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języki artykułów: polski, hiszpańśki Z ogromną radością oddajemy do rąk Czytelników kolejną już monografię ukazującą powiązania między starożytnym Rzymem a Półwyspem Iberyjskim. Relacje te wciąż żywo interesują badaczy reprezentujących różne dyscypliny naukowe zarówno w Polsce, jak i za granicą. Książkę otwiera część poświęcona kwestiom językowym, zogniskowanym wokół dziedzictwa łaciny w języku hiszpańskim. Druga część dotyczy szeroko rozumianej literatury, począwszy od twórczości takich autorów, jak Marcjalis czy Pliniusz, poprzez łacińskie pieśni miłosne z Ripoll, piętnastowieczne dzieło Jana ze Stobnicy, a kończąc na pochodzącej ze starożytności ekfrazie, obecnej w literaturze siedemnastowiecznej Hiszpanii. Reprezentowana jest również literatura Portugalii, która w starożytnej mitologii doszukiwała się początków tego kraju. Kolejne rozdziały książki – na podstawie tekstów literackich oraz pozostałości archeologicznych, inskrypcji czy monet – poruszają tematy związane z historią i archeologią, takie jak: kult cesarski w hiszpańskich prowincjach Rzymu, zagadnienia militarne i prawnicze, polityczne koalicje oraz aktualność starożytnych wzorów osobowych. W monografii pojawiają się też rozdziały o amforach i świątyniach, które pozostały po starożytnej wymianie kulturowej i handlowej. Mamy nadzieję, że tom, w którym krzyżują się spojrzenia naukowców patrzących na tę problematykę z tak różnych perspektyw, okaże się pozycją ciekawą i inspirującą. Entregamos a los lectores el siguiente tomo monográfico dedicado a las relaciones entre la Roma antigua y la Península Ibérica. Dichas relaciones siguen interesando a los investigadores de varias disciplinas científicas, tanto en Polonia como en el extranjero. El libro se abre con una parte dedicada a las cuestiones lingüísticas, centradas en la herencia del latín en el español. La segunda parte trata de la literatura en su sentido más amplio, desde autores como Marcial o Plinio, las canciones latinas amorosas de Ripoll, una obra de Juan de Stobnica del siglo XV, hasta la écfrasis proveniente de la antigüedad, presente en la literatura española del siglo XVII. Aquí también se encuentra un capítulo sobre la literatura de Portugal que buscaba los orígenes de este país en la mitología antigua. Los capítulos siguientes tratan de temas relacionados con la historia y la arqueología, acercando al lector – a base de los textos literarios y vestigios arqueológicos, inscripciones y monedas – las investigaciones sobre el culto imperial en las privincias españolas romanas, cuestiones militares, coaliciones políticas, el derecho romano, o las referencias contemporáneas a los personajes antiguos, modelos para caudillos europeos. Esta parte abarca también capítulos sobre ánforas y templos: huellas del antiguo intercambio cultural y comercial. Esperamos que el tomo, en el que se entrecruzan las miradas de los investigadores desde perspectivas muy diversas, resulte inspirador y de interés para los lectores.

The quantities of Baetican amphorae Dressel 20 found in the Middle Imperial contexts (2nd–early 3rd centuries AD) discovered during the excavations in the so-called ‘Terme di Elagabalo’ in Rome are added to those discovered in other excavations carried out in Rome (outside Monte Testaccio) and Ostia in order to ponder over their presence in the two cities during this chronological period. Ancient sources and studies are also analysed so as to better understand this commodity, leading to a reflection upon the supply system to the Capital and the strategies of Emperors to improve it.

Carmina Rivipullensia is the only existing collection of medieval Latin lyrical love poetry deriving from Spain. It is a unique testimony to the skilful and creative use of the Latin poetic tradition on the Iberian Peninsula. The whole collection which is little-known in Poland has not yet been translated into Polish. The aim of this chapter is to present a proposed translation of one of the poems, Laudes amice, with a commentary on the literary devices applied in the translation, as well as dilemmas faced by a contemporary translator.

