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Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were the first identified doping agents that have ergogenic effects and are being used to increase muscle mass and strength in adult males. Consequently, athletes are still using them to increase physical performance and bodybuilders are using them to improve size and cosmetic appearance. The prevalence of AAS use has risen dramatically over the last two decades and filtered into all aspects of society. Support for AAS users has increased, but not by the medical profession, who will not accept that AAS use dependency is a psychiatric condition. The adverse effects and potential dangers of AAS use have been well documented. AAS are used in sport by individuals who have acquired knowledge of the half-lives of specific drugs and the dosages and cycles required to avoid detection. Conversely, they are used by bodybuilders in extreme dosages with the intention of gaining muscle mass and size, with little or no regard for the consequences. Polypharmacy by self-prescription is prevalent in this sector. Most recently, AAS use has filtered through to 'recreational street drug' users and is the largest growth of drugs in this subdivision. They are taken to counteract the anorexic and cachectic effects of the illegal psychotropic street drugs. Screening procedures for AAS in World Anti-Doping Agency accredited laboratories are comprehensive and sensitive and are based mainly on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, although liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry is becoming increasingly more valuable. The use of carbon isotope mass spectrometry is also of increasing importance in the detection of natural androgen administration, particularly to detect testosterone administration. There is a degree of contentiousness in the scenario of AAS drug use, both within and outside sport. AAS and associated doping agents are not illegal per se. Possession is not an offence, despite contravening sporting regulations and moral codes. Until AAS are classified in the same capacity as street drugs in the UK, where possession becomes a criminal offence, they will continue to attract those who want to win at any cost. The knowledge acquired by such work can only assist in the education of individuals who use such doping agents, with a view to minimizing health risks and hopefully once again create a level playing field in sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Cardiac exercise telerehabilitation is effective and can be cost-effective for managing ischaemic heart disease, but implementation of evidence-based interventions in clinical practice remains a challenge. We aimed to identify factors that cardiac rehabilitation stakeholders perceived could influence the effectiveness of implementing an evidence-based, real-time remotely monitored cardiac exercise telerehabilitation intervention (REMOTE-CR)., Methods and Results: Online interviews and focus groups were conducted with cardiac rehabilitation consumers (n = 16, 5 female, 61.1 ± 10.0 years), practitioners (n = 20, 14 female; 36.6 ± 11.8 years), and health service managers (n = 11, 7 female; 46.2 ± 9.2 years) recruited from one metropolitan and three inner-regional healthcare services in Western Victoria, Australia. Discussions were guided by two theoretical frameworks (Non-adoption, Abandonment, Scale-up, Spread, and Sustainability; Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research), and analysed thematically. Factors perceived to influence effective implementation of REMOTE-CR spanned all domains of the theoretical frameworks, related to six major themes (resources, change management, stakeholder targeting, knowledge, intervention design, security) and were largely consistent across study sites; however, the relative importance of each factor may vary between sites., Conclusion: Effective implementation of exercise telerehabilitation interventions like REMOTE-CR will require a coordinated context-specific approach that considers factors across all levels of the healthcare system and implementation science frameworks. Key requirements include prioritizing resources, managing change, selecting target stakeholders, developing digital health capabilities, and selecting fit-for-purpose technologies that enable programme delivery objectives., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest: J.C.R. and R.M. are inventors of the telerehabilitation platform examined in this study. They do not receive any related benefits over and above their normal salaries. No conflicts declared for remaining authors., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology.)

The purpose of this study was to compare swing time and golf club angle parameters during golf swings using three, two dimensional (2D) low cost, Augmented-Video-based-Portable-Systems (AVPS) (Kinovea, SiliconCoach Pro, SiliconCoach Live). Twelve right-handed golfers performed three golf swings whilst being recorded by a high-speed 2D video camera. Footage was then analysed using AVPS-software and the results compared using both descriptive and inferential statistics. There were no significant differences for swing time and the golf phase measurements between the 2D and 3D software comparisons. In general, the results showed a high Intra class Correlation Coefficient (ICC > 0.929) and Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha (CCA > 0.924) reliability for both the kinematic and temporal parameters. The inter-rater reliability test for the swing time and kinematic golf phase measurements on average were strong. Irrespective of the AVPS software investigated, the cost effective AVPS can produce reliable output measures that benefit golf analyses., (© 2022. Crown.)

