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In a well-functioning slow sand filter (SSF), dissolved oxygen (DO) is crucial for enabling aerobic processes and microbiota growth. Given that DO supply is predominantly via the feed water, flow pauses (e.g., during cleaning) may trigger anoxic/anaerobic conditions in the stagnant filter bed. Underwater skimming (UWS) is an advanced cleaning technique that employs a skimmer with a shrouded blade, mounted on a mobile platform, to remove the fouling layer composed of sand and particles in order to improve the efficiency of slow sand filtration. As UWS results in changes to the flow pattern of the SSF, a mathematical model was developed to predict DO utilization after a flow perturbation associated with UWS operation. The model was based on a depth resolved measurement of specific oxygen utilization derived from a full scale SSF. Pilot plant experiments monitored DO in the feed and filtrate of SSFs cleaned using underwater and conventional dry skimming techniques. The highest oxygen utilization was in the Schmutzdecke layer, with additional demand imposed by the presence of a granular activated carbon (GAC) sandwich layer. It was observed that pseudo-steady state conditions occurred following filter ripening, where DO utilization, driven by biological activity, remained relatively constant regardless of filter cleaning technique. For flow pauses between three and 24 h, the pause duration's importance decreased, while the hydraulic loading rate became the critical factor for DO recovery in the filter. Additionally, introducing a 'sweetening flow' during UWS ensured a continuous DO supply, facilitating quicker DO replenishment post-cleaning. The model reliably predicted filtrate DO within ±0.6 mg/L, demonstrating its operational utility, especially in the optimisation of UWS methodology. As such, UWS can be applied to clean SSFs with the methodology modified to prevent any detrimental effects to DO management within the filter. This study predicted DO dynamics in SSFs, advancing UWS techniques and could be applied for enhancing water treatment strategies by filtration., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Harvesting nutrients from waste presents a promising initiative to advance and deliver the circular economy in the water sector while mitigating local shortages of mineral fertilizers worldwide. Urine, a small fraction of municipal wastewater, holds substantial amounts of nitrogen, orthophosphate (PO 4 -P), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Separating urine aids targeted nutrient recovery, emissions reduction, and releasing capacity in wastewater treatment plants and taps into overlooked vital nutrients like magnesium (Mg 2+ ) and potassium (K + ), essential for plant growth. The ability of selected microorganisms ( Brevibacterium antiquum, Bacillus pumilus, Halobacterium salinarum, Idiomarina loihiensis , and Myxococcus xanthus ) to remove and recover nutrients from fresh urine through bio-mineral formation of struvite was investigated. The selected microorganisms outcompeted native microbes in open-culture fresh urine, and intact cell counts were 1.3 to 2.3 times larger than in noninoculated controls. PO 4 -P removal reached 50% after 4 days of incubation and 96% when urine was supplemented with Mg 2+ . Additionally, soluble COD was reduced by 60%; urea hydrolysis was only < 3% in controls, but it reached 35% in inoculated urine after 10 days. The dominant morphology of recovered precipitates was euhedral and prismatic, identified using energy dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction as struvite (i.e., bio-struvite), but K + was also present at 5%. Up to 1 g bio-struvite/L urine was recovered. These results demonstrate the ability of bio-mineral producing microorganisms to successfully grow in urine and recover nutrients such as bio-struvite, that could potentially be used as sustainable fertilizers or chemicals., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interest., (© 2024 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society.)