This chapter discusses the issue of the imperial cult on the Iberian Peninsula at the beginnig of the principate. In the first part of the chapter, the stages of development of the imperial cult in the Iberian Peninsula are briefly described. Its main centre was located in Tarraco, the capital city of Hither Spain. Two other provinces – Baetica and Lusitania followed in its footsteps. In the second part, epigraphic and numismatic evidence showing the Iberians’ attitude towards emperor worship are analysed. The author tries to prove that the creation of emperor rituals in the whole Peninsula was dominated by the initiative of the Iberians themsleves.

In this work, I focus on issues concerning the responsibility of city officials for crimen de ambitu in the light of Spanish leges municipales/ coloniarum and earlier legislation. In a system created by the ancient Romans, responsibility was intended to safeguard the interests of municipalities in the event of management irregularities. Therefore, the applicant for the office of duumvir or quaestor was obliged to set a cash security – cautio. One of the key problems of the Roman republic, and later the Roman municipia (also during the principate) was the corruption of voters with the aim of getting them to cast a ballot for a particular candidate. During the principate era, electoral crime was mainly committed outside Rome, which is why I analyse the legal norms contained in Spanish city laws in the context of Republican legislation.

The object of this work is the study of a poetic procedure with grecolatin influence in the poetry of the Golden Age: the ékprahsis in the broad sense. Various examples of descriptions classified by genres from Lope de Vega, Gabriel Bocángel, Francisco de Quevedo and Francisco de Rioja are provided for this purpose. We should appreciate the relation between the arts and the richness of the ecphrasis at this time, maybe for the extension of the silva.

In this chapter the author examines the representation of the Iberian and Apennine Peninsula in the astronomical and geographical treatise Introductio in Ptolemaei cosmographiam cum longitudinibus et latitudinibus regionum et civitatum celebriorum of Jan of Stobnica. These two countries provided fertile ground for the Cracow writer to articulate his ideas about the typology of Spain and Italy, their main cities and history. By examining these geographical descriptions, the author of the chapter shows how Jan of Stobnica constructed an image of the Iberian and Apennine Peninsula in keeping with the goals and context of his own work, while creating a vision of the Iberian Peninsula as a land of battles against Saracens, and a place from which transatlantic voyages had begun in order to discover the New World.

The beginnings of the imperial cult in Hispania are connected with the reign of Augustus. According to Quintilian, an altar dedicated to him was erected in Tarraco (Hispania Citerior) when the emperor was still alive. After the death of the Emperor, on the 17th September AD 14 when he was deified and given the title of Divus Augustus, the inhabitants of Tarraco decided to dedicate a temple to him. Less than a year later, they asked Tiberius for permission to build it. The image of the temple on the coins of Tiberius, as well as the archaeological remains, excavated at the highest point of the city (on the site of the present cathedral), testify to the fact that the plan was realised. Shortly afterwards, the imperial cult spread to other provinces of Hispania (Ulterior Baetica, Ulterior Lusitania), and temples dedicated to the emperor decorated city forums in other cities, especially the provincial capitals. The example of Tarraco was followed by Emerita Augusta, where the so-called Temple of Diana was erected in the city forum and the Temple of Augustus in the provincial forum. As recent archaeological research shows, in Colonia Patricia Corduba, in the 1st half of the 1st century, a temple in honour of the emperor was also built in the provincial forum, and in the 50s of the 1st century – another one in the city forum.

The Stoic doctrine of Seneca was assimilated in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance by Christianity and Humanism, which made it one of the basic references of ancient culture. In addition, in the Spanish sphere it was adopted as an anachronistic reference of Hispanicness. Both factors favoured the wide diffusion of his works at the time in which the Spanish proverbs were forged. The aim of this chapter is to trace Seneca’s reception in Spanish proverbs, especially those regarding self-control, how to deal with the vicissitudes of fortune, the capacity for moral improvement, and how virtue is the key to achieving happiness.