Background: Electromyographic systems are widely used in scientific and clinical practice. The reproducibility and reliability of these measures are crucial when conducting scientific research and collecting experimental data., Objective: To test the reliability of surface electromyography signals from both the Flexor Digitorum Superficialis (FDS) and Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis (ECRB) muscles of both the left and right arms during an individual, static multi-planar maximum voluntary contraction handgrip task using the Myon 320 system (Myon AG, Switzerland)., Methods: Eight right-handed male participants performed two maximal handgrip tests in five separate wrist positions using both hands. Muscle activity was recorded from both forearms. Reliability was measured using the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM), Coefficient of Variation (CV) and Intra-class correlation coefficients. Wrist joint position correlations within and between the FDS and ECRB muscle activities were also analysed., Results: Absolute reliability was shown across all positions for both hands with CV and SEM recorded at below 10%. The output measures indicate that the Myon 320 system (Myon AG, Switzerland) produces good to fair reliability when assessing forearm muscle activity. Correlations in the left FDS muscles were negative. Correlations between the left ECRB and left FDS muscles were variable but positive between the right ECRB and right FDS muscles., Conclusions: The data sets retrieved from all participants were reliably evaluated. Wrist position correlations within and between the FDS and ECRB muscles may have been influenced by hand dominance. The findings demonstrate that the methods and systems outlined in this study can be used reliably in future research.

Increased basal low-grade inflammation is observed with advancing age, which is augmented by physical inactivity. However, data regarding the influence of lifelong exercise training and particularly high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on inflammatory mediators in older men are scarce. Therefore, we examined effects of 6weeks of aerobic preconditioning followed by 6weeks of HIIT on inflammatory mediators [interleukin (IL)-6, homocysteine, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP)] in previously sedentary older men (SED) and masters athletes (LEX). Further, we investigated whether SED exhibited greater basal inflammatory biomarkers compared to LEX. Twenty-two men (aged 62±2years) participated in the SED group, while 17 age-matched LEX men (aged 60±5years) also participated as a positive comparison group. In SED, preconditioning ( P =0.030, d =0.34) and HIIT ( P =0.030, d =0.48) caused a reduction in IL-6 compared to enrollment. SED homocysteine did not change throughout ( P >0.57; d <0.26), while the decrease in hsCRP after preconditioning ( P =0.486, d =0.25) and after HIIT ( P =0.781, d =0.23) compared to enrollment was small. HIIT did not influence IL-6 or hsCRP in LEX (all P >0.42; d <0.3). Homocysteine increased from enrollment to post-HIIT in LEX ( P =0.144, d =0.83), but all other perturbations were trivial. IL-6 and hsCRP were greater in SED than LEX throughout the investigation (all P <0.029; d> 0.72), but homocysteine was not different (all P >0.131; d <0.41). Results of this study suggest moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and HIIT lowers IL-6 (and possible hsCRP) in previously sedentary older men. Moreover, lifelong exercise is associated with reduced concentrations of some inflammatory biomarkers in older males, and therefore, physical activity, rather than age per se , is implicated in chronic low-grade inflammation. Moreover, physical inactivity-induced inflammation may be partly salvaged by short-term exercise training., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Hayes, Herbert, Sculthorpe and Grace.)

