Search

Highly oxygenated organic molecules (HOMs) play a pivotal role in the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Therefore, the distribution and yields of HOMs are fundamental to understand their fate and chemical evolution in the atmosphere, and it is conducive to ultimately assess the impact of SOA on air quality and climate change. In this study, gas-phase HOMs formed from the reaction of limonene with OH radicals in photooxidation were investigated with SAPHIR (Simulation of Atmospheric PHotochemistry In a large Reaction chamber), using a time-of-flight chemical ionization mass spectrometer with nitrate reagent ion (NO3--CIMS). A large number of HOMs, including monomers (C9–10) and dimers (C17–20), were detected and classified into various families. Both closed-shell products and open-shell peroxy radicals (RO2) were identified under low NO (0.06–0.1 ppb) and high NO conditions (17 ppb). C10 monomers are the most abundant HOM products and account for over 80 % total HOMs. Closed-shell C10 monomers were formed from a two peroxy radical family, C10H15Ox⚫ (x=6–15) and C10H17Ox⚫ (x=6–15), and their respective termination reactions with NO, RO2, and HO2. While C10H17Ox⚫ is likely formed by OH addition to C10H16, the dominant initial step of limonene plus OH, C10H15Ox⚫, is likely formed via H abstraction by OH. C10H15Ox⚫ and related products contributed 41 % and 42 % of C10 HOMs at low and high NO, demonstrating that the H-abstraction pathways play a significant role in HOM formation in the reaction of limonene plus OH. Combining theoretical kinetic calculations, structure–activity relationships (SARs), data from the literature, and the observed RO2 intensities, we proposed tentative mechanisms of HOM formation from both pathways. We further estimated the molar yields of HOMs to be 1.97-1.06+2.52 % and 0.29-0.16+0.38 % at low and high NO, respectively. Our study highlights the importance of H abstraction by OH and provides the yield and tentative pathways in the OH oxidation of limonene to simulate the HOM formation and assess the role of HOMs in SOA formation.

Abstract Active vegetation fires in south‐eastern (SE) Europe resulted in a notable increase in the number concentration of aerosols and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) particles at two high latitude locations—the SMEAR IV station in Kuopio, Finland, and the Zeppelin Observatory in Svalbard, high Arctic. During the fire episode aerosol hygroscopicity κ slightly increased at SMEAR IV and at the Zeppelin Observatory κ decreased. Despite increased κ in high CCN conditions at SMEAR IV, the aerosol activation diameter increased due to the decreased supersaturation with an increase in aerosol loading. In addition, at SMEAR IV during the fire episode, in situ measured cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) increased by a factor of ∼7 as compared to non‐fire periods which was in good agreement with the satellite observations (MODIS, Terra). Results from this study show the importance of SE European fires for cloud properties and radiative forcing in high latitudes.

Many recent secondary organic aerosol (SOA) studies mainly focus on biogenic SOA particles formed under low NOx conditions and thus are applicable to pristine environments with minor anthropogenic influence. Although interactions between biogenic volatile organic compounds and NOx are important in, for instance, suburban areas, there is still a lack of knowledge about the volatility and processes controlling the evaporation of biogenic SOA particles formed in the presence of high concentrations of NOx. Here we provide detailed insights into the isothermal evaporation of α-pinene SOA particles that were formed under low NOx and high NOx conditions to investigate the evaporation process and the evolution of particle composition during the evaporation in more detail. We coupled Filter Inlet for Gases and AEROsols-Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometer (FIGAERO-CIMS) measurements of the molecular composition and volatility of the particle phase with isothermal evaporation experiments conducted under a range of relative humidity (RH) conditions from low RH ( % RH) to high RH (80 % RH). Very similar changes were observed in particle volatility at any set RH during isothermal evaporation for the α-pinene SOA particles formed under low NOx and high NOx conditions. However, there were distinct differences in the initial composition of the two SOA types, possibly due to the influence of NOx on the RO2 chemistry during SOA formation. Such compositional differences consequently impacted the primary type of aqueous-phase processes in each type of SOA particle in the presence of particulate water.