This chapter analyses the general features of the seviratus Augustalis, its territorial presence and continuity in the Roman Empire, and its influence in the spreading of the cultural and religious Roman customs in Hispania, through the study of its preserved epigraphic sources. The seviratus Augustalis was especially developed in the Western towns of the Empire, it lasted from the 1st to the 3rd century AD, and it was a semi-official institution mainly held by wealthy freedmen looking for social recognition. Despite the unresolved debate about its concrete function, the numerous preserved inscriptions in relation to the Augustality provide important information about the religious and munificent actions of its members. From the study of the existing epigraphic inscriptions in Hispania, we will demonstrate the role played by the seviri Augustales as promoters of Romanity, based on elements such as the worship of Roman deities, the connection of different gods with the emperor, the diffusion of Latin onomastics, the adoption of Roman magistracies and the imitation of the local Romanised elites. Consequently, this position created in Italy worked in Hispania as a diffusor of the Roman religion and the Roman social order, promoting the consolidation of the imperial regime in the provinces.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the mechanism of modalization in conditional sentences during the evolution from Latin to Romance languages. The analysis is realized with special attention to Spanish. The modal modification of the transmitted contents is connected with two factors (mood and tense): 1. The modal value of the Subjunctive mood and 2. The temporal translocation of the Latin and Romance tenses. Some Romance languages (e.g. Spanish, Portuguese and Italian) represent mostly the first solution. Others languages (e.g. French, Occitan and Catalan) select exclusively or principally the second possibility. Nevertheless, the temporal translocation connected with the change of the modal contents is possible in all Romance languages.

The dictatorship of General Franco in Spain resorted to two characters of ancient Iberian history to promote Franco’s authoritarianism: Viriathus and Trajan. In the early years of the regime, Viriathus was often called “caudillo de los españoles”. The anachronic distinction was obviously meant to mirror Franco’s own title as Caudillo de España. Trajan, on the other hand, appeared as an Iberian conqueror and excellent, military, ruler, thus serving as a predecessor to another Iberian army general in power: Franco himself. These lines analyse how Trajan and Viriathus appeared, in Francoist propaganda and education, as two complementing precedents (internal and external, local and universal) of the greatest and final Caudillo de España, Franco.

This chapter deals with the issue of the motivations that made Martialis, a Spanish native of Bilbilis, decide to leave the capital of the Empire after many years of fruitful residence in Rome and return to his native land. Analysing the references to the Spanish land that can be found in the epigrams of Martialis, it can be assumed that the strongest motivation for this was his memory of his home town, that is of Bilbilis, which certainly dominates over the sentiment to the Spanish land as an ethnic and geographical whole. It should be emphasized, however, that Martialis, who treated both Rome and his home town with a sufficient degree of criticism, in returning to his homeland, was guided not so much by sentiment and emotion, as by the need for inner peace, so desirable for a man who is closing his life balance.

After the arrival of Rome in the western surroundings of the Pyrenees, some of the communities that inhabited the region quickly formed coalitions to defend their territory and were able to face the foreign power. For this purpose, strong mechanisms were used that were deeply rooted in the region and had proved to be capable of creating large military coalitions amongst different communities, giving them a certain military strength, and by adopting, when necessary, typically Roman military techniques. The attitude of some of these communities was clear evidence of the high degree of cohesion and ethnic consciousness that they had previously developed.

The first contacts of the Greeks and Phoenicians with the Iberian Peninsula revealed the importance of the resources of the Iberian populations, especially in terms of metals. For decades, this news persuaded the more adventurous to undertake a trip to the West in search of fortune. On many occasions these stories were exaggerated, overvaluing the wealth existing with in the limits of the western Ecumene, and encouraging the creation of a literary topos around the descriptions of the territory. The Roman expansion through the western Mediterranean led to a series of references to the peninsular’s wealth by several authors in the service of Rome. They detailed in general the geography, populations and wealth that one could find in these regions. In the present work, we have gathered together those literary sources linked to the descriptions of gold in the landscapes of the Iberian Peninsula. As I have commented in some of my works, the acquisition of gold by Rome occupied much of its history on the Peninsula. Gold, as a positional good, is a scarce good by nature, which cannot be created, only redistributed. Pliny commented that the amount of gold known in the ancient world was always less than that of other precious metals (Plin. Nat. 33.16). By pointing out the news referred to in the Roman world about obtaining Hispanic resources, we will indirectly address what was the perception that Rome had about Iberia / Hispania.