Long-term implications of acutely increased cardiorespiratory fitness following short-term exercise interventions in older adults are unknown. In this study, we examined peak oxygen uptake (VO 2peak ) after 4-years of 'free-living' after a high intensity interval training (HIIT) intervention. Seventeen lifelong exercisers (LEX) and 17 previously sedentary (SED) males (55-74 years of age in 2012) were tested four years (phase D) after our previous experiment which included 6-weeks of aerobic moderate intensity exercise (phase B), followed by 6-weeks of HIIT (phase C). At all stages, a standard incremental exercise protocol on a cycle ergometer was completed to determine VO 2peak . SED (P = 1.000, Cohen's d = 0.01) and LEX (P = 1.000, Cohen's d = 0.11) VO 2peak at phase D was not different from phase A (enrolment). SED experienced a large decrease in VO 2peak from phase C to phase D (32 ± 6 ml·kg·min -1 to 27 ± 6 ml·kg·min -1 [P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.81]). LEX experienced a small decrease in VO 2peak from phase C to phase D (42 ± 7 ml·kg·min -1 to 39 ± 9 ml·kg·min -1 [P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.46]). At phase D, LEX had greater VO 2peak than SED (P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.73). The proportion of subjects who reported discontinuing training, maintaining moderate training, and maintaining HIIT differed between groups (P = 0.023), with LEX self-reporting more HIIT, and SED self-reporting more discontinuation from exercise. Those who continued exercising experienced a reduction in VO 2peak over the four years from 39 ± 7 ml·kg·min -1 to 36 ± 9 ml·kg·min -1 (N = 25, P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.37), and those who discontinued exercising also experienced a reduction in VO 2peak from 30 ± 7 ml·kg·min -1 to 25 ± 9 ml·kg·min -1 (N = 9, P = 0.003, Cohen's d = 0.62). Four years after completing a brief period of aerobic exercise and HIIT, older males demonstrated a preservation of VO 2peak , irrespective of training status (LEX or SED). However, LEX exhibited greater VO 2peak than SED after 4-years of unsupervised 'free-living'. Notably, participants who discontinued exercising experienced a greater reduction in VO 2peak . These data suggest that a 6 weeks of supervised HIIT can facilitate the long term., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: This study examined the impact of a 4-week school-based sprint interval training program on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), daily physical activity (PA) behavior, and cardiometabolic risk (CMR) outcomes in adolescents., Methods: A total of 56 adolescents (22 females) were allocated to either an intervention (n = 22; 17.0 [0.3] y) or control group (n = 30; 16.8 [0.5] y). Intervention group performed 5 to 6, 30 second "all out" running sprints, interspersed with 30-second rest intervals, 3 times per week, for 4 consecutive weeks, whereas control group performed their normal physical education lessons. CRF was estimated from the 20-m multistage fitness test and PA behavior was determined using accelerometry. Fasting blood samples were obtained to measure biochemical markers of CMR., Results: Significant group × time interactions were observed for CRF (5.03 [1.66 to 8.40]; P < .001; d = 0.95), sedentary time (136.15 [91.91 to 180.39]; P = .004; d = 1.8), moderate PA (57.20 [32.17 to 82.23]; P < .001; d = 1.5), vigorous PA (5.40 [4.22 to 6.57]; P < .001; d = 1.2), fasting insulin (0.37 [-0.48 to 1.21]; P = .01; d = 1.0), homeostasis model of assessment-insulin resistance (0.26 [0.15 to 0.42]; P < .001; d = 0.9), and clustered CMR score (0.22 [-0.05 to 0.68]; P < .001; d = 10.63)., Conclusion: Findings of this study indicate that 4 weeks of school-based sprint interval training improves CRF, improves PA profiles, and maintains CMR in adolescents during the school term.