We carried out a closure study of aerosol–cloud interactions during stratocumulus formation using a large eddy simulation model UCLALES–SALSA (University of California Los Angeles large eddy simulation model–sectional aerosol module for large applications) and observations from the 2020 cloud sampling campaign at Puijo SMEAR IV (Station for Measuring Ecosystem–Atmosphere Relations) in Kuopio, Finland. The unique observational setup combining in situ and cloud remote sensing measurements allowed a closer look into the aerosol size–composition dependence of droplet activation and droplet growth in turbulent boundary layer driven by surface forcing and radiative cooling. UCLALES–SALSA uses spectral bin microphysics for aerosols and hydrometeors, and incorporates a full description of their interactions into the turbulent-convective radiation-dynamical model of stratocumulus. Based on our results, the model successfully described the probability distribution of updraught velocities and consequently the size dependency of aerosol activation into cloud droplets, and further recreated the size distributions for both interstitial aerosol and cloud droplets. This is the first time such a detailed closure is achieved not only accounting for activation of cloud droplets in different updraughts, but also accounting for processes evaporating droplets and drizzle production through coagulation–coalescence. We studied two cases of cloud formation, one diurnal (24 September 2020) and one nocturnal (31 October 2020), with high and low aerosol loadings, respectively. Aerosol number concentrations differ more than 1 order of magnitude between cases and therefore, lead to cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) values which range from less than 100 cm−3 up to 1000 cm−3. Different aerosol loadings affected supersaturation at the cloud base, and thus the size of aerosol particles activating to cloud droplets. Due to higher CDNC, the mean size of cloud droplets in the diurnal high aerosol case was lower. Thus, droplet evaporation in downdraughts affected more the observed CDNC at Puijo altitude compared to the low aerosol case. In addition, in the low aerosol case, the presence of large aerosol particles in the accumulation mode played a significant role in the droplet spectrum evolution as it promoted the drizzle formation through collision and coalescence processes. Also, during the event, the formation of ice particles was observed due to subzero temperature at the cloud top. Although the modelled number concentration of ice hydrometeors was too low to be directly measured, the retrieval of hydrometeor sedimentation velocities with cloud radar allowed us to assess the realism of modelled ice particles. The studied cases are presented in detail and can be further used by the cloud modellers to test and validate their models in a well-characterized modelling setup. We also provide recommendations on how increasing amount of information on aerosol properties could improve the understanding of processes affecting cloud droplet number and liquid water content in stratiform clouds.

Nighttime NO3-initiated oxidation of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) such as monoterpenes is important for the atmospheric formation and growth of secondary organic aerosol (SOA), which has significant impact on climate, air quality, and human health. In such SOA formation and growth, highly oxygenated organic molecules (HOM) may be crucial, but their formation pathways and role in aerosol formation have yet to be clarified. Among monoterpenes, limonene is of particular interest for its high emission globally and high SOA yield. In this work, HOM formation in the reaction of limonene with nitrate radical (NO3) was investigated in the SAPHIR chamber (Simulation of Atmospheric PHotochemistry In a large Reaction chamber). About 280 HOM products were identified, grouped into 19 monomer families, 11 dimer families, and 3 trimer families. Both closed-shell products and open-shell peroxy radicals (RO2⚫) were observed, and many of them have not been reported previously. Monomers and dimers accounted for 47 % and 47 % of HOM concentrations, respectively, with trimers making up the remaining 6 %. In the most abundant monomer families, C10H15−17NO6−14, carbonyl products outnumbered hydroxyl products, indicating the importance of RO2⚫ termination by unimolecular dissociation. Both RO2⚫ autoxidation and alkoxy–peroxy pathways were found to be important processes leading to HOM. Time-dependent concentration profiles of monomer products containing nitrogen showed mainly second-generation formation patterns. Dimers were likely formed via the accretion reaction of two monomer RO2⚫, and HOM-trimers via the accretion reaction between monomer RO2⚫ and dimer RO2⚫. Trimers are suggested to play an important role in new particle formation (NPF) observed in our experiment. A HOM yield of 1.5%-0.7%+1.7% was estimated considering only first-generation products. SOA mass growth could be reasonably explained by HOM condensation on particles assuming irreversible uptake of ultra-low volatility organic compounds (ULVOCs), extremely low volatility organic compounds (ELVOCs), and low volatility organic compounds (LVOCs). This work provides evidence for the important role of HOM formed via the limonene +NO3 reaction in NPF and growth of SOA particles.

At SMEAR II research station in Hyytiälä, located in the Finnish boreal forest, the process of new particle formation and the role of ions has been investigated for almost 20 years near the ground and at canopy level. However, above SMEAR II, the vertical distribution and diurnal variation of these different atmospheric ions are poorly characterized. In this study, we assess the atmospheric ion composition in the stable boundary layer, residual layer, mixing layer, and free troposphere, and the evolution of these atmospheric ions due to photochemistry and turbulent mixing through the day. To measure the vertical profile of atmospheric ions, we developed a tailored set-up for online mass spectrometric measurements, capable of being deployed in a Cessna 172 with minimal modifications. Simultaneously, instruments dedicated to aerosol properties made measurements in a second Cessna. We conducted a total of 16 measurement flights in May 2017, during the spring, which is the most active new particle formation season. A flight day typically consisted of three distinct flights through the day (dawn, morning, and afternoon) to observe the diurnal variation and at different altitudes (from 100 to 3200 m above ground), to capture the boundary layer development from the stable boundary layer, residual layer to mixing layer, and the free troposphere. Our observations showed that the ion composition is distinctly different in each layer and depends on the air mass origin and time of the day. Before sunrise, the layers are separated from each other and have their own ion chemistry. We observed that the ions present within the stable layer are of the same composition as the ions measured at the canopy level. During daytime when the mixing layer evolved and the compounds are vertically mixed, we observed that highly oxidized organic molecules are distributed to the top of the boundary layer. The ion composition in the residual layer varies with each day, showing similarities with either the stable boundary layer or the free troposphere. Finally, within the free troposphere, we detected a variety of carboxylic acids and ions that are likely containing halogens, originating from the Arctic Sea.