Removing pesticides from biological drinking water filters is challenging due to the difficulty in activating pesticide-degrading bacteria within the filters. Bioaugmented bacteria can alter the filter's microbiome, affecting its performance either positively or negatively, depending on the bacteria used and their interaction with native microbes. We demonstrate that adding specific bacteria strains can effectively remove recalcitrant pesticides, like metaldehyde, yielding compliance to regulatory standards for an extended period. Our experiments revealed that the Sphingobium CMET-H strain was particularly effective, consistently reducing metaldehyde concentrations to levels within regulatory compliance, significantly outperforming Acinetobacter calcoaceticus E1. This success is attributed to the superior acclimation and distribution of the Sphingobium strain within the filter bed, facilitating more efficient interactions with and degradation of the pesticide, even when present at lower population densities compared to Acinetobacter calcoaceticus E1. Furthermore, our study demonstrates that the addition of pesticide-degrading strains significantly impacts the filter's microbiome at various depths, despite these strains making up less than 1% of the total microbial community. The sequence in which these bacteria are introduced influences the system's ability to degrade pesticides effectively. This research shows the potential of carefully selected and dosed bioaugmented bacteria to improve the pesticide removal capabilities of water filtration systems, while also highlighting the dynamics between bioaugmented and native microbial communities. Further investigation into optimizing bioaugmentation strategies is suggested to enhance the resilience and efficiency of drinking water treatment systems against pesticide contamination., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The decision to publish the research rested solely with the authors and the funder did not influence the decision to publish the research., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Hydrodynamic controls of the transport of suspended particulate matter (SPM), particulate nutrients and faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) in the river-estuary transition zone (RETZ) of a shallow macrotidal estuary were studied on tidal and seasonal timescales. The RETZ was found to be a conduit for SPM rather than a zone of particle accumulation during spring tides, with complex size fractionation and biogeochemical exchanges of particulate nutrient/FIO compositions. The downstream RETZ was characterised by flood-dominant currents, but with ebb-dominant turbulence due to the suppression of flood tide turbulence by salinity stratification created by lateral convergence; this produced a net seaward mass transport of SPM. Without lateral convergence in the narrower upstream RETZ, flood-dominant currents and flood-dominant turbulence were experienced. Hence the RETZ exported SPM landwards from its upper end and seawards from its lower end - a process observed throughout the year during spring tides and low-to-mean river flows. During neap tides when SPM concentrations were reduced, the RETZ became a zone of minor particle accumulation as its lower end imported SPM landwards from the estuary and its upper end imported SPM seawards from the river. During a river flood event, net SPM flux was significantly increased and was seawards throughout the RETZ. SPM mass concentration and carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and FIO concentrations peaked due to local resuspension and advection of an ephemeral estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM). The ETM formed on the advancing flood tide due to entrainment of material from intertidal flats. Flocculation and settling occurred at high slack water. The ETM was reconstituted by entrainment on the ebb and was composed of larger flocs than on the flood. Particulate nutrients and FIOs were associated with flocs in the 10-200 μm range but not with smaller or larger flocs. SPM concentrations in the resuspension component and ETM exceeded microbial water quality standards, emphasising the need for monitoring practices that consider tidal dynamics. The results from this study showing periodic SPM export from, rather than prolonged accumulation in, the RETZ and the influence of particle size fractionation on biogeochemical fluxes in the RETZ, are likely to be transferable to many other embayment-type estuaries on macrotidal coasts., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Prisons are high-risk settings for infectious disease transmission, due to their enclosed and semi-enclosed environments. The proximity between prisoners and staff, and the diversity of prisons reduces the effectiveness of non-pharmaceutical interventions, such as social distancing. Therefore, alternative health monitoring methods, such as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), are needed to track pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2. This pilot study assessed WBE to quantify SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in prison wastewater to determine its utility within a health protection system for residents. The study analysed 266 samples from six prisons in England over a 12-week period for nucleoprotein 1 (N1 gene) and envelope protein (E gene) using quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Both gene assays successfully detected SARS-CoV-2 fragments in wastewater samples, with both genes significantly correlating with COVID-19 case numbers across the prisons (p < 0.01). However, in 25% of the SARS-positive samples, only one gene target was detected, suggesting that both genes be used to reduce false-negative results. No significant differences were observed between 14- and 2-h composite samples, although 2-h samples showed greater signal variance. Population normalisation did not improve correlations between the N1 and E genes and COVID-19 case data. Overall, WBE shows considerable promise for health protection in prison settings.