Background: In contrast to younger athletes, there is comparatively less literature examining cardiac structure and function in older athletes. However, a progressive accumulation of studies during the past four decades offers a body of literature worthy of systematic scrutiny., Objectives: We conducted a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of controlled echocardiography studies comparing left ventricular (LV) structure and function in aerobically trained older athletes (> 45 years) with age-matched untrained controls, in addition to investigating the influence of chronological age., Methods: Electronic databases were searched from inception to January 2018 before conducting a random-effects meta-analysis to calculate pooled differences in means, effect size and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Study heterogeneity was reported using Cochran's Q and I 2 statistic., Results: Overall, 32 studies (644 athletes; 582 controls) were included. Athletes had greater LV end-diastolic diameter (3.65 mm, 95% CI 2.66-4.64), interventricular septal thickness (1.23 mm, 95% CI 0.85-1.60), posterior wall thickness (1.20 mm, 95% CI 0.83-1.56), LV mass (72 g, 95% CI 46-98), LV mass index (28.17 g·m 2 , 95% CI 19.84-36.49) and stroke volume (13.59 mL, 95% CI 7.20-19.98) (all p < 0.01). Athletes had superior global diastolic function [ratio of early (E) to late (A) mitral inflow velocity (E/A) 0.18, 95% CI 0.13-0.24, p < 0.01; ratio of early (e') to late (a') diastolic annular tissue velocity (e'/a') 0.23, 95% CI 0.06-0.40, p = 0.01], lower A (-8.20 cm·s -1 , 95% CI -11.90 to -4.51, p < 0.01) and a' (-0.72 cm·s -1 , 95% CI -1.31 to -0.12, p = 0.02), and more rapid e' (0.96 cm·s -1 , 95% CI 0.05-1.86, p = 0.04). Meta-regression for chronological age identified that athlete-control differences, in the main, are maintained during advancing age., Conclusions: Athletic older men have larger cardiac dimensions and enjoy more favourable cardiac function than healthy, non-athletic counterparts. Notably, the athlete groups maintain these effects during chronological ageing.

The purpose of this study was to compare the electromyography (EMG) patterns of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the erector spinae (ES) muscle during the golf swing whilst using four different golf clubs. Fifteen right-handed male golfers performed a total of twenty swings in random order using the driver, 4-iron, 7-iron and pitching-wedge. Surface EMG was recorded from the lead and trail sides of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the ES muscle (T8, L1 and L5 lateral to the spinous-process). Three-dimensional high-speed video analysis was used to identify the backswing, forward swing, acceleration, early and late follow-through phases of the golf swing. No significant differences in muscle-activation levels from the lead and trail sides of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the ES muscle were displayed between the driver, 4-iron, 7-iron and pitching-wedge (P > 0.05). The highest mean thoracic and lumbar ES muscle-activation levels were displayed in the forward swing (67-99% MVC) and acceleration (83-106% MVC) phases of the swing for all clubs tested. The findings from this study show that there were no significant statistical differences between the driver, 4-iron, 7-iron and pitching-wedge when examining muscle activity from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the ES muscle.

The study aimed to determine whether or not commercial golf gloves influence performance variables and forearm muscle activity during golf play. Fifteen golfers participated in the laboratory based study, each performing 8 golf swings with a Driver and 7-iron whilst wearing a glove and 8 without wearing the glove. Club head speed, ball speed and absolute carry distance performance variables were calculated. Surface electromyography was recorded from the flexor digitorum superficialis and extensor carpi radialis brevis on both forearm muscles. Club head speed, ball speed and absolute carry distance was significantly higher when using the Driver with the glove in comparison to the Driver without the glove (p < 0.05). No significant differences were evident when using the 7-iron and no significant differences were displayed in muscle activity in either of the conditions. Findings from this study suggest that driving performance is improved when wearing a glove.

Lower back pain is commonly associated with golfers. The study aimed: to determine whether thoracic- and lumbar-erector-spinae muscle display signs of muscular fatigue after completing a golf practice session, and to examine the effect of the completed practice session on club head speed, ball speed and absolute carry distance performance variables. Fourteen right-handed male golfers participated in the laboratory-based-study. Surface electromyography (EMG) data was collected from the lead and trail sides of the thoracic- and lumbar-erector-spinae muscle. Normalized root mean squared (RMS) EMG activation levels and performance variables for the golf swings were compared before and after the session. Fatigue was assessed using median frequency (MDF) and RMS during the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) performed before and after the session. No significant differences were observed in RMS thoracic- and lumbar-erector-spinae muscle activation levels during the five phases of the golf swing and performance variables before and after the session (p > .05). Significant changes were displayed in MDF and RMS when comparing the MVC performed before and after the session (p < .05). Fatigue was evident in the trail side of the erector-spinae muscle after the session.