Accurate information on gas-to-particle partitioning is needed to model secondary organic aerosol formation. However, determining reliable saturation vapor pressures of atmospherically relevant multifunctional organic compounds is extremely difficult. We estimated saturation vapor pressures of α-pinene-ozonolysis-derived secondary organic aerosol constituents using Filter Inlet for Gases and AEROsols (FIGAERO)–chemical ionization mass spectrometer (CIMS) experiments and conductor-like screening model for real solvents (COSMO-RS). We found a good agreement between experimental and computational saturation vapor pressures for molecules with molar masses around 190 g mol−1 and higher, most within a factor of 3 comparing the average of the experimental vapor pressures and the COSMO-RS estimate of the isomer closest to the experiments. Smaller molecules likely have saturation vapor pressures that are too high to be measured using our experimental setup. The molecules with molar masses below 190 g mol−1 that have differences of several orders of magnitude between the computational and experimental saturation vapor pressures observed in our experiments are likely products of thermal decomposition occurring during thermal desorption. For example, dehydration and decarboxylation reactions are able to explain some of the discrepancies between experimental and computational saturation vapor pressures. Based on our estimates, FIGAERO–CIMS can best be used to determine saturation vapor pressures of compounds with low and extremely low volatilities at least down to 10−10 Pa in saturation vapor pressure.

Secondary organic aerosols (SOAs) formed from biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) constitute a significant fraction of atmospheric particulate matter and have been recognized to significantly affect the climate and air quality. Atmospheric SOA particulate mass yields and chemical composition result from a complex mixture of oxidation products originating from a diversity of BVOCs. Many laboratory and field experiments have studied SOA particle formation and growth in the recent years. However, a large uncertainty still remains regarding the contribution of BVOCs to SOA. In particular, organic compounds formed from sesquiterpenes have not been thoroughly investigated, and their contribution to SOA remains poorly characterized. In this study, a Filter Inlet for Gases and Aerosols (FIGAERO) combined with a high-resolution time-of-flight chemical ionization mass spectrometer (CIMS), with iodide ionization, was used for the simultaneous measurement of gas-phase and particle-phase oxygenated compounds. The aim of the study was to evaluate the relative contribution of sesquiterpene oxidation products to SOA in a springtime hemiboreal forest environment. Our results revealed that monoterpene and sesquiterpene oxidation products were the main contributors to SOA particles. The chemical composition of SOA particles was compared for times when either monoterpene or sesquiterpene oxidation products were dominant and possible key oxidation products for SOA particle formation were identified for both situations. Surprisingly, sesquiterpene oxidation products were the predominant fraction in the particle phase in some periods, while their gas-phase concentrations remained much lower than those of monoterpene products. This can be explained by favorable and effective partitioning of sesquiterpene products into the particle phase. The SOA particle volatility determined from measured thermograms increased when the concentration of sesquiterpene oxidation products in SOA particles was higher than that of monoterpenes. Overall, this study demonstrates that sesquiterpenes may have an important role in atmospheric SOA formation and oxidation chemistry, in particular during the spring recovery period.

We compared observations of aerosol particle formation and growth in different parts of the planetary boundary layer at two different environments that have frequent new particle formation (NPF) events. In summer 2012 we had a campaign in Po Valley, Italy (urban background), and in spring 2013 a similar campaign took place in Hyytiälä, Finland (rural background). Our study consists of three case studies of airborne and ground-based measurements of ion and particle size distribution from ∼1 nm. The airborne measurements were performed using a Zeppelin inside the boundary layer up to 1000 m altitude. Our observations show the onset of regional NPF and the subsequent growth of the aerosol particles happening almost uniformly inside the mixed layer (ML) in both locations. However, in Hyytiälä we noticed local enhancement in the intensity of NPF caused by mesoscale boundary layer (BL) dynamics. Additionally, our observations indicate that in Hyytiälä NPF was probably also taking place above the ML. In Po Valley we observed NPF that was limited to a specific air mass.

We investigate the effect of water content and oxidative age on ice nucleation using 100 nm monodisperse particles of boreal forest secondary organic aerosol (SOA) surrogates. Ice nucleation experiments are conducted in the temperature range between 210 and 240 K and from ice to water saturation using the Spectrometer for Ice Nuclei (SPIN). The effect of the particle water content on the ice nucleation process is tested by preconditioning α-pinene SOA at different humidities (40 %, 10 % and % RHW). The influence of the particle oxidative age is tested by varying their O:C ratio (oxygen-to-carbon ratio, O:C ∼0.45, 0.8, 1.1). To assess the suitability of α-pinene as a model compound to study the ice nucleation properties of boreal forest SOA and to confirm the atmospheric relevance of our findings, we compare them to measurements of SOA using pine-needle oil or Scots pine tree emissions as precursors. The ice nucleation measurements show that surrogates of boreal forest SOA particles promote only homogeneous ice formation. An effect of preconditioning humidity on homogeneous ice nucleation could be observed. Contrary to the expected behavior, homogeneous freezing is suppressed for SOA particles with high water content (preconditioned at 40 % RHW) and was only observed for SOA preconditioned at low RHW (≤10 %). No dependence of homogeneous freezing on the SOA oxidative age was observed. The results can be explained by a significant change of particulate water diffusivity as a function of humidity (from 10 % to 40 % RHW) at 293 K, where the aerosol is preconditioned. The measurements suggest that at low temperatures, water diffusion into dry SOA particles is slow enough to form a core-shell morphology. The liquid outer layer can equilibrate within the timescale of the experiment and freeze homogeneously. On SOA particles with higher water content, water diffuses faster into the particle, delaying equilibration at the particle surface and preventing the formation of a diluted shell, which can delay homogeneous freezing. We propose that the partial water vapor pressure to which the particles are exposed prior to an experiment can serve as an indicator of whether a core-shell structure is developing.