Purpose of Review: Wastewater-based surveillance (WBS) (epidemiology) using near-source sampling (NSS) in large buildings, hospitals and care homes is reviewed covering three main areas: state-of-the-art WBS, benefits/opportunities NSS has for hospital infection control systems and new insights from hospital wastewater surveillance and policy implications., Recent Findings: Wastewater provides aggregate, anonymous sources of data where the spatial resolution can be linked to populations being served. In hospitals, clear links established between wastewater RNA-fragments signal to nosocomial COVID-19 cases/outbreaks. Detecting other targets from hospital wastewater such as antimicrobial resistance markers is considered a substantial opportunity for this technology. Other clinically relevant infections, that is influenza and monkeypox, can be perceived, and sub-variant resolution to target public health response in near real time to benefit hospital infection control. WBS can reduce hospitals' clinical testing requirements, as diagnostic costs are aggregated into fewer samples while still detecting single cases., Summary: WBS using NSS can inform infectious disease monitoring earlier, faster and cheaper than conventional monitoring. Routine sampling using wastewater provides a platform for risk-based sampling and enables smarter allocation of resources. Finally, hospital wastewater can be used for the benefit of the wastewater surveillance field as a promising source to monitor emerging threats and resolve longstanding questions on faecal shedding. Hospital monitoring in low-income settings is considered a priority for future research., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Schools are high-risk settings for infectious disease transmission. Wastewater monitoring for infectious diseases has been used to identify and mitigate outbreaks in many near-source settings during the COVID-19 pandemic, including universities and hospitals but less is known about the technology when applied for school health protection. This study aimed to implement a wastewater surveillance system to detect SARS-CoV-2 and other public health markers from wastewater in schools in England., Methods: A total of 855 wastewater samples were collected from 16 schools (10 primary, 5 secondary and 1 post-16 and further education) over 10 months of school term time. Wastewater was analysed for SARS-CoV-2 genomic copies of N1 and E genes by RT-qPCR. A subset of wastewater samples was sent for genomic sequencing, enabling determination of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 and emergence of variant(s) contributing to COVID-19 infections within schools. In total, >280 microbial pathogens and >1200 AMR genes were screened using RT-qPCR and metagenomics to consider the utility of these additional targets to further inform on health threats within the schools., Results: We report on wastewater-based surveillance for COVID-19 within English primary, secondary and further education schools over a full academic year (October 2020 to July 2021). The highest positivity rate (80.4%) was observed in the week commencing 30th November 2020 during the emergence of the Alpha variant, indicating most schools contained people who were shedding the virus. There was high SARS-CoV-2 amplicon concentration (up to 9.2x106 GC/L) detected over the summer term (8th June - 6th July 2021) during Delta variant prevalence. The summer increase of SARS-CoV-2 in school wastewater was reflected in age-specific clinical COVID-19 cases. Alpha variant and Delta variant were identified in the wastewater by sequencing of samples collected from December to March and June to July, respectively. Lead/lag analysis between SARS-CoV-2 concentrations in school and WWTP data sets show a maximum correlation between the two-time series when school data are lagged by two weeks. Furthermore, wastewater sample enrichment coupled with metagenomic sequencing and rapid informatics enabled the detection of other clinically relevant viral and bacterial pathogens and AMR., Conclusions: Passive wastewater monitoring surveillance in schools can identify cases of COVID-19. Samples can be sequenced to monitor for emerging and current variants of concern at the resolution of school catchments. Wastewater based monitoring for SARS-CoV-2 is a useful tool for SARS-CoV-2 passive surveillance and could be applied for case identification and containment, and mitigation in schools and other congregate settings with high risks of transmission. Wastewater monitoring enables public health authorities to develop targeted prevention and education programmes for hygiene measures within undertested communities across a broad range of use cases., Competing Interests: Department of Health and Social Care - NHS test and trace, Funded cost of sample collection, analysis and reporting. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials., (Copyright: © 2023 Hassard et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Fats, oil and grease, and their hydrolyzed counterparts-long chain fatty acids (LCFA) make up a large fraction of numerous wastewaters and are challenging to degrade anaerobically, more so, in low temperature anaerobic digestion (LtAD) systems. Herein, we perform a comparative analysis of publicly available Illumina 16S rRNA datasets generated from LCFA-degrading anaerobic microbiomes at low temperatures (10 and 20 °C) to comprehend the factors affecting microbial community dynamics. The various factors considered were the inoculum, substrate and operational characteristics, the reactor operation mode and reactor configuration, and the type of nucleic acid sequenced. We found that LCFA-degrading anaerobic microbiomes were differentiated primarily by inoculum characteristics (inoculum source and morphology) in comparison to the other factors tested. Inoculum characteristics prominently shaped the species richness, species evenness and beta-diversity patterns in the microbiomes even after long term operation of continuous reactors up to 150 days, implying the choice of inoculum needs careful consideration. The generalised additive models represented through beta diversity contour plots revealed that psychrophilic bacteria RBG-13-54-9 from family Anaerolineae, and taxa WCHB1-41 and Williamwhitmania were highly abundant in LCFA-fed microbial niches, suggesting their role in anaerobic treatment of LCFAs at low temperatures of 10-20 °C. Overall, we showed that the following bacterial genera: uncultured Propionibacteriaceae, Longilinea, Christensenellaceae R7 group, Lactivibrio, candidatus Caldatribacterium, Aminicenantales, Syntrophus, Syntrophomonas, Smithella, RBG-13-54-9, WCHB1-41, Trichococcus, Proteiniclasticum, SBR1031, Lutibacter and Lentimicrobium have prominent roles in LtAD of LCFA-rich wastewaters at 10-20 °C. This study provides molecular insights of anaerobic LCFA degradation under low temperatures from collated datasets and will aid in improving LtAD systems for treating LCFA-rich wastewaters., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Inhibitory pathways in dry anaerobic digestion are still understudied and current knowledge on wet processes cannot be easily transferred. This study forced instability in pilot-scale digesters by operating at short retention times (40 and 33 days) in order to understand inhibition pathways over long term operation (145 days). The first sign of inhibition at elevated total ammonia concentrations (8 g/l) was a headspace hydrogen level over the thermodynamic limit for propionic degradation, causing propionic accumulation. The combined inhibitory effect of propionic and ammonia accumulation resulted in further increased hydrogen partial pressures and n-butyric accumulation. The relative abundance of Methanosarcina increased while that of Methanoculleus decreased as digestion deteriorated. It was hypothesized that high ammonia, total solids and organic loading rate inhibited syntrophic acetate oxidisers, increasing their doubling time and resulting in its wash out, which in turn inhibited hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis and shifted the predominant methanogenic pathway towards acetoclastic methanogenesis at free ammonia over 1.5 g/l. C/N increases to 25 and 29 reduced inhibitors accumulation but did not avoid inhibition or the washout of syntrophic acetate oxidising bacteria., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Competing Interests: We declare no competing interests.

Here, multifunctional heterogeneous ion-exchange metal nanocomposite membranes were prepared for surface water desalination and bacterial inactivation under low-pressure (0.05 MPa) filtration conditions. Ultrafiltration (UF) heterogeneous ion exchange membranes (IEMs) were modified with different concentrations of AgNO 3 and CuSO 4 solutions using the intermatrix synthesis (IMS) technique to produce metal nanocomposite membranes. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed that the metal nanoparticles (MNPs) (Ag and Cu) were uniformly distributed on the surface and the interior of the nanocomposite membranes. With increasing metal precursor solution concentration (0.01 to 0.05 mol·L -1 ), the metal content of Ag and Cu nanocomposite membranes increased from 0.020 to 0.084 mg·cm -2 and from 0.031 to 0.218 m·cm -2 respectively. Results showed that the hydrodynamic diameter diameters of Ag and Cu nanoparticles (NPs) increased from 62.42 to 121.10 nm and from 54.2 to 125.7 nm respectively, as the metal precursor concentration loaded increased. The leaching of metals from metal nanocomposite membranes was measured in a dead-end filtration system, and the highest leaching concentration levels were 8.72 ppb and 5.32 ppb for Ag and Cu, respectively. The salt rejection studies indicated that ionic selectivity was improved with increasing metal content. Bacterial filtration showed higher antibacterial activity for metal nanocomposite membranes, reaching 3.6 log bacterial inactivation.

