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Determining the value of water demand in the residential sector and the meteorological water availability are the two main objectives of the Karanggeneng watershed's water criticality study. The water balance during a ten-year period in the Karanggeneng watershed is calculated using the water criticality index. The Thornthwaite-Matter meteorological water balance approach, which takes into account regional rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, and Water Holding Capacity (WHC) values, is used to determine water availability values. The population and area have a major impact on the amount of water needed. The critical water index value for the Karanggeneng watershed area will be determined by comparing water availability and demand. The study's findings indicate that in places with dense populations and/or little precipitation, household water is crucial. Due to the influence of monthly rainfall, the value of water availability was at its lowest in 2019 and at its highest in 2014. Every year, the value of the need for water rises in tandem with population growth. According to the water criticality index calculation, the Karanggeneng watershed value was below 75% from 2014 to 2017 and from 2020 to 2022, but in 2018 and 2019, the index value above 100% (extremely critical condition). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar water heating provides domestic hot water with lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to more typical natural-gas water heating. Solar water heating has a long history, particularly in places where the climate is favorable, such as California where state-backed incentive programs have been successful in creating small bursts of adoption. However, widespread adoption of solar water heating has not occurred in California despite these conditions. This research surveyed 227 single-family households with solar water heating across the state of California to understand their motivations and experiences, and draw implications regarding barriers to adoption. The survey explored households’ experiences across five stages of adoption, as outlined in Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation theory: Knowledge, Persuasion, Decision, Implementation, and Confirmation. Findings revealed challenges at each stage. Most notably, prevalent disappointment in lower-than-expected energy and bill savings (31%) and high rates of technical problems (41%) appear to be the most significant issues.

Water demand at any given time, particularly at the household level, depends on various factors, including climatic variables, social, economic, and demographic factors. Achieving consistent availability and accessibility, coupled with effective resource management, is crucial, particularly in tropical regions. Understanding all these variables is essential to achieving these goals. This research aimed to assess the impact of ten socio-demographic variables on predicting household water demand in Iwo. Two hundred and twenty-five households were randomly selected, with 196 completing and returning the survey. Both descriptive and multivariate analyses, specifically Factor and Regression Analysis, were employed to analyse the data. Factor analysis (FA) identified four variables: (i) housing characteristics; (ii) marital status; (iii) income level; and (iv) gender distribution, in that sequence. These four variables collectively accounted for 68.608% of the variance in household water demand in Iwo. This outcome underscores the importance of giving due consideration to these variables in water supply planning by relevant authorities. The study contributes to a better understanding and quantification of the significant variables influencing household water demand. However, it is advisable that future investigations into household water use incorporate additional variables beyond socio-demographic factors to comprehensively comprehend factors influencing water demand at the household level.

Studying perceptions about reuse of alternative water sources informs about conditions necessary for transition to large-scale decentralized water reuse. We administered a perceptions survey to the public based on results of initial open interviews of water management experts in Israel. Experts indicated their views on impediments to widespread household water reuse which became the basis for developing the questionnaire. The latter aimed to understand views among the general public of: (a) willingness to adopt reuse practices from three sources: greywater, air conditioner condensate and roof-harvested rainwater; and (b) preferences for targeted use of these three types of reused water. The survey elicited 372 responses. A maximum-likelihood regression analysis was conducted using independent variables (i.e., demographic characteristics, individual positions regarding the state of the country's water resources and plans for the provision of domestic water (i.e., desalination), knowledge of the reuse practices and views about risks from various uses of the reused water, including off-premise uses). Willingness to implement reuse practices served as the dependent variable. We found that respondents indicating that they heard of the reuse of the particular types of reuse practices (variable: ‘Knowledge’) was the most significant of the independent variables for all three alternative water sources. Also, using an analytic hierarchy process, we determined that health risks were much more important when compared to convenience of use and costs under hypothetical scenarios of both moderate and significant savings in monthly water expenditures. HIGHLIGHTS Public perceptions inform on willingness to adopt household water reuse practices.; Our perceptions survey centered on expert-identified impediments to adoption.; Some attributes of those surveyed were associated with willingness to reuse.; We found that willingness is associated with previous knowledge of practices.; Health risk is the most important factor in household-level decisions about reuse.;