Highly oxygenated organic molecules (HOM) are found to play an important role in the formation and growth of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). SOA is an important type of aerosol with significant impact on air quality and climate. Compared with the oxidation of volatile organic compounds by ozone (O3) and hydroxyl radical (OH), HOM formation in the oxidation by nitrate radical (NO3), an important oxidant at nighttime and dawn, has received less attention. In this study, HOM formation in the reaction of isoprene with NO3 was investigated in the SAPHIR chamber (Simulation of Atmospheric PHotochemistry In a large Reaction chamber). A large number of HOM, including monomers (C5), dimers (C10), and trimers (C15), both closed-shell compounds and open-shell peroxy radicals (RO2), were identified and were classified into various series according to their formula. Their formation pathways were proposed based on the peroxy radicals observed and known mechanisms in the literature, which were further constrained by the time profiles of HOM after sequential isoprene addition to differentiate first- and second-generation products. HOM monomers containing one to three N atoms (1–3N-monomers) were formed, starting with NO3 addition to carbon double bond, forming peroxy radicals, followed by autoxidation. 1N-monomers were formed by both the direct reaction of NO3 with isoprene and of NO3 with first-generation products. 2N-monomers (e.g., C5H8N2On(n=7–13), C5H10N2On(n=8–14)) were likely the termination products of C5H9N2On⚫, which was formed by the addition of NO3 to C5-hydroxynitrate (C5H9NO4), a first-generation product containing one carbon double bond. 2N-monomers, which were second-generation products, dominated in monomers and accounted for ∼34 % of all HOM, indicating the important role of second-generation oxidation in HOM formation in the isoprene + NO3 reaction under our experimental conditions. H shift of alkoxy radicals to form peroxy radicals and subsequent autoxidation (“alkoxy–peroxy” pathway) was found to be an important pathway of HOM formation. HOM dimers were mostly formed by the accretion reaction of various HOM monomer RO2 and via the termination reactions of dimer RO2 formed by further reaction of closed-shell dimers with NO3 and possibly by the reaction of C5–RO2 with isoprene. HOM trimers were likely formed by the accretion reaction of dimer RO2 with monomer RO2. The concentrations of different HOM showed distinct time profiles during the reaction, which was linked to their formation pathway. HOM concentrations either showed a typical time profile of first-generation products, second-generation products, or a combination of both, indicating multiple formation pathways and/or multiple isomers. Total HOM molar yield was estimated to be 1.2 %-0.7%+1.3%, which corresponded to a SOA yield of ∼3.6 % assuming the molecular weight of C5H9NO6 as the lower limit. This yield suggests that HOM may contribute a significant fraction to SOA yield in the reaction of isoprene with NO3.

Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of volatile organic compounds associated with anthropogenic activity and make up a significant fraction of urban volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions that contribute to the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Benzene is one of the most abundant species emitted from vehicles, biomass burning and industry. An iodide time-of-flight chemical ionisation mass spectrometer (ToF-CIMS) and nitrate ToF-CIMS were deployed at the Jülich Plant Atmosphere Chamber as part of a series of experiments examining benzene oxidation by OH under high- and low-NOx conditions, where a range of organic oxidation products were detected. The nitrate scheme detects many oxidation products with high masses, ranging from intermediate volatile organic compounds (IVOCs) to extremely low volatile organic compounds (ELVOCs), including C12 dimers. In comparison, very few species with C≥6 and O≥8 were detected with the iodide scheme, which detected many more IVOCs and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) but very few ELVOCs and low volatile organic compounds (LVOCs). A total of 132 and 195 CHO and CHON oxidation products are detected by the iodide ToF-CIMS in the low- and high-NOx experiments respectively. Ring-breaking products make up the dominant fraction of detected signal and 21 and 26 of the products listed in the Master Chemical Mechanism (MCM) were detected. The time series of highly oxidised (O≥6) and ring-retaining oxidation products (C6 and double-bond equivalent = 4) equilibrate quickly, characterised by a square form profile, compared to MCM and ring-breaking products which increase throughout oxidation, exhibiting sawtooth profiles. Under low-NOx conditions, all CHO formulae attributed to radical termination reactions of first-generation benzene products, and first-generation auto-oxidation products are observed. Several N-containing species that are either first-generation benzene products or first-generation auto-oxidation products are also observed under high-NOx conditions. Hierarchical cluster analysis finds four clusters, of which two describe photo-oxidation. Cluster 2 shows a negative dependency on the NO2/NOx ratio, indicating it is sensitive to NO concentration and thus likely to contain NO addition products and alkoxy-derived termination products. This cluster has the highest average carbon oxidation state (OSC‾) and the lowest average carbon number. Where nitrogen is present in a cluster member of cluster 2, the oxygen number is even, as expected for alkoxy-derived products. In contrast, cluster 1 shows no dependency on the NO2/NOx ratio and so is likely to contain more NO2 addition and peroxy-derived termination products. This cluster contains fewer fragmented species, as the average carbon number is higher and OSC‾ lower than cluster 2, and more species with an odd number of oxygen atoms. This suggests that clustering of time series which have features pertaining to distinct chemical regimes, for example, NO2/NOx perturbations, coupled with a priori knowledge, can provide insight into identification of potential functionality.