As the impact of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on systemic hormones in aging men is unstudied to date, we investigated whether total testosterone (TT), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), free testosterone (free-T) and cortisol (all in serum) were altered following HIIT in a cohort of 22 lifelong sedentary (62 ± 2 years) older men. As HIIT requires preconditioning exercise in sedentary cohorts, participants were tested at three phases, each separated by six-week training; baseline (phase A), following conditioning exercise (phase B) and post-HIIT (phase C). Each measurement phase used identical methods. TT was significantly increased following HIIT (~17%; P  < 0.001) with most increase occurring during preconditioning (~10%; P  = 0.007). Free-T was unaffected by conditioning exercise ( P  = 0.102) but was significantly higher following HIIT compared to baseline (~4.5%; P  = 0.023). Cortisol remained unchanged from A to C ( P  = 0.138). The present data indicate a combination of preconditioning, and HIIT increases TT and SHBG in sedentary older males, with the HIIT stimulus accounting for a small but statistically significant increase in free-T. Further study is required to determine the biological importance of small improvements in free-T in aging men., (© 2017 The authors.)

Lifelong exercise is associated with regulation of skeletal mass and function, reductions in frailty, and successful aging. Yet, the influence of exercise on myostatin and myostatin-interacting factors is relatively under examined in older males. Therefore, we investigated whether serum total myostatin, free myostatin, follistatin, and growth and differentiation factor 11 (GDF11) were altered following high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in a group of 13 lifelong sedentary (SED; 64 [6] years) and 11 lifelong exercising (LEX; 62 [6] years) older males. SED follistatin was moderately greater than LEX pre-HIIT (Cohen's d  = 0.66), and was largely greater post-HIIT (Cohen's d  = 1.22). The HIIT-induced increase in follistatin was large in SED (Cohen's d  = 0.82) and absent in LEX (Cohen's d  = 0.03). GDF11 was higher in LEX pre-HIIT (Cohen's d  = 0.49) and post-HIIT (Cohen's d  = 0.63) compared to SED HIIT resulted in no change to GDF11 in LEX or SED (Cohen's d  = 0.00-0.03). Peak power output and GDF11 were correlated ( r  = 0.603), independent of grouping. Differences in GDF11 with lifelong exercise training, paired with the correlation between GDF11 and peak power output, suggested that GDF11 may be a relevant myostatin-interacting peptide to successful aging in humans, and strategies to maintain this need to be further explored., (© 2017 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society.)