Feco-orally transmitted infectious diseases are common in Nigeria where the potable water access is poor. In the south-western Nigerian Ibadan metropolis, supply of municipal water is meagre as residents depend on household wells and boreholes. The likelihood of fecal contamination of household water sources in Ibadan was examined longitudinally to quantify and understand its impact. Well and borehole water samples aseptically collected from 96 households in Ibadan were assessed for total heterotrophic counts (THCs), total coliform counts (TCCs) and total Escherichia coli counts (TECs) using a pour plate technique. E. coli were identified by uidA and whole-genome sequencing using Illumina technology, whereas virulence factors were predicted using VirulenceFinder. There was season-independent abundance of THC and TCC in the well and borehole with a significant recovery of E. coli in the wells during the wet season compared to the dry season (P ¼ 0.0001). Virulence genes associated with pathogenic E. coli were identified in 13 (52%) strains with one E. coli each classified as extra-intestinal E. coli, avian pathogenic E. coli and enteroaggregative E. coli. High heterotrophic and coliform counts, with rainfall-driven E. coli contamination revealed that the water sources evaluated in this study are unfit for consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa continues to grapple with water insecurity, especially regarding access to rural household water. Access to water in rural areas is communal, yet its distribution remains uneven. A mixed-methods approach was used to elicit data for this study. Quantitative data were collected from 211 households using the survey method where a questionnaire was administered. Qualitative data were collected using key-informant interviews with 20 participants. Quantitative data were analysed using the SPSS software. Qualitative data were analysed using the thematic content analysis technique. The findings indicate that water resource management is intertwined with water allocation. Evidence from Goboti and Khubvi reflect structural inequities and the lack of equalisation of opportunities, especially considering the absence of socially inclusive policy interventions, including the Water Services Act (No. 108 of 1997), which has arguably failed to address the challenges impeding rural household water provision. Further, findings unveiled the fallacy that rural households have a greater acceptance of communal water. This study reflects on how the mandate for transformation has been ignored, prompting the need to understand the implications of lack of water in resource-constrained rural settings. Thus, it is imperative to focus on representation and inclusion within rural communities. More importantly, a commensurable allotment of water resources in South Africa’s post-apartheid extractive political economy and political power of water management remains necessary if water access must be attained.

South Africa continues to grapple with water insecurity, especially regarding access to rural household water. Access to water in rural areas is communal, yet its distribution remains uneven. A mixed-methods approach was used to elicit data for this study. Quantitative data were collected from 211 households using the survey method where a questionnaire was administered. Qualitative data were collected using key-informant interviews with 20 participants. Quantitative data were analysed using the SPSS software. Qualitative data were analysed using the thematic content analysis technique. The findings indicate that water resource management is intertwined with water allocation. Evidence from Goboti and Khubvi reflect structural inequities and the lack of equalisation of opportunities, especially considering the absence of socially inclusive policy interventions, including the Water Services Act (No. 108 of 1997), which has arguably failed to address the challenges impeding rural household water provision. Further, findings unveiled the fallacy that rural households have a greater acceptance of communal water. This study reflects on how the mandate for transformation has been ignored, prompting the need to understand the implications of lack of water in resource-constrained rural settings. Thus, it is imperative to focus on representation and inclusion within rural communities. More importantly, a commensurable allotment of water resources in South Africa's post-apartheid extractive political economy and political power of water management remains necessary if water access must be attained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study seeks to identify the spatial risk pattern of households (HHs) exposed to arsenic contamination in Bangladesh by adjusting potential socio-economic, demographic factors. Data from Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2012–13 are used where hierarchical Bayesian spatial ordered logit model is implemented. The analysis shows that 25% of HH water samples were arsenic contaminated, although the majority (95%) of HHs used improved water sources. Arsenic contamination risk in the HH water was significantly associated with water source type and location, place of residence and districts. The model-based spatial prediction reveals that the north-east and south-west parts of Bangladesh have a high risk of contamination. To ensure the quality of HH water, our findings suggest that chemical test should be promoted considering the spatial risk of arsenic contaminations variations among HHs of Bangladesh. Furthermore, the study findings can effectively contribute in the planning of future interventions and programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cholera is one of the common diseases in developing countries caused by consumption of contaminated and untreated drinking water. A study was conducted 7 months after a cholera outbreak in Vhembe district, Limpopo, South Africa. The aim of the study was to assess if the communities were still conforming to safe water practices after an outbreak of cholera. Methodology: One hundred and fifty-two (152) participants from 11 villages were recruited to form 21 focus groups, with a mean of 7. The interview transcripts were coded and arranged based on the study themes. Results: Of the 21 groups in 11 villages, three villages were using water from boreholes, six were using river water and three were using mixed sources which included river, canal and spring water, three depended on municipal tanks and only six were using tap water. Only 19% of the respondents treated their water, even though the majority of communities reported treatment of water as a priority. Four villages claimed they never received environmental health education at all, while most of the villages confirmed they received education during a cholera outbreak. Conclusion: Regardless of the outbreak and health education efforts done, communities continued using unprotected water sources without any form of treatment, as they perceived it to be unimportant. Sustainable water supplies and environmental health education should be continued after an outbreak as it is important for public health gains.