The Filter Inlet for Gases and AEROsols (FIGAERO) coupled with a time-of-flight chemical ionization mass spectrometer (ToF-CIMS) enables online measurements of both gas-phase and particle-phase chemical constituents of ambient aerosols. When properly calibrated, the incorporated particle filter collection and subsequent thermal desorption enable the direct measurement of volatility of said constituents. Previously published volatility calibration results however differ from each other significantly. In this study we investigate the reason for this discrepancy. We found a major source of error in the widely used syringe deposition calibration method that can lead to an overestimation of saturation vapour pressures by several orders of magnitude. We propose a new method for volatility calibration by using atomized calibration compounds that more accurately captures the evaporation of chemical constituents from ambient aerosol particles. For example, we found a difference of ∼ 15 ∘C in observed Tmax⁡ values between the atomizer method and syringe method using the lowest solution concentration (0.003 g L−1). This difference translates into a difference of up to 3 orders of magnitude in saturation concentration C∗ space. We justify our claim with evaporation modelling and direct scanning electron microscopy imaging, while also presenting possible error sources of the atomizer method. We finally present how typical calibration parameters derived with both methods impact the volatility basis set (VBS) derived from measurements of secondary organic aerosols (SOAs).

The formation of organic nitrates (ONs) in the gas phase and their impact on mass formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) was investigated in a laboratory study for α-pinene and β-pinene photooxidation. Focus was the elucidation of those mechanisms that cause the often observed suppression of SOA mass formation by NOx, and therein the role of highly oxygenated multifunctional molecules (HOMs). We observed that with increasing NOx concentration (a) the portion of HOM organic nitrates (HOM-ONs) increased, (b) the fraction of accretion products (HOM-ACCs) decreased, and (c) HOM-ACCs contained on average smaller carbon numbers. Specifically, we investigated HOM organic nitrates (HOM-ONs), arising from the termination reactions of HOM peroxy radicals with NOx, and HOM permutation products (HOM-PPs), such as ketones, alcohols, or hydroperoxides, formed by other termination reactions. Effective uptake coefficients γeff of HOMs on particles were determined. HOMs with more than six O atoms efficiently condensed on particles (γeff>0.5 on average), and for HOMs containing more than eight O atoms, every collision led to loss. There was no systematic difference in γeff for HOM-ONs and HOM-PPs arising from the same HOM peroxy radicals. This similarity is attributed to the multifunctional character of the HOMs: as functional groups in HOMs arising from the same precursor HOM peroxy radical are identical, vapor pressures should not strongly depend on the character of the final termination group. As a consequence, the suppressing effect of NOx on SOA formation cannot be simply explained by replacement of terminal functional groups by organic nitrate groups. According to their γeff all HOM-ONs with more than six O atoms will contribute to organic bound nitrate (OrgNO3) in the particulate phase. However, the fraction of OrgNO3 stored in condensable HOMs with molecular masses > 230 Da appeared to be substantially higher than the fraction of particulate OrgNO3 observed by aerosol mass spectrometry. This result suggests losses of OrgNO3 for organic nitrates in particles, probably due to hydrolysis of OrgNO3 that releases HNO3 into the gas phase but leaves behind the organic rest in the particulate phase. However, the loss of HNO3 alone could not explain the observed suppressing effect of NOx on particle mass formation from α-pinene and β-pinene. Instead we can attribute most of the reduction in SOA mass yields with increasing NOx to the significant suppression of gas phase HOM-ACCs, which have high molecular mass and are potentially important for SOA mass formation at low-NOx conditions.