Rapid population growth and urbanization process have led to increasing demand for wastewater treatment capacity resulting in a non-negligible increase of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in several cities around the world. Bioaerosol emissions from WWTPs may pose adverse health risks to the sewage workers and nearby residents, which raises increasing public health concerns. However, there are still significant knowledge gaps on the interplay between process-based bioaerosol characteristics and exposures and the quantification of health risk which limit our ability to design effective risk assessment and management strategies. This review provides a critical overview of the existing knowledge of bioaerosol emissions from WWTPs including their nature, magnitude and size distribution, and highlights the shortcoming associated with existing sampling and analysis methods. The recent advancements made for rapid detection of bioaerosols are then discussed, especially the emerging real time detection methods to highlight the directions for future research needs to advance the knowledge on bioaerosol emissions from WWTPs., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Tian, Yan, Alcega, Hassard, Tyrrel, Coulon and Nasir.)

Prokaryotic diversity in lakes has been studied for many years mainly focusing on community structure and how the bacterial assemblages are driven by physicochemical conditions such as temperature, oxygen, and nutrients. However, little is known about how the composition and function of the prokaryotic community changes upon lake stratification. To elucidate this, we studied Lake Cote in Costa Rica determining prokaryotic diversity and community structure in conjunction with physicochemistry along vertical gradients during stratification and mixing periods. Of the parameters measured, ammonium, oxygen, and temperature, in that order, were the main determinants driving the variability in the prokaryotic community structure of the lake. Distinct stratification of Lake Cote occurred (March 2018) and the community diversity was compared to a period of complete mixing (March 2019). The microbial community analysis indicated that stratification significantly altered the bacterial composition in the epi-meta- and hypolimnion. During stratification, the Deltaproteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Bacteroidetes, Nitrospirae, and Euryarchaeota were dominant in the hypolimnion yet largely absent in surface layers. Among these taxa, strict or facultative anaerobic bacteria were likely contributing to the lake nitrogen biogeochemical cycling, consistent with measurements of inorganic nitrogen measurements and microbial functional abundance predictions. In general, during both sampling events, a higher abundance of Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Cyanobacteria was found in the oxygenated layers. Lake Cote had a unique bacterial diversity, with 80% of Amplicon Sequence Variant (ASV) recovered similar to unclassified/uncultured strains and exhibits archetypal shallow lake physicochemical but not microbial fluctuations worthy of further investigation. This study provides an example of lake hydrodynamics impacts to microbial community and their function in Central American lakes with implications for other shallow, upland, and oligotrophic lake systems., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Brenes-Guillén, Vidaurre-Barahona, Avilés-Vargas, Castro-Gutierrez, Gómez-Ramírez, González-Sánchez, Mora-López, Umaña-Villalobos, Uribe-Lorío and Hassard.)

Bioremediation of metaldehyde from drinking water using metaldehyde-degrading strains has recently emerged as a promising alternative. Whole-genome sequencing was used to obtain full genomes for metaldehyde degraders Acinetobacter calcoaceticus E1 and Sphingobium CMET-H. For the former, the genetic context of the metaldehyde-degrading genes had not been explored, while for the latter, none of the degrading genes themselves had been identified. In A. calcoaceticus E1, IS 91 and IS 6 -family insertion sequences (ISs) were found surrounding the metaldehyde-degrading gene cluster located in plasmid pAME76. This cluster was located in closely-related plasmids and associated to identical ISs in most metaldehyde-degrading β- and γ-Proteobacteria, indicating horizontal gene transfer (HGT). For Sphingobium CMET-H, sequence analysis suggested a phytanoyl-CoA family oxygenase as a metaldehyde-degrading gene candidate due to its close homology to a previously identified metaldehyde-degrading gene known as mahX . Heterologous gene expression in Escherichia coli alongside degradation tests verified its functional significance and the degrading gene homolog was henceforth called mahS . It was found that mahS is hosted within the conjugative plasmid pSM1 and its genetic context suggested a crossover between the metaldehyde and acetoin degradation pathways. Here, specific replicons and ISs responsible for maintaining and dispersing metaldehyde-degrading genes in α, β and γ-Proteobacteria through HGT were identified and described. In addition, a homologous gene implicated in the first step of metaldehyde utilisation in an α-Proteobacteria was uncovered. Insights into specific steps of this possible degradation pathway are provided.

Competing Interests: MDC and DG contributed equally to writing this Comment. We declare no competing interests.