Continuous decline in potable water sources has raised serious concerns over human health. Developing countries are the most affected in this regard due to a lack of proper hygiene maintenance. Sikkim, an Eastern Himalayan state with mountains as the predominant topological features, harbors several perennial natural springs. Spring water is the primary source of potable water for the population in four districts of the state viz. East, West, North and South. Recent outbreaks of water-borne diseases and the relative lack of scientific studies on its potential correlation with the water quality of the area have educed this study. Physicochemical parameters of springs, community reservoirs, and household water were analyzed by ICP-MS and multi probe meter. Using the membrane filtration method, the microbial quality of the water samples during different seasons was assessed, primarily evaluating the presence of fecal indicators viz. Escherichia coli, total coliform and Enterococcus. The seasonal risk category of the water sources was also determined. Most of the physicochemical parameters of the spring water were within the permissible limits of WHO standards. However, water from four districts was recorded with traces of toxic heavy metals like mercury (0.001–0.007 mg/l), lead (0.001–0.007 mg/l), and selenium (0.526–0.644 mg/l), which are above the permissible limits of WHO. All the spring water samples were categorized as Mg-HCO3- type and can be predicted as shallow fresh ground water based on the piper analysis. Microbial confirmatory testing indicated severe fecal contamination of water sources with high counts of total coliform (TC), Escherichia coli (EC) and Enterococcus (EN). The highest level of TC was recorded from West Sikkim (37.26 cfu/100 ml) and the lowest in North Sikkim (22.13 cfu/100 ml). The highest level of contamination of E. coli and Enterococcus was found in East Sikkim (EC = 8.7 cfu/100 ml; EN = 2.08 cfu/100 ml) followed by South Sikkim (EC = 8.4 cfu/100 ml; EN = 2.05 cfu/100 ml). There was a significant positive correlation between the contamination levels of the spring water and the community reservoir tank. As far as the seasonal variation is concerned, the rainy season showed the most contamination with coliform correlating with a high incidence of different water-borne diseases (East = 86%; West = 100%; South = 100%; North = 80%).

In the present study an analysis of incidence of the subsidy on household water for households in Mexico City is made. For this purpose the transfer recipients are identified using the survey consumer habits, Service and Water Quality Home in Mexico City 2011, supported by the Census of Population and Housing 2010 and the National Survey of Income and Expenditure Survey 2010, 2012, 2014. Through an analysis of incidence of subsidies, and the calculation of both performance indicator terms of focus and concentration ratio, the results indicate that the subsidy is not concentrated in the poorest sectors. Taken together 20 per cent of households with higher incomes receive around 45 per cent of the subsidy, while 20 per cent of households with lower incomes concentrated just under 12 per cent of them (regressive subsidy), revealing the inequity in distribution and focus them difficult to households who need them most. These results make clear the need to look over this policy of subsidies, not only locally, with the challenge that the process will not affect the most vulnerable and thus get to improve the welfare of the whole society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Case detection rate of diarrhea in Puskesmas Mijen, Semarang is still relatively high. One cause of diarrhea disease is a condition of polluted water sources such fouling proximity of water sources with a septic tank. Escherichia coli is a bacteria that may be found in contaminated water sources fouling. Coverage field of environmental health in terms of supervision and control of water quality in Puskesmas Mijen is still far from the achievement of the target, based on these data it is necessary to do research to analysis within a septic tank with a household water source for the presence of the bacterium Escherichia coli.Methods: This study is a cross-sectional study conducted in Puskesmas Mijen. The study methods using systematic random sampling method in 10 villages and the sample number were included with proportion estimate formula. Laboratory tests Escherichia coli bacteria levels in the water conducted in the laboratories of the Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Muhammadiyah Semarang. Data were analyzed using chi square test.Result: From the 36 samples of water, we get the result there is no significant relationship between the distance of a septic tank with a household water source for the presence of the bacterium Escherichia coli (P-value = 0.2).Conclusion: There is no related between the distance of the septic tank with a household water source within the findings of Escherichia coli bacteria in the household water in Puskesmas Mijen.