Recent studies have recognised highly oxygenated organic molecules (HOMs) in the atmosphere as important in the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). A large number of studies have focused on HOM formation from oxidation of biogenically emitted monoterpenes. However, HOM formation from anthropogenic vapours has so far received much less attention. Previous studies have identified the importance of aromatic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) for SOA formation. In this study, we investigated several aromatic compounds, benzene (C6H6), toluene (C7H8), and naphthalene (C10H8), for their potential to form HOMs upon reaction with hydroxyl radicals (OH). We performed flow tube experiments with all three VOCs and focused in detail on benzene HOM formation in the Jülich Plant Atmosphere Chamber (JPAC). In JPAC, we also investigated the response of HOMs to NOx and seed aerosol. Using a nitrate-based chemical ionisation mass spectrometer (CI-APi-TOF), we observed the formation of HOMs in the flow reactor oxidation of benzene from the first OH attack. However, in the oxidation of toluene and naphthalene, which were injected at lower concentrations, multi-generation OH oxidation seemed to impact the HOM composition. We tested this in more detail for the benzene system in the JPAC, which allowed for studying longer residence times. The results showed that the apparent molar benzene HOM yield under our experimental conditions varied from 4.1 % to 14.0 %, with a strong dependence on the OH concentration, indicating that the majority of observed HOMs formed through multiple OH-oxidation steps. The composition of the identified HOMs in the mass spectrum also supported this hypothesis. By injecting only phenol into the chamber, we found that phenol oxidation cannot be solely responsible for the observed HOMs in benzene experiments. When NOx was added to the chamber, HOM composition changed and many oxygenated nitrogen-containing products were observed in CI-APi-TOF. Upon seed aerosol injection, the HOM loss rate was higher than predicted by irreversible condensation, suggesting that some undetected oxygenated intermediates also condensed onto seed aerosol, which is in line with the hypothesis that some of the HOMs were formed in multi-generation OH oxidation. Based on our results, we conclude that HOM yield and composition in aromatic systems strongly depend on OH and VOC concentration and more studies are needed to fully understand this effect on the formation of HOMs and, consequently, SOA. We also suggest that the dependence of HOM yield on chamber conditions may explain part of the variability in SOA yields reported in the literature and strongly advise monitoring HOMs in future SOA studies.

Anthropogenic emissions such as NOx and SO2 influence the biogenic secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation, but detailed mechanisms and effects are still elusive. We studied the effects of NOx and SO2 on the SOA formation from the photooxidation of α-pinene and limonene at ambient relevant NOx and SO2 concentrations (NOx: 2: 2 induced nucleation and enhanced SOA mass formation. NOx strongly suppressed not only new particle formation but also SOA mass yield. However, in the presence of SO2 which induced a high number concentration of particles after oxidation to H2SO4, the suppression of the mass yield of SOA by NOx was completely or partly compensated for. This indicates that the suppression of SOA yield by NOx was largely due to the suppressed new particle formation, leading to a lack of particle surface for the organics to condense on and thus a significant influence of vapor wall loss on SOA mass yield. By compensating for the suppressing effect on nucleation of NOx, SO2 also compensated for the suppressing effect on SOA yield. Aerosol mass spectrometer data show that increasing NOx enhanced nitrate formation. The majority of the nitrate was organic nitrate (57–77 %), even in low-NOx conditions (−1. SOA from α-pinene photooxidation at high NOx had a generally lower hydrogen to carbon ratio (H ∕ C), compared to low NOx. The NOx dependence of the chemical composition can be attributed to the NOx dependence of the branching ratio of the RO2 loss reactions, leading to a lower fraction of organic hydroperoxides and higher fractions of organic nitrates at high NOx. While NOx suppressed new particle formation and SOA mass formation, SO2 can compensate for such effects, and the combining effect of SO2 and NOx may have an important influence on SOA formation affected by interactions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with anthropogenic emissions.

In this study, the NOx dependence of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation from photooxidation of the biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) β-pinene was comprehensively investigated in the Jülich Plant Atmosphere Chamber. Consistent with the results of previous NOx studies we found increases of SOA yields with increasing [NOx] at low-NOx conditions ([NOx]0 0 ∕ [NOx]0 > 10 ppbC ppb−1). Furthermore, increasing [NOx] at high-NOx conditions ([NOx]0 > 30 ppb, [BVOC]0 ∕ [NOx]0 ∼ 10 to ∼ 2.6 ppbC ppb−1) suppressed the SOA yield. The increase of SOA yield at low-NOx conditions was attributed to an increase of OH concentration, most probably by OH recycling in NO + HO2 → NO2 + OH reaction. Separate measurements without NOx addition but with different OH primary production rates confirmed the OH dependence of SOA yields. After removing the effect of OH concentration on SOA mass growth by keeping the OH concentration constant, SOA yields only decreased with increasing [NOx]. Measuring the NOx dependence of SOA yields at lower [NO] ∕ [NO2] ratio showed less pronounced increase in both OH concentration and SOA yield. This result was consistent with our assumption of OH recycling by NO and to SOA yields being dependent on OH concentrations. Our results furthermore indicated that NOx dependencies vary for different NOx compositions. A substantial fraction of the NOx-induced decrease of SOA yields at high-NOx conditions was caused by NOx-induced suppression of new particle formation (NPF), which subsequently limits the particle surface where low volatiles condense. This was shown by probing the NOx dependence of SOA formation in the presence of seed particles. After eliminating the effect of NOx-induced suppression of NPF and NOx-induced changes of OH concentrations, the remaining effect of NOx on the SOA yield from β-pinene photooxidation was moderate. Compared to β-pinene, the SOA formation from α-pinene photooxidation was only suppressed by increasing NOx. However, basic mechanisms of the NOx impacts were the same as that of β-pinene.

