and shortening the cycle life of the MIB cells. The series of comparative analyses provide useful information on the effect and design of popular carboxylic acid-functionalized binders for incorporation in MIBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The synthesis of hydrogel beads involving natural polymers is, nowadays, a leading research area. Among natural polymers, starch and chitosan represent two biomolecules with proof of efficiency and low economic impact in various utilization fields. Therefore, herein, the features of hydrogel beads obtained from chitosan and three sorts of starch (potato, wheat and rise starches), grafted with acrylonitrile and then amidoximated, were deeply investigated for their use as sorbents for heavy metal ions and dyes. The hydrogel beads were prepared by ionotropic gelation/covalent cross-linking of chitosan and functionalized starches. The chemical structure of the hydrogel beads was analyzed by FT-IR spectroscopy; their morphology was revealed by optical and scanning electron microscopies, while the influence of the starch functionalization strategies on the crystallinity changes was evaluated by X-ray diffraction. Molecular dynamics simulations were used to reveal the influence of the grafting reactions and grafted structure on the starch conformation in solution and their interactions with chitosan. The sorption capacity of the hydrogel beads was tested in batch experiments, as a function of the beads' features (synthesis protocol, starch sort) and simulated polluted water, which included heavy metal ions (Cu2+, Co2+, Ni2+ and Zn2+) and small organic molecules (Direct Blue 15 and Congo red). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biopolymer beads can be used as carrier and encapsulation system for a wide variety of materials in food, medical, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, agricultural, and environmental applications. Beads of low acyl gellan gum (0.4–1.2% w/w) were produced using extrusion technique (dripping) followed by an ionotropic gelation step with calcium or potassium chloride. In this methodology, gel formation is accomplished by cations diffusion at room temperature and, as a consequence, different structure and gel properties could be obtained. Gellan beads were subjected to uniaxial compression measurements. The force‐displacement curves showed that the occurrence of structural failure under tested conditions depended on beads formulation and was only observed at polysaccharide concentration above 0.8% (w/w). Maximum force or force at failure was mainly dependent on the type (monovalent or divalent cation) and salt concentration. Moreover, at fixed salt amounts, higher values of maximum force were reached using a concentration of 1% (w/w) gellan. Young modulus, determined using Hertz approach, showed values between 445 and 840 kPa depending on polysaccharide concentration and salt type added. Mechanical properties are critical features of gel beads and can define their suitability for a specific application. Therefore, the results obtained, mainly intrinsic properties such as Young modulus, could be a tool for comparing and choosing polysaccharides for specific uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The overall objective was to prepare a highly accurate nanocarrier system of mesalamine for the treatment of ulcerative colitis with increased therapeutic efficacy and targeting. In the formulation of nanocarrier systems, optimization is a critical process for understanding nanoformulation variables and quality aspects. The goal of the present work was to determine the effect of independent variables, i.e., the concentrations of chitosan, carboxymethyl inulin (CMI), and the drug on the response variables, i.e., particle size and percent entrapment efficiency of the mesalamine-loaded nanoparticle using the Box Behnken design (BBD). The correlation between the independent and dependent variables was investigated using the Design Expert generated mathematical equations, contour, and response surface designs. Result An optimized batch was developed using the ionotropic gel method with selected independent variables (A: + 1 level, B: 0 level, C: − 1 level) and the developed nanoparticles had a particle size of 184.18 nm, zeta potential 26.54 mV, and entrapment efficiency 88.58%. The observed responses were remarkably similar to the predicted values. The morphological studies revealed that the formulated nanoparticles were spherical, and the results of the FTIR and DSC studies indicated the drug-polymer compatibility. The nanoparticle showed less than 5% release in the pH 1.2. In the colonic region (pH 7.4), more than 80 % of the medication was released after 24 h. The kinetics study showed that the Higuchi and Korsemeyer-Peppas models had R 2 values of 0.9426 and 0.9784 respectively, for the developed formulation indicating linearity, as revealed by the plots. This result justified the sustained release behavior of the formulation. Conclusion The mesalamine-loaded chitosan-CMI nanoparticle has been successfully developed using the ionotropic gelation method. The nanoparticles developed in this study were proposed to deliver the drug to its desired site. The developed nanoparticles were likely to have a small particle size with positive zeta potential and high percent drug entrapment. It could be stated from the results that BBD can be an active way for optimizing the formulation and that nanoparticles can be a potential carrier for delivering therapeutics to the colon.

Purpose: Microencapsulation is a technique employed in the development of controlled drug delivery systems. It is beneficial in reducing dosing frequency, ensuring targeted drug delivery, and improving drug bioavailability. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Cyperus esculentus starch and its derivative in the development of microbeads for sustained delivery of ibuprofen. Methods: Ibuprofen-loaded microbeads were prepared by ionotropic gelation using Cyperus esculentus starch and its derivative in combination with sodium alginate at concentrations of 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1 and calcium chloride solution as cross-linker. Morphology of the microbeads by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were investigated. Entrapment efficiency, swelling capacity, mucoadhesion, and in vitro drug release were also evaluated. Results: SEM showed that the microbeads were spherical to irregular in shape, FT-IR returned prominent peaks specific for ibuprofen and absence of new peaks, DSC revealed evidence of entrapment of ibuprofen in the microbeads, and entrapment efficiency ranged between 46.05 and 89.86%. Microbeads prepared with native and cross-linked starches showed better mucoadhesion, and those prepared with cross-linked starch blend exhibited highest swelling capacity. In vitro release was pH dependent, and increasing the concentration of cross-linked starch in the blend caused greater retardation of drug release (45.19%) than the formulations containing native starch-alginate blend or sodium alginate alone. Conclusion: The blend of cross-linked Cyperus esculentus starch and sodium alginate shows propensity to sustain ibuprofen release and could be exploited for targeted delivery especially to the lower GIT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combinations of polymers can improve the functional properties of microspheres to achieve desired therapeutic goals. Hence, the present study aimed to formulate Prunus armeniaca gum (PAG) and sodium alginate microsphere for sustained drug release. Blended and coated microspheres were prepared using the ionotropic gelation technique. The effect of polymer concentration variation was studied on the structural and functional properties of formulated microspheres. FTIR, XRD, and thermal analysis were performed to characterize the microspheres. All the formulations were well-formed spherical beads having an average diameter from 579.23 ± 07.09 to 657.67 ± 08.74 μm. Microspheres entrapped drugs within the range 65.86 ± 0.26–83.74 ± 0.79%. The pH-dependent swelling index of coated formulations was higher than blended. FTIR spectra confirmed the presence of characteristic peaks of entrapped Tramadol hydrochloride showing no drug-polymer interaction. In vitro drug release profile showed sustained release following the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model with an R2 value of 0.9803–0.9966. An acute toxicology study employing the oral route in Swiss albino mice showed no signs of toxicity. It can be inferred from these results that blending PAG with sodium alginate can enhance the stability of alginate microspheres and improve its drug release profile by prolonging the release time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]