For many years I have dedicated myself to the study of commercial contacts between the Roman provinces, based on research on amphorae. The knowledge of the production of the amphorae of Baetica and the deposits of the amphorae of Galia Cisalpina made it possible to draw conclusions about commercial contacts between these provinces. The aim of my new study of amphorae from Mazarrón Bay (Murcia), funded by the NCN - National Science Centre in Poland, arose from my previous research. Thanks to the collaboration of the University of Murcia, the Archaeological Museum of Murcia and the Municipal Archaeological Museum of the “Factoría Romana de Salazones” of Mazarrón, I was able to document the hitherto unpublished amphorae of the Mazarrón coast. During the process of documenting 574 amphorae, excavated in the dredging works in Puerto de Mazarrón, in the stores of the Museum of Murcia and the Museum of Mazarrón, I registered 169 containers coming from the production of the south coast of the region of Murcia. The typological and chronological elaboration, as well as the comparison with the finds of amphorae in the interior of the Mazarrón area, allow conclusions to be drawn about the local production and imports of containers from other regions of the Iberian Peninsula and from other Mediterranean areas. The study, based on pieces of material culture, allows the reconstruction of the role of Mazarrón Bay in the ancient trade of the peninsular southeast and other Mediterranean areas.

Tales on the origins of Portugal are based on mythological, biblical and historical motifs. They gain a large degree of resonance in the context of the Iberian Union (1580–1640). From the rich body of works developed in that period there is one that merits closer attention: Monarchia Lusitana – the history of Portugal first taken up by the Cistercians of the Santa Maria de Alcobaça monastery. Following the analysis of the work’s structure and content and by making reference to the research of, among others, Jacek Banaszkiewicz on “de origines”, the present chapter goes over the mythical roots of Portugal as reflected in the first and the second part of the Monarchia Lusitana (1597 and 1609) chronicle project started by Bernardo de Brito (1569–1617).

In Late Latin and the early stages of Castilian, prepositions assumed a role that they did not have in Classical Latin; namely, the identification of the case marks of the now disappeared flexional case system. This new role led to the grammaticalisation of the most commonly used prepositions and, thus, the progressive disappearance of the systematic set of semantic oppositions of Latin. The highly systematic set of prepositions was superseded by a chaotic collection of prepositional items in Spanish.

The purpose of this paper is to explore and analyze diachronically honorific expressions with the superlative suffix -ísimo, whose origin corresponds to a pattern of lexicalization that reflects the interpersonal relations of the strongly stratified society of that time. In fact, the feudal pyramid, established since the fifth century AD, which places the highest classes at the highest point, is in clear correspondence with the conceptual metaphor “more is above”. Through analysis of a relatively large corpus of Latin (5th–12th centuries) and Spanish (13th–16th centuries) texts, I will try to find the main reasons that came to determine its use in the Castilian language.

This paper deals with the historical value of martyrologies, such as Eugippus’ vita of St. Severinus and especially the poetic transcript of a fourth-century martyrology, the vita of St. Quirinus. Both saints were horrifically executed but later faced a similar fate: their bodies were exhumed and transferred to Italy, and their relics scattered all over the towns of the North Adriatic.

The core of this work is the study of the sources used by Miguel de Cervantes while writing his tragedy entitled La Numancia, which relates events from the final stages of the Third Celtiberian War (133 BC). Did the author use primary sources or only secondary ones? Another objective of the paper is to explain that although, for the most part, the plot follows historical events, there are some points in which it departs from both geographical and historical truth. The question tackled in the paper is: what are the reasons behind breaking the process of the recreation of the historical events?

The aim of the paper is to determine the role of Ibiza in the Western Mediterranean, from the foundation of the first Phoenician settlement in the second half of the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest. In the first part of the article, I discuss the geographical characteristics of the Balearic Islands and the weather conditions on the Mediterranean Sea. The main analysis, based on selected historical and archaeological finds, primarily amphoras, has the objective of delineating the island’s economy and its place on commercial routes.