Arid areas often contain brackish groundwater that has a salinity exceeding 500 mg/L. This poses several challenges to the users of the water such as a salty taste and damage to household appliances. Desalination can be one of the key solutions to significantly lower the salinity and solute content of the water. However, the technology requires high energy inputs as well as managing waste products. This paper presents the fabrication of ultrafiltration heterogeneous ion exchange membranes for brackish groundwater treatment. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed a relatively uniform resin particle distribution within the polymer matrix. The mean roughness of the cation exchange membrane (CEM) and anion exchange membrane (AEM) surfaces increased from 42.12 to 317.25 and 68.56 to 295.95 nm, respectively, when resin loading was increased from 1 to 3.5 wt %. Contact angle measures suggested a more hydrophilic surface (86.13 to 76.26° and 88.10 to 74.47° for CEM and AEM, respectively) was achieved with greater resin loading rates. The ion exchange capacity (IEC) of the prepared membranes was assessed using synthetic groundwater in a dead-end filtration system and removal efficiency of K + , Mg 2+ , and Ca 2+ were 56.0, 93.5, and 85.4%, respectively, for CEM with the highest resin loading. Additionally, the anion, NO 3 - and SO 4 2- removal efficiency was 84.2% and 52.4%, respectively, for the AEM with the highest resin loading. This work demonstrates that the prepared ultrafiltration heterogeneous ion exchange membranes have potential for selective removal for of ions by ion exchange, under filtration conditions at low pressure of 0.05 MPa.

Coliphages are virus that infect coliform bacteria and are used in aquatic systems for risk assessment for human enteric viruses. This mini-review appraises the types and sources of coliphage and their fate and behavior in source waters and engineered drinking water treatment systems. Somatic (cell wall infection) and F + (male specific) coliphages are abundant in drinking water sources and are used as indicators of fecal contamination. Coliphage abundances do not consistently correlate to human enteric virus abundance, but they suitably reflect the risks of exposure to human enteric viruses. Coliphages have highly variable surface characteristics with respect to morphology, size, charge, isoelectric point, and hydrophobicity which together interact to govern partitioning and removal characteristics during water treatment. The groups somatic and F + coliphages are valuable for investigating the virus elimination during water treatment steps and as indicators for viral water quality assessment. Strain level analyses (e.g., Qβ or GA-like) provide more information about specific sources of viral pollution but are impractical for routine monitoring. Consistent links between rapid online monitoring tools (e.g., turbidity, particle counters, and flow cytometry) and phages in drinking water have yet to be established but are recommended as a future area of research activity. This could enable the real-time monitoring of virus and improve the process understanding during transient operational events. Exciting future prospects for the use of coliphages in aquatic microbiology are also discussed based on current scientific evidence and practical needs., Competing Interests: The Water Research Centre received funding from the United Kingdom Water Industry Research. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article, and the decision to submit it for publication. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Singh, Pitchers and Hassard.)

Clinical testing of children in schools is challenging, with economic implications limiting its frequent use as a monitoring tool of the risks assumed by children and staff during the COVID-19 pandemic. Here, a wastewater-based epidemiology approach has been used to monitor 16 schools (10 primary, 5 secondary and 1 post-16 and further education) in England. A total of 296 samples over 9 weeks have been analysed for N1 and E genes using qPCR methods. Of the samples returned, 47.3% were positive for one or both genes with a detection frequency in line with the respective local community. WBE offers a low cost, non-invasive approach for supplementing clinical testing and can provide longitudinal insights that are impractical with traditional clinical testing., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Metaldehyde, a molluscicide pesticide, has been identified as a pollutant of concern due to its repeated detection in drinking water, thereby generating numerous compliance failures for water utilities. Biological degradation potential for metaldehyde is widespread in soils, occurring at different rates, but to date, no molecular methods for its assessment have been reported. Here, three genes belonging to a shared metaldehyde-degrading gene cluster present in bacteria were used as candidates for development of a quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay for assessing the metaldehyde-degrading potential in soil. Screening of gene targets, primer pairs and optimization of reaction conditions led to the development of a sensitive and specific probe-based qPCR method for quantifying the mahY metaldehyde-degrading gene from soil. The technique was tested across 8 soils with different compositions and origins. The