Objectives: To evaluate the ability of BMI, WC, and WHtR to identify increased cardiometabolic risk in pre-adolescents., Methods: This is a cross-sectional study involving 192 children (10.92 ± 0.58 years, 56% female) from the United Kingdom between 2010 and 2013. Receiver operating characteristic curves determined the discriminatory ability of BMI, WC and WHtR to identify individuals with increased cardiometabolic risk (increased clustered triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, cardiorespiratory fitness, and glucose)., Results: A WHtR ≥ 0.5 increased the odds by 5.2 (95% confidence interval 2.6 - 10.3) of having increased cardiometabolic risk. Similar associations were observed for BMI and WC. Both BMI-z and WHtR were fair predictors of increased cardiometabolic risk, although BMI-z demonstrated the best trade-off between sensitivity and specificity, 76.1% and 63.6%, compared with 68.1% and 65.5% for WHtR. Cross-validation analysis revealed that BMI-z and WHtR correctly classified 84% of individuals (kappa score = 0.671, 95% CI 0.55, 0.79). The sensitivity of the cut-points suggests that 89.3% of individuals were correctly classified as being at risk with only 10.7% misdiagnosed whereas the specificity of the cut-points indicated that 77.8% of individuals were correctly identified as being healthy with 22.2% of individuals incorrectly diagnosed as being at risk., Conclusions: Findings suggest that WHtR provides similar cardiometabolic risk estimates to age and sex adjusted BMI., (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Introduction: The aim of this investigation was to examine the impact high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on serum insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in active compared with sedentary aging men., Methods: 22 lifetime sedentary (SED; 62 ± 2 years) and 17 masters' athletes (LEX; 60 ± 5 years) were recruited to the study. As HIIT requires preconditioning exercise in sedentary cohorts, the study required three assessment phases; enrollment (phase A), following preconditioning exercise (phase B), and post-HIIT (phase C). Serum IGF-I was determined by electrochemiluminescent immunoassay., Results: IGF-I was higher in LEX compared to SED at baseline (p = 0.007, Cohen's d = 0.91), and phase B (p = 0.083, Cohen's d = 0.59), with only a small difference at C (p = 0.291, Cohen's d = 0.35). SED experienced a small increase in IGF-I following preconditioning from 13.1 ± 4.7 to 14.2 ± 6.0 μg·dl -1 (p = 0.376, Cohen's d = 0.22), followed by a larger increase post-HIIT (16.9 ± 4.4 μg·dl -1 ), which was significantly elevated compared with baseline (p = 0.002, Cohen's d = 0.85), and post-preconditioning (p = 0.005, Cohen's d = 0.51). LEX experienced a trivial changes in IGF-I from A to B (18.2 ± 6.4 to 17.2 ± 3.7 μg·dl -1 [p = 0.538, Cohen's d = 0.19]), and a small change post-HIIT (18.4 ± 4.1 μg·dl -1 [p = 0.283, Cohen's d = 0.31]). Small increases were observed in fat-free mass in both groups following HIIT (p < 0.05, Cohen's d = 0.32-0.45)., Conclusions: In conclusion, HIIT with preconditioning exercise abrogates the age associated difference in IGF-I between SED and LEX, and induces small improvements in fat-free mass in both SED and LEX.

Background: It is unclear whether the hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype (HTWP) can be used to identify those at most risk of cardiometabolic disorders., Objectives: The utility of the HTWP as a useful predictor of cardiometabolic risk in youth stratified by body mass index was assessed., Methods: Three hundred and eighty-seven children (12-17.5 years) were used within this cross-sectional study. Participants were classified as normal weight or overweight/obese according to the International Obesity Task Force criteria. The HTWP phenotype was defined as having a waist circumference ≥90th percentile for age and gender with concomitant triglyceride concentrations ≥1.24 mmol L(-1) . Cardiometabolic risk profiles were compared using MANCOVA., Results: Normal weight participants with the HTWP had significantly higher levels of C-reactive protein 2.6 ± 0.4 vs. 1.6 ± 0.3 mg L(-1) (P < 0.05) and cardiometabolic risk scores (1.3 ± 0.3 vs. -0.7 ± 0.2 and 2.1 ± 0.4 vs. -0.5 ± 0.2; both P < 0.05) compared with those of a normal weight without the HTWP. Overweight/obese participants with the HTWP had significantly higher C-reactive protein levels (3.5 ± 0.6 vs. 2.6 ± 0.5; P < 0.05) as well as both cardiometabolic risk scores (1.6 ± 0.6 vs. 0.9 ± 0.2 and 2.2 ± 0.6 vs. 0.8 ± 0.2; both P < 0.001) when compared with overweight/obese participants without the HTWP., Conclusions: The HTWP may serve as a simple and clinically useful approach to identify youth at increased cardiometabolic risk., (© 2015 World Obesity.)

The study describes the differences in surface electromyography (EMG) activity of two forearm muscles in the lead and trail arm at specific phases of the golf swing using a 7-iron with three different grip sizes among amateur and professional golfers. Fifteen right-handed male golfers performed five golf swings using golf clubs with three different grip sizes. Surface EMG was used to measure muscle activity of the extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) and flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) on both forearms. There were no significant differences in forearm muscle activity when using the three golf grips within the group of 15 golfers (p > 0.05). When using the undersize grip, club head speed significantly increased (p = 0.044). During the backswing and downswing phases, amateurs produced significantly greater forearm muscle activity with all three grip sizes (p < 0.05). In conclusion, forearm muscle activity is not affected by grip sizes. However, club head speed increases when using undersize grips.