This paper deals with the possibility of establishing some kind of relationship between those languages which tend towards synthetic syntactic structures (not morphological) and speech communities with social and civil priorities which are equally synthetic and practical, and those languages with a more analytic syntax and communities with more ‘analytic’ civil and cultural priorities. The Roman world and Latin, as well as the British Empire and Modern English, seem to fit in the first frame, whereas Romance languages and European medieval societies, namely Spanish, could illustrate the second.

The article brings forth an analysis of the antiquity-evoking themes displayed by the seventeenth-century treatise Flores de España, excelencias de Portugal (1631) by António de Sousa de Macedo (1608–1682). The author tellingly acknowledges the Roman heritage of the Iberian Peninsula, a fact that becomes intimately entwined with the patriotic narration of theorigins of the nation. Antiquity is seen as the source of national pride and a handy weapon to protect anything Portuguese when the Iberian Union (1581–1640), which brought together Portugal and Spain, was in decline.

The article offers an analysis of the reception of Iberian threads running through the astronomical treatise Introductorium compendiosum in Tractatum sphaerae materialis Ioannis de Sacrobusto of Jan of Głogów by applying a literary analysis of the research text. The author of the article hints at the paradoxical symbol of the Iberian countries, which were regarded both as being at the end of the world from the times of the Greeks and Romans as well as a base or starting point from which the great transatlantic voyages were begun to discover new lands and continents. The reader is also given an insight into the achievements of scholars such as Isidorus Hispalensis (the Bishop of Seville), Paulus Orosius and Averroes, who were descended from the Iberian peninsula and had an effect or influence on Jan’s dissertation.

In the case of Romance languages, there are three factors which determine the degree of linguistic archaism or innovation: 1) the geographical position (Bartoli); 2) contact with other languages (Iordan) and 3) the time of Romanization (Cano Aguilar, Penny). The aim of this paper is the determination of the degree of archaism and innovation of the Spanish language in comparison with other Romance languages. At the end of this article, there is an analysis of the phonological, grammatical and lexical changes and features of the Spanish language.

The origins of Roman Tarragona reach back to the 3rd century, when – in 218 BC – the Romans set up a military camp on the location of the Iberian oppidum of Kese/Cese. Its strategic layout was appreciated by the Roman commanders during the Punic Wars and throughout the conquest of Iberian Peninsula. In the 1st century BC, Tarragona became a Roman colony (colonia Iulia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco) and in 27 BC – a province, which resulted in dynamic urban development. The prosperity of Tarraco reached its climax at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, when many important administrative and religious buildings, as well as places of public entertainment, such as a theatre, an amphitheater and a circus, were erected. The second half of the 2nd century brought a slowdown in urban development, both inside the city walls and behind them. In the 3rd century, just outside the walls, a large necropolis grew, which in 258 became a burial ground for the ashes of Bishop Fructuosus and his deacons, martyred in the local amphitheater. In the 4th century, a vast pilgrimage center arose around the martyrs’ tomb, attracting worshippers from all over the Christian world. The next century brought many changes in numerous aspects of the city. The monumental Roman edifices ceased to perform their civic and religious functions. Along with the increasing importance of the Christian faith and the cult of martyrs, churches and monasteries were erected one by one, first on the outskirts of the city and then, from the 6th century onwards, also inside the city walls.

Many references to Spain found in Naturalis Historia written by Pliny the Elder prove his profound knowledge of the land and culture of Spain, as well as his particular recognition of the wealth and high economic level of this country. Pliny the Elder gives important information about the agricultural resources of Spain and the basic crops of this land, which include mainly corn, vine and spartum, or Lygeum spartum, which is a valuable textile material, but he mainly focuses on the unusual wealth of minerals that were obtained from local excavations. Among them were materials useful for the production of medicines, dyes or ceramics, but also materials necessary for the production and preservation of food (enough to mention salt, extracted in Spain on a large scale), but mainly he describes precious metals, i.e., silver and gold, which made the Iberian Peninsula famous at that time. The manner in which Pliny depicts the mining techniques used at that time indicates his astonishing knowledge of the described realities, and the remarks which he provides about the destructive methods of obtaining Spanish gold testify to his ecological commitment to the integrity and undisturbed prosperity of the country with which he was connected in 73 AD by the prosecutor’s office.