degrading pathway was detected in 4/8 soils, in which a higher number of gene copies correlated with periods of greater metaldehyde removal. Additionally, swift elimination of the pesticide was observed in soils with an elevated initial number of mahY gene copies. The gene cluster was not detected in other soils, even though metaldehyde removal occurred, indicating that other biological degrading pathways are also important in nature. The method described here is the first one available to estimate the microbial metaldehyde degradation potential and activity in soils, and can also be used to detect degrading microorganisms in systems such as sand filters for water purification or to monitor degrading strains in engineered processes., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater was first reported in March 2020. Over the subsequent months, the potential for wastewater surveillance to contribute to COVID-19 mitigation programmes has been the focus of intense national and international research activities, gaining the attention of policy makers and the public. As a new application of an established methodology, focused collaboration between public health practitioners and wastewater researchers is essential to developing a common understanding on how, when and where the outputs of this non-invasive community-level approach can deliver actionable outcomes for public health authorities. Within this context, the NORMAN SCORE "SARS-CoV-2 in sewage" database provides a platform for rapid, open access data sharing, validated by the uploading of 276 data sets from nine countries to-date. Through offering direct access to underpinning meta-data sets (and describing its use in data interpretation), the NORMAN SCORE database is a resource for the development of recommendations on minimum data requirements for wastewater pathogen surveillance. It is also a tool to engage public health practitioners in discussions on use of the approach, providing an opportunity to build mutual understanding of the demand and supply for data and facilitate the translation of this promising research application into public health practice., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Metaldehyde removal was delivered to below the 0.1 μg L -1 regulatory concentration in a laboratory scale continuous upflow fluidised sand bioreactor that had undergone acclimation through selective enrichment for metaldehyde degradation. This is the first reported case of successful continuous flow biological treatment of metaldehyde from real drinking water sources treating environmentally realistic metaldehyde concentrations. The impact of the acclimation process was impermanent, with the duration of effective treatment directly related to the elevated concentration of metaldehyde used during the enrichment process. The efficacy of the approach was demonstrated in continuous flow columns at both laboratory and pilot scale enabling degradation rates of between 0.1 and 0.2 mg L -1 h -1 . Future work needs to focus on optimisation of the sand bioreactor and the acclimation process to ensure viability and feasibility of the approach at full scale., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Early infection from enteropathogens is recognised as both a cause and effect of infant malnutrition. Specifically, evidence demonstrates associations between growth shortfalls and Campylobacter infection, endemic across low-income settings, with poultry a major source. Whilst improvements in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) should reduce pathogen transmission, interventions show inconsistent effects on infant health. This cross-sectional, formative study aimed to understand relationships between infant Campylobacter prevalence, malnutrition and associated risk factors, including domestic animal husbandry practices, in rural Ethiopia. Thirty-five households were visited in Sidama zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' region. Infant and poultry faeces and domestic floor surfaces (total = 102) were analysed for presumptive Campylobacter spp. using selective culture. Infant anthropometry and diarrhoeal prevalence, WASH facilities and animal husbandry data were collected. Of the infants, 14.3% were wasted, 31.4% stunted and 31.4% had recent diarrhoea. Presumptive Campylobacter spp. was isolated from 48.6% of infant, 68.6% of poultry and 65.6% of floor surface samples. Compared to non-wasted infants, wasted infants had an increased odds ratio (OR) of 1.41 for a Campylobacter-positive stool and 1.81 for diarrhoea. Positive infant stools showed a significant relationship with wasting (p = 0.026) but not stunting. Significant risk factors for a positive stool included keeping animals inside (p = 0.027, OR 3.5), owning cattle (p = 0.018, OR 6.5) and positive poultry faeces (p<0.001, OR 1.34). Positive floor samples showed a significant correlation with positive infant (p = 0.023), and positive poultry (p = 0.013, OR 2.68) stools. Ownership of improved WASH facilities was not correlated with lower odds of positive stools. This formative study shows a high prevalence of infants positive for Campylobacter in households with free-range animals. Findings reaffirm contaminated floors as an important pathway to infant pathogen ingestion and suggest that simply upgrading household WASH facilities will not reduce infection without addressing