It has been postulated that secondary organic particulate matter plays a pivotal role in the early growth of newly formed particles in forest areas. The recently detected class of extremely low volatile organic compounds (ELVOC) provides the missing organic vapors and possibly contributes a significant fraction to atmospheric SOA (secondary organic aerosol). The sequential rearrangement of peroxy radicals and subsequent O2 addition results in ELVOC which are highly oxidized multifunctional molecules (HOM). Key for efficiency of such HOM in early particle growth is that their formation is induced by one attack of the oxidant (here O3), followed by an autoxidation process involving molecular oxygen. Similar mechanisms were recently observed and predicted by quantum mechanical calculations e.g., for isoprene. To assess the atmospheric importance and therewith the potential generality, it is crucial to understand the formation pathway of HOM. To elucidate the formation path of HOM as well as necessary and sufficient structural prerequisites of their formation we studied homologous series of cycloalkenes in comparison to two monoterpenes. We were able to directly observe highly oxidized multifunctional peroxy radicals with 8 or 10 O atoms by an Atmospheric Pressure interface High Resolution Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer (APi-TOF-MS) equipped with a NO3−-chemical ionization (CI) source. In the case of O3 acting as an oxidant, the starting peroxy radical is formed on the so-called vinylhydroperoxide path. HOM peroxy radicals and their termination reactions with other peroxy radicals, including dimerization, allowed for analyzing the observed mass spectra and narrowing down the likely formation path. As consequence, we propose that HOM are multifunctional percarboxylic acids, with carbonyl, hydroperoxy, or hydroxy groups arising from the termination steps. We figured that aldehyde groups facilitate the initial rearrangement steps. In simple molecules like cycloalkenes, autoxidation was limited to both terminal C atoms and two further C atoms in the respective α positions. In more complex molecules containing tertiary H atoms or small, constrained rings, even higher oxidation degrees were possible, either by simple H shift of the tertiary H atom or by initialization of complex ring-opening reactions.

Impacts of soil moisture on de novo monoterpene (MT) emissions from Holm oak, European beech, Scots pine, and Norway spruce were studied in laboratory experiments. The volumetric water content of the soil, Θ, was used as the reference quantity to parameterize the dependency of MT emissions on soil moisture and to characterize the severity of the drought. When Θ dropped from 0.4 m3 × m−3 to ~0.2 m3 × m−3 slight increases of de novo MT emissions were observed but with further progressing drought the emissions decreased to almost zero. In most cases the increases of MT emissions observed under conditions of mild drought were explainable by increases of leaf temperature due to lowered transpirational cooling. When Θ fell below certain thresholds, MT emissions decreased simultaneously with Θ and the relationship between Θ and MT emissions was approximately linear. The thresholds of Θ (0.044–0.19 m3 × m−3) were determined, as well as other parameters required to describe the soil moisture dependence of de novo MT emissions for application in the Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature, MEGAN. A factorial approach was found appropriate to describe the impacts of Θ, temperature, and light. Temperature and Θ influenced the emissions largely independently from each other, and, in a similar manner, light intensity and Θ acted independently on de novo MT emissions. The use of Θ as the reference quantity in a factorial approach was tenable in predicting constitutive de novo MT emissions when Θ changed on a time scale of days. Empirical parameterization with Θ as a reference was only unsuccessful when soil moisture changed rapidly

Biogenic secondary organic aerosols (SOAs) can be formed from the oxidation of plant volatiles in the atmosphere. Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) can elicit plant defenses, but whether such ecological functions persist after they form SOAs was previously unknown. Here we show that Scots pine seedlings damaged by large pine weevils feeding on their roots release HIPVs that trigger defenses in neighboring conspecific plants. The biological activity persisted after HIPVs had been oxidized to form SOAs, which was indicated by receivers displaying enhanced photosynthesis, primed volatile defenses, and reduced weevil damage. The elemental composition and quantity of SOAs likely determines their biological functions. This work demonstrates that plant-derived SOAs can mediate interactions between plants, highlighting their ecological significance in ecosystems.

Particulate matter represents one of the most severe air pollutants globally. Organic aerosol (OA) comprises 30-70 % of submicron particle mass in urban areas. An effective way to mitigate OA particulate pollutants is to reduce the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Here, we studied the effect of titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) photocatalytic seeds on the formation and mitigation of SOA particles from α-pinene or toluene oxidation in chamber. For the first time, we discovered that under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, the presence of TiO 2 directly removed internally mixed α-pinene SOA mass by 53.7 % within 200 mins, and also directly removed SOA matter in an externally mixed state that is not in direct contact with TiO 2 surface: the mass of externally mixed α-pinene SOA was reduced by 21.9 % within 81 mins, and the toluene SOA mass was reduced by 46.6 % in 145mins. In addition, the presence of TiO 2 effectively inhibited the formation of SOA particles with a SOA mass yield of zero. This study brings up an innovative concept for air pollution control - the direct photocatalytic degradation of OA with aid of TiO 2 -based photocatalysts. Our novel findings will potentially bring practical applications in air pollution abatement and regional, even global aerosol-climate interactions., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest Authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Secondary organic aerosol (SOA), formed by oxidation of volatile organic compounds, substantially influence air quality and climate. Highly oxygenated organic molecules (HOMs), particularly those formed from biogenic monoterpenes, contribute a large fraction of SOA. During daytime, hydroxyl radicals initiate monoterpene oxidation, mainly by hydroxyl addition to monoterpene double bonds. Naturally, related HOM formation mechanisms should be induced by that reaction route, too. However, for α-pinene, the most abundant atmospheric monoterpene, we find a previously unidentified competitive pathway under atmospherically relevant conditions: HOM formation is predominately induced via hydrogen abstraction by hydroxyl radicals, a generally minor reaction pathway. We show by observations and theoretical calculations that hydrogen abstraction followed by formation and rearrangement of alkoxy radicals is a prerequisite for fast daytime HOM formation. Our analysis provides an accurate mechanism and yield, demonstrating that minor reaction pathways can become major, here for SOA formation and growth and related impacts on air quality and climate.