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Background: Cholera is one of the common diseases in developing countries caused by consumption of contaminated and untreated drinking water. A study was conducted 7 months after a cholera outbreak in Vhembe district, Limpopo, South Africa. The aim of the study was to assess if the communities were still conforming to safe water practices after an outbreak of cholera. Methodology: One hundred and fifty-two (152) participants from 11 villages were recruited to form 21 focus groups, with a mean of 7. The interview transcripts were coded and arranged based on the study themes. Results: Of the 21 groups in 11 villages, three villages were using water from boreholes, six were using river water and three were using mixed sources which included river, canal and spring water, three depended on municipal tanks and only six were using tap water. Only 19% of the respondents treated their water, even though the majority of communities reported treatment of water as a priority. Four villages claimed they never received environmental health education at all, while most of the villages confirmed they received education during a cholera outbreak. Conclusion: Regardless of the outbreak and health education efforts done, communities continued using unprotected water sources without any form of treatment, as they perceived it to be unimportant. Sustainable water supplies and environmental health education should be continued after an outbreak as it is important for public health gains. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

To determine whether plumbing could be a source of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) infection, during 2007–2009 I isolated NTM from samples from household water systems of NTM patients. Samples from 22/37 (59%) households and 109/394 (28%) total samples yielded NTM. Seventeen (46%) of the 37 households yielded >1 Mycobacterium spp. isolate of the same species as that found in the patient; in 7 of those households, the patient isolate and 1 plumbing isolate exhibited the same repetitive sequence-based PCR DNA fingerprint. Households with water heater temperatures 130°F (>55°C) (p = 0.0107). Although households with water from public or private water systems serving multiple households were more likely to have NTM (19/27, 70%) compared with households with a well providing water to only 1 household (5/12, 42%), that difference was not significant (p = 0.1532).

Water is very important to human beings. Although human life can exist for many days without food, the absence of water for only a few days has fatal consequences. A wide variety of commercial water treatment systems are available for application to treat very small quantities, such as for individual homes or taps. These can treat virtually any water quality problem. It is important to have a good understanding of the specific water quality problems before selecting water treatment system. It is also important that products be tested and approved by a qualified independent certification organization to have confidence that the device will indeed perform as the vendor claims. The present study aimed to assess the bacteriological quality of drinking water in some household water filter systems inBenghazi city. The study was carried out on a total of 600 water samples (300 tap water samples and 300 filter water devices samples). All water samples were examined for enumeration of viable heterotrophic bacteria by pour plate method and enumeration of total coliforms (TC) by both the multiple tube fermentation (MTF) and membrane filtration (MF) methods and for thermotolerant coliforms (TTC), Fecal streptococci (FS), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) by the MF method. According to Libyan guidelines, out of 600 examined drinking water samples 76.8% were acceptable. The highest percentage of acceptable samples was revealed from reverse osmosis (RO) system (90.7%), followed by charcoal filter (83.3%), tap water distribution system (DS) (82.3%), and only 54.7% from tap water tanks. It was concluded from this study that filtered water samples were found to be superior to tap water samples as regards their bacteriological aspects. In addition, P. aeruginosa was considered as an excellent indicator for the efficiency of the water filters.

Private wells are used daily worldwide as convenient household water sources. In Japan, where water supply coverage is high, well water is occasionally used for non-potable purposes, such as irrigation and watering. Currently, the main microbiological test of well water is designed to detect Escherichia coli, which is an indicator of fecal contamination, using culture methods. Water use such as watering generates bioaerosols, which may cause airborne infection. However, many causative bacteria of aerosol-derived infections, such as Legionella spp., are difficult to detect using culture methods. Thus, more comprehensive modern assessment is desirable for securing the microbiological quality of well water. Here, the bacterial community structure of five private wells located in different environments was examined using the rapid and portable MinION sequencer, which enabled us to identify bacteria to the species level based on full-length 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequences. The results revealed the differences in the bacterial community structures of water samples from the five wells and detected Legionella pneumophila and Aeromonas hydrophila as new candidate microbial indicators. The comprehensive analysis method used in this study successfully detected bacteria causing opportunistic infections, which are difficult to detect by conventional methods. This approach is expected to be routinely applied in the future as a highly accurate method for assessing the microbiological quality of private well water.