the burden of contamination from animals, alongside adequate separation in the home., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Biological processes for wastewater treatment is limited by extracellular enzyme activity (EEA) of the biofilm on polymeric substrates. The efficiency of biodegradation / biosorption mechanisms causing EEA and organic load removal in biofilms remains unknown. Our hypothesis was that the limiting step of biological process can be overcome by biostimulation and/or bioaugmentation of the return sludge in hybrid biofilm reactors, which leads to competition between suspended and attached bacteria and lower effective substrate to microrganism ratio. Therefore, we considered more active biosolids to perform best at enhancing reactor removal rate. To test this, the efficacy of recycling distinct bio-solids types considered to have different bacterial activity such as final effluent (FE), humus solids (HS) and recycle activated sludge (RAS) on performance improvements of rotating biofilm reactors (RBRs). These bio-solids were investigated under high organic loading rates (OLR) and solids loading rates (SLR) using pilot scale reactors receiving real municipal wastewaters. Controlled overloading of RBRs revealed that EEA improved with increasing OLR/SLR. High SLR (>3.3 kg Total Suspended Solids m -2  d -1 ) delayed and decreased the reduction of organic and inorganic removal rates in the biological processes which commonly occurs under high OLRs. This effect was more pronounced in the highest activity solids (RAS > HS > FE) suggesting the activity and function of bio-solids was critical to improve performance of RBRs. High OLR and SLR induced efficient denitrification and organics removal within the biofilm reactor at residence times of <5 min. Recycling active solids permitted EEA despite overloading which was critical to the performance of the RBRs., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Polar, low molecular weight pesticides such as metaldehyde are challenging and costly to remove from drinking water using conventional treatment methods. Although biological treatments can be effective at treating micropollutants, through biodegradation and sorption processes, only some operational biofilters have shown the ability to remove metaldehyde. As sorption plays a minor role for such polar organic micropollutants, biodegradation is therefore likely to be the main removal pathway. In this work, the biodegradation of metaldehyde was monitored, and assessed, in an operational slow sand filter. Long-term data showed that metaldehyde degradation improved when inlet concentrations increased. A comparison of inactive and active sand batch reactors showed that metaldehyde removal happened mainly through biodegradation and that the removal rates were greater after the biofilm was acclimated through exposure to high metaldehyde concentrations. This suggested that metaldehyde removal was reliant on enrichment and that the process could be engineered to decrease treatment times (from days to hours). Through-flow experiments using fluidised bed reactors, showed the same behaviour following metaldehyde acclimation. A 40% increase in metaldehyde removal was observed in acclimated compared with non-acclimated columns. This increase was sustained for >40 days, achieving an average of 80% removal and compliance (<0.1 μ L -1 ) for >20 days. An initial microbial analysis of the acclimated and non-acclimated biofilm from the same filter materials, showed that the microbial community in acclimated sand was significantly different. This work presents a novel conceptual template for a faster, chemical free, low cost, biological treatment of metaldehyde and other polar pollutants in drinking water. In addition, this is the first study to report kinetics of metaldehyde degradation in an active microbial biofilm at a WTW., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Most commercial swimming pools use pressurised filters, typically containing sand media, to remove suspended solids as part of the water treatment process designed to keep water attractive, clean and safe. The accidental release of faecal material by bathers presents a poorly quantified risk to the safety of swimmers using the pool. The water treatment process usually includes a combination of maintaining a residual concentration of an appropriate biocide in the pool together with filtration to physically remove particles, including microbial pathogens, from the water. However, there is uncertainty about the effectiveness of treatment processes in removing all pathogens, and there has been growing concern about the number of reported outbreaks of the gastrointestinal disease cryptosporidiosis, caused by the chlorine-resistant protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium. A number of interacting issues influence the effectiveness of filtration for the removal of Cryptosporidium oocysts from swimming pools. This review explains the mechanisms by which filters remove particles of different sizes (including oocyst-sized particles, typically 4-6 μm), factors that affect the efficiency of particle removal (such as filtration velocity), current recommended management practices, and identifies further work to support the development of a risk-based management approach for the management of waterborne disease outbreaks from swimming pools.