Androgenic anabolic steroid (AAS) abuse is associated with changes in cardiac electrophysiology. Recently heart rate corrected QT interval (QTc) has been suggested as a method of screening for AAS use in athletes despite conflicting reports. This study aimed to further investigate the effect of AAS on QTc in a cohort of long-term AAS users in whom the affects may be more pronounced. Using a cross-sectional cohort design with AAS using resistance trained athletes (AS n = 15) and a group of non-AAS using resistance trained, age matched controls (C n = 15). AS had a long history of AAS use (18 ± 2 yrs) and AS and C both had >19 years of resistance training. Participants underwent a resting electrocardiogram (ECG), from which, the QTc interval was calculated using the Bazett formula. The main outcome measure was significant differences in mean corrected QTc between groups. A secondary outcome was to calculate a QTc that best differentiated between C and AS. Results indicated that QTc was shorter in AS than in C (382.0 ± 21.01 ms versus 409 ± 18.77 ms for AS and C respectively p < 0.001). Chi squared analyses revealed a greater incidence of QTc < 380 ms in AS versus C p < 0.01, specificity 93% sensitivity 60%). In conclusion these results supports previous findings that AAS use causes a reduction in QTc, however, the specificity and sensitivity in our sample is lower than reported previously and precludes use as a screening tool., (Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Background: Previous research has shown that the performance of skeletal muscle declines with advancing age. Coordination of the transverse abdominis (TrA), a deep postural muscle, has been shown to be reduced in persons with low back pain. No previous research has studied the effect of age on the activation on this muscle., Objective: To assess the effect of age on TrA activation in response to rapid arm abduction., Design: Cross-sectional cohort study., Setting: University exercise physiology laboratory., Participants: A total of 18 adult men (aged 27 ± 7.0 years) for the younger group and 11 older adults (5 men and 6 women, aged 59.6 ± 4.0 years) were recruited for this study., Method: Participants were positioned on a treatment table and performed a series of rapid arm abduction movements with their right arm while the activation of the TrA muscle was recorded using ultrasound imaging. Onset of arm abduction was measured using surface electromyography and synchronized with the ultrasound through the ultrasound unit's electrocardiogram channel. The mean time difference between the 2 events was calculated during post-hoc analysis., Main Outcome Measurements: A Mann-Whitney test was performed to test for differences in the onset performance of the TrA muscle between the 2 groups., Results: Results showed that the older group was significantly slower than the younger group in engaging their TrA in response to the rapid arm abduction (P = .036). A separate analysis of the older group data showed that no significant differences existed between the male and female participants that could potentially have acted as a confounding factor for the main finding (P = .126)., Conclusions: This study shows that older adults were slower than younger adults in activating their TrA muscle in response to rapid arm abduction. This delay has the potential to lead to increased occasions when the low back is unprotected, increasing the likelihood of injury or low back pain., (Copyright © 2016 American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The present study examined the physiological impact of a school based sprint interval training (SIT) intervention in replacement of standard physical education (SPE) class on cardio-respiratory fitness (CRF) and glucose homeostasis during the semester following summer vacation. Participants (n=49) were randomly allocated to either intervention (SIT; n=26, aged 16.9 ± 0.3 yrs) or control group who underwent standard physical education (SPE; n=23, aged 16.8 ± 0.6 yrs). CRF (VO2max) and glucose homeostasis were obtained prior-to and following 7 weeks of SIT exercise. Significant group x time interaction was observed for CRF (P < 0.01) with non-significant trends for fasting insulin (P= 0.08), and HOMA-IR (P=0.06). CRF decreased (P < 0.01) in SPE such that POST intervention CRF was significantly lower (P< 0.05) in SPE. Fasting plasma glucose (P < 0.01), insulin (P< 0.01) and HOMA-IR (P< 0.01) increased significantly amongst SPE. The main finding of the present study is that 7-weeks of SIT exercise is an effective method of maintaining (but not improving) CRF and fasting insulin homeostasis amongst school-going adolescents. SIT exercise demonstrates potential as a time efficient physiological adjunct to standard PE class in order to maintain CRF during the school term.