A case study is presented on ways in which domestic rainwater tanks are implicated in the understanding of entitlements to water collected or used in private domains in South East Queensland. Topics addressed include tanks' mediation of a relationship between the government and households, rights and obligations of citizen and state regarding what is considered private and public water collection, and tanks' illustration of changing relations between homeowners, water, and water authorities.

Chemometric exploration of desalinated and bottled water in Kuwait was employed to interpret the spatial variation in the physicochemical parameters. The data set consisted of the concentrations of principal macronutrient elements, ions, trace elements, temperature, pH, electrolytic conductivity, and total dissolved solids measured in indoor, outdoor, and bottled water samples. Quantitative assessment of the Cd, Hg, and Sb contents revealed rare cases of elevated concentrations; however, these concentrations were always below international health agency standards. Two general clusters of similar parameters were discovered in the variables mode and were associated with “natural” water characteristics or “conditions” of the pipeline system. We found that an increase in temperature facilitates the leaching of metals from the metallic equipment in the system. Spatial variation in the water quality was discovered, which indicates that residential areas fed from the Az-Zoor plant are supplied with water that contains lower concentrations of Ca, Cr, Mg, Mo, Ni, Na, TDS, and SO42−than the desalinated water produced and fed from the Doha plant. However, on the basis of the aluminum concentration in the water, cement mortar lining is assumed to be prevalent in the pipeline systems of the Mubarak Al-Kabeer, Ahmadi, Umm Al-Haiman, and Sorra areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent interview-based research on how Australian urban water professionals grasp the social aspects of sustainable water management suggests that interest in these dimensions outstrips understanding of them, and that more culturally intelligent, socially realistic and ethically sensitive notions of people, culture and society are needed. Despite lip-service to "triple bottom line" assessments of policies and developments, Australia's policymakers have advanced no further than a "double bottom line" based on economic and environmental values, the latter preferably expressed in dollar terms. The economic (or market relation) also substitutes for the social dimension in a continued policy emphasis on customers rather than citizens or community members. An overemphasis on behavioural economics, a lack of social, political and cultural theory, and neglect of people's actual practices means that much policy and research around water fails to grapple with such basic social elements as gender, different roles and access to resources within households, cultural diversity, or ethical orientations. A major challenge is to mobilise rather than ignore the altruistic and socially-oriented human capacities for adapting to change beyond the customer relation or the confines of technical and economic rationality; including by collective innovations in values and practices of caring for water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Uncontaminated water does not occur in nature. Water gets contaminated by various gases, minerals, agricultural activities and urbanization. Various types of micro-organisms also contaminate water. Water has to undergo a purification process before it can be used for drinking purposes. During emergencies like floods, earthquakes and epidemics; families often lack access to safe and pure water for drinking purposes. In these situations there is a dire need to purify water at home to stop the occurrence of diseases like gastroenteritis. Treating water at the household level has been shown to be one of the most effective and cost-effective means of preventing waterborne disease in development and emergency settings. Various methods to purify household water and generate pure water are being used like chemical disinfection, filtration, solar disinfection, combined flocculation/chlorination system, boiling and safe storage. Promoting household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS) helps vulnerable populations to take charge of their own water security by providing them with the knowledge and tools to treat their own drinking water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chemical analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and semivolatiles (SVs), including pesticides, was performed on 623 and 568 samples, respectively, of household drinking water, as well as on 113 samples from 71 brands of bottled water available in Kuwaiti markets. The analysis was performed according to United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) Methods 524.2 and 525.2. Nine VOCs and eight SVs were found in household water. Furthermore, between one and seven of 12 VOCs were detected in 93% of the bottled water brands. All bottled waters were found to be completely free of SVs. Styrene was the main pollutant found in all brands packaged in polystyrene containers of sizes 200-mL and 250-mL, with levels generally higher than the WHO guideline value of 20 µg/L. The levels of styrene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylenes were found to increase with storage time, which indicates that these VOCs were migrating from the container material. No effect was detected due to changes in the storage temperature. All detected VOCs and SVs in household and bottled waters, except styrene, were found at concentrations much lower than those established as safe by WHO guidelines and US-EPA maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Dual water supply systems were installed in several newly built housing estates in the Netherlands in the late 1990s. These residential homes were provided with both drinking water and separately with so-called household water for toilet flushing, laundry and the garden tap. Household water was produced by limited treatment from a variety of sources and had a lower quality than drinking water. No legislation for (the quality of) this type of water was present at the time and the Dutch government appointed six of these estates as pilot projects. Four pilot projects were intensively monitored for toxicological and microbiological safety as well as microbiological stability during a period of almost 16 months. Specific incidents such as cross connections between drinking water and household water and observations of viruses and pathogenic protozoa in treated water demonstrated that some of these systems were microbiologically unsafe. Furthermore certain household waters had a relatively high biofilm formation potential leading to growth of Legionella sp. and Aeromonas and complaints from customers about the smell and colour of the household water, In nearly all cases concentrations of heavy metals and organic pollutants were below drinking water standards, hence the toxicological risk caused by chemical substances was not significant. Based on the results of this study the Dutch government decided to discourage the production and distribution of household water on a large scale. At present all projects owned by water companies in the Netherlands have been terminated by replacing household water with drinking water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water disinfection is extremely important for the protection of public health; however, it also forms by-products, including trihalomethanes (THMs). Previous studies of health effects from disinfection by-products have lacked accurate methods to quantify exposure over time. As a first step in establishing a better system for exposure assessment, the authors investigated which household water use activities cause a significant increase in internal dose concentrations of THMs. In this study, 7 subjects in 2 different cities carried out 12 common activities that involved water use. In 3 of these activities—bathing, showering, and washing dishes by hand—the blood concentrations of THMs increased substantially. Further analysis of the data suggested that tap water concentrations primarily controlled the blood concentrations from bathing exposure, whereas tap water concentrations and ambient air concentrations resulting from water use affected the blood concentrations from showering exposure. Further studies will focus on variables in these activities that can alter exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amsterdam is building a new housing estate IJburg. It will house 45,000 residents. A dual water supply system, supplying drinking water and household water to the customers, appears to be an attractive alternative. Household water will be used for toilet flushing and for washing clothes. This concept has environmental advantages, while it is economically feasible. Household water will be produced from local surface water by a local production plant and must be sustainable. A treatment scheme, comprising coagulation-flotation-filtration and nanofiltration, complies with all the requirements. Direct nanofiltration with air flush may be an attractive alternative, provided that it results in a stable and robust operation. Direct nanofiltration with air flush will be compared with the originally system of coagulation/flotation followed by rapid filtration and spiral-wound nanofiltration. In a pilot plant research at Amsterdam Water Supply air flush nanofiltration was investigated in a 20 runs trial using IJ-Lake water with only a micro screen before the capillary nanofiltration. Quality and operational aspects of this system were investigated. From a membrane autopsy a lot of clay and organic fouling was found. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Domestic rainwater tanks have become commonplace in Australia's urban landscape, and have become the physical embodiment of the changing relations between householders, water, and water authorities. The aim of our research was to understand these changing relations by examining how domestic rainwater tanks are inscribed with meanings and assumptions and thus mediate a relationship between households and government. In particular, we considered how domestic rainwater tanks are implicated in various understandings of entitlements to water collected or used in private domains. We examined how tanks can render visible the contestation over rights and obligations of state and citizen as to what is considered private and public water collection, management, and use at the scale of the household. Our exploration of these issues was conducted through a case study of changing water relations in South East Queensland, Australia, where there has been recent widespread installation of domestic rainwater tanks.