The reactions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOC) with the nitrate radicals (NO 3 ) are major night-time sources of organic nitrates and secondary organic aerosols (SOA) in regions influenced by BVOC and anthropogenic emissions. In this study, the formation of gas-phase highly oxygenated organic molecules-organic nitrates (HOM-ON) from NO 3 -initiated oxidation of a representative monoterpene, β-pinene, was investigated in the SAPHIR chamber (Simulation of Atmosphere PHotochemistry In a large Reaction chamber). Six monomer (C = 7-10, N = 1-2, O = 6-16) and five accretion product (C = 17-20, N = 2-4, O = 9-22) families were identified and further classified into first- or second-generation products based on their temporal behavior. The time lag observed in the peak concentrations between peroxy radicals containing odd and even number of oxygen atoms, as well as between radicals and their corresponding termination products, provided constraints on the HOM-ON formation mechanism. The HOM-ON formation can be explained by unimolecular or bimolecular reactions of peroxy radicals. A dominant portion of carbonylnitrates in HOM-ON was detected, highlighting the significance of unimolecular termination reactions by intramolecular H-shift for the formation of HOM-ON. A mean molar yield of HOM-ON was estimated to be 4.8% (-2.6%/+5.6%), suggesting significant HOM-ON contributions to the SOA formation.

One barrier to predicting biogenic secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation in a changing climate can be attributed to the complex nature of plant volatile emissions. Plant volatile emissions are dynamic over space and time, and change in response to environmental stressors. This study investigated SOA production from emissions of healthy and aphid-stressed Scots pine saplings via dark ozonolysis and photooxidation chemistry. Laboratory experiments using a batch reaction chamber were used to investigate SOA production from different plant volatile mixtures. The volatile mixture from healthy plants included monoterpenes, aromatics, and a small amount of sesquiterpenes. The biggest change in the volatile mixture for aphid-stressed plants was a large increase (from 1.4 to 7.9 ppb) in sesquiterpenes-particularly acyclic sesquiterpenes, such as the farnesene isomers. Acyclic sesquiterpenes had different effects on SOA production depending on the chemical mechanism. Farnesenes suppressed SOA formation from ozonolysis with a 9.7-14.6% SOA mass yield from healthy plant emissions and a 6.9-10.4% SOA mass yield from aphid-stressed plant emissions. Ozonolysis of volatile mixtures containing more farnesenes promoted fragmentation reactions, which produced higher volatility oxidation products. In contrast, plant volatile mixtures containing more farnesenes did not appreciably change SOA production from photooxidation. SOA mass yields ranged from 10.8 to 23.2% from healthy plant emissions and 17.8-26.8% for aphid-stressed plant emissions. This study highlights the potential importance of acyclic terpene chemistry in a future climate regime with an increased presence of plant stress volatiles., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interest., (Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society.)

Forests emit large quantities of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to the atmosphere. Their condensable oxidation products can form secondary organic aerosol, a significant and ubiquitous component of atmospheric aerosol, which is known to affect the Earth's radiation balance by scattering solar radiation and by acting as cloud condensation nuclei. The quantitative assessment of such climate effects remains hampered by a number of factors, including an incomplete understanding of how biogenic VOCs contribute to the formation of atmospheric secondary organic aerosol. The growth of newly formed particles from sizes of less than three nanometres up to the sizes of cloud condensation nuclei (about one hundred nanometres) in many continental ecosystems requires abundant, essentially non-volatile organic vapours, but the sources and compositions of such vapours remain unknown. Here we investigate the oxidation of VOCs, in particular the terpene α-pinene, under atmospherically relevant conditions in chamber experiments. We find that a direct pathway leads from several biogenic VOCs, such as monoterpenes, to the formation of large amounts of extremely low-volatility vapours. These vapours form at significant mass yield in the gas phase and condense irreversibly onto aerosol surfaces to produce secondary organic aerosol, helping to explain the discrepancy between the observed atmospheric burden of secondary organic aerosol and that reported by many model studies. We further demonstrate how these low-volatility vapours can enhance, or even dominate, the formation and growth of aerosol particles over forested regions, providing a missing link between biogenic VOCs and their conversion to aerosol particles. Our findings could help to improve assessments of biosphere-aerosol-climate feedback mechanisms, and the air quality and climate effects of biogenic emissions generally.