Dietary nitrate supplementation has been shown to increase nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, reduce blood pressure (BP) and enhance exercise performance. Acute exposure to ultraviolet (UV)-A light also increases NO bioavailability and reduces BP. We conducted a randomized, counterbalanced placebo-controlled trial to determine the effects of UV-A light alone and in combination with nitrate on the responses to sub-maximal steady-state exercise and time trial (TT) performance. Nine cyclists (VO2max 53.1 ± 4.4 ml/kg/min) completed five performance trials comprising 10 min submaximal steady-state cycling followed by a 16.1 km TT. Following a familiarization the final four trials were preceded, in random order, by either (1) Nitrate gels (NIT) + UV-A, (2) Placebo (PLA) + UV-A, (3) NIT + Sham light (SHAM) and (4) PLA + SHAM (control). The NIT gels (2 × 60 ml gels, ~8.1 mmol nitrate) or a low-nitrate PLA were ingested 2.5 h prior to the trial. The light exposure consisted of 20 J/cm(2) whole body irradiation with either UV-A or SHAM light. Plasma nitrite was measured pre- and post-irradiation and VO2 was measured continuously during steady-state exercise. Plasma nitrite was higher for NIT + SHAM (geometric mean (95% CI), 332 (292-377) nM; P = 0.029) and NIT + UV-A (456 (312-666) nM; P = 0.014) compared to PLA + SHAM (215 (167-277) nM). Differences between PLA + SHAM and PLA + UV-A (282 (248-356) nM) were small and non-significant. During steady-state exercise VO2 was reduced following NIT + UVA (P = 0.034) and tended to be lower in NIT + SHAM (P = 0.086) but not PLA + UV-A (P = 0.381) compared to PLA + SHAM. Performance in the TT was significantly faster following NIT + UV-A (mean ± SD 1447 ± 41 s P = 0.005; d = 0.47), but not PLA + UV-A (1450 ± 40 s; d = 0.41) or NIT + SHAM (1455 ± 47 s; d = 0.28) compared to PLA + SHAM (1469 ± 52 s). These findings demonstrate that exposure to UV-A light alone does not alter the physiological responses to exercise or improve performance in a laboratory setting. A combination of UV-A and NIT, however, does improve cycling TT performance in this environment, which may be due to a larger increase in NO availability., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Testosterone, cortisol and their ratios may be indicators of anabolic status, but technical issues surrounding blood sampling has limited wider application. The advent of salivary testosterone (sal-T) analysis simplified sample acquisition, resulting in a subsequent rapid increase in the number of published research articles., Objective: The objective of this study was to undertake a meta-analysis to determine the effect of acute exercise bouts on post exercise sal-T and salivary cortisol (sal-C) concentrations and their ratio (sal-T:C)., Data Sources: Relevant databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and SPORTDiscus were searched up to and including 31 December 2013 for the term 'saliva AND testosterone AND exercise'., Study Selection: Studies (n = 21) selected from the 933 identified included randomised controlled trials (RCTs; n = 2), uncontrolled trials (UCTs; n = 18) and control trials (CTs; n = 1), all of which had an exercise component characterised as either aerobic, resistance or power training, each with acute sal-T and sal-C measurement obtained within 30 min of exercise bout completion., Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: A meta-analysis was conducted on change in sal-T, sal-C and the sal-T:C ratio following exercise using standard difference in means (SDM) and a random effects model., Results: For aerobic, resistance and power exercise, the overall SDMs for sal-T were 0.891, 1.061 and 0.509, respectively; for sal-C, the SDMs were 3.041, 0.773 and 1.200, respectively. For sal-T:C, the SDMs were -2.014, 0.027 and -0.968, respectively. RCTs, UCTs and CTs were separated by subgroup analysis. There were significant differences in overall weighted SDM values for sal-T between RCTs, UCTs and CTs within exercise modes