Water is an important pathway for human exposure to heavy metals. Accurate assessment of the health risks that are related to exposure to heavy metals in drinking and household water are required for the preparation of targeted health risk prevention measures. This study explores and identifies the health risks related to exposure to heavy metals via drinking and household water pathways in Xigu District, Lanzhou, northwestern China, using household water samples and survey data obtained during July-September 2015 (wet season) and December 2015-January 2016 (dry season). During each period, drinking water and household water that were available for use by children aged 0-5 and 6-17 years were sampled and a questionnaire on water-related behavior patterns was completed for each household. Cd, Cr, Pb, and As concentrations were analyzed in all water samples, and were used along with water-related exposure factors from the questionnaires to estimate exposure doses and associated health risks using models recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). The results showed that the concentrations of Cd, Cr, Pb, and As in both drinking and household water samples did not exceed the relative thresholds defined in China's national water quality standards. The concentrations of heavy metals in household water were more affected by seasonal factors than of those of drinking water. The non-cancer and cancer risks were in the ranges of 2.82×10 -8 -2.43×10 -2 and 7.55×10 -9 -3.62×10 -5 , respectively, which are within acceptable levels, although the non-cancer and cancer risks from drinking water were both higher than of those determined for household water. Furthermore, the non-cancer and cancer risks from household water for children aged 0-5 years were lower than of those for children aged 6-17 years in each period. However, the cancer risk from drinking water for children aged 0-5 years was lower than of that for children aged 6-17 years, whereas the reverse was found for non-cancer risks. This study indicates that Cd, Cr, Pb, and As in drinking and household water did not pose significant detrimental effects to human health, and that the refined exposure assessment used could reduce uncertainties in health risk assessments.

Continuous decline in potable water sources has raised serious concerns over human health. Developing countries are the most affected in this regard due to a lack of proper hygiene maintenance. Sikkim, an Eastern Himalayan state with mountains as the predominant topological features, harbors several perennial natural springs. Spring water is the primary source of potable water for the population in four districts of the state viz. East, West, North and South. Recent outbreaks of water-borne diseases and the relative lack of scientific studies on its potential correlation with the water quality of the area have educed this study. Physicochemical parameters of springs, community reservoirs, and household water were analyzed by ICP-MS and multi probe meter. Using the membrane filtration method, the microbial quality of the water samples during different seasons was assessed, primarily evaluating the presence of fecal indicators viz. Escherichia coli , total coliform and Enterococcus . The seasonal risk category of the water sources was also determined. Most of the physicochemical parameters of the spring water were within the permissible limits of WHO standards. However, water from four districts was recorded with traces of toxic heavy metals like mercury (0.001-0.007 mg/l), lead (0.001-0.007 mg/l), and selenium (0.526-0.644 mg/l), which are above the permissible limits of WHO. All the spring water samples were categorized as Mg-HC O 3 - type and can be predicted as shallow fresh ground water based on the piper analysis. Microbial confirmatory testing indicated severe fecal contamination of water sources with high counts of total coliform (TC), Escherichia coli (EC) and Enterococcus (EN). The highest level of TC was recorded from West Sikkim (37.26 cfu/100 ml) and the lowest in North Sikkim (22.13 cfu/100 ml). The highest level of contamination of E. coli and Enterococcus was found in East Sikkim (EC = 8.7 cfu/100 ml; EN = 2.08 cfu/100 ml) followed by South Sikkim (EC = 8.4 cfu/100 ml; EN = 2.05 cfu/100 ml). There was a significant positive correlation between the contamination levels of the spring water and the community reservoir tank. As far as the seasonal variation is concerned, the rainy season showed the most contamination with coliform correlating with a high incidence of different water-borne diseases (East = 86%; West = 100%; South = 100%; North = 80%).

Rural households in developing countries rely on communal water supplies and household water frequently becomes contaminated following its collection, transportation and during its storage. Using culture-dependent and -independent techniques, we examined the changes in microbial water quality between communal tap water and household water storage in a rural area of Cameroon, Africa. The culturable fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) were used to assess the potential health risks associated with different household water storage conditions (e.g., type of container and open vs. closed container) and interventions (e.g., water storage days, cleaned on the last day of use, and hygiene practices). Only the amount of days the water was stored significantly differed (p-value < 0.05), which showed that potential health risks increased when water was stored for more than 3 days. The higher abundance of molecular FIB in biofilm than household water suggested that omnipresent biofilm in household water could potential health risk. The high-throughput sequencing revealed that the most abundant phylum was Proteobacteria , followed by Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes in both the water and the biofilm samples. Bacterial genera seen in biofilm bacteria, such as Pseudomonas , Acinetobacter and Comamonas . Acinetobacter, Chryseobacterium, Stenotrophomonas and Corynebacterium, were relatively more abundant in the biofilm than in the water. Potential bacterial pathogens including Acinetobacter baumannii , Citrobacter freundii, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Haemophilus influenza, were detected in household water and biofilm. The microbial quality might be affected by water-storage time and households repeatedly using the same water storage containers without proper sanitization, triggering microbial regrowth and biofilm formation on water containers. Higher bacterial diversity and potentially pathogenic bacteria found in the biofilm samples of a household water supply are unhealthy for the house's inhabitants. It is important to develop interventions aimed at preventing the formation of these dangerous biofilms in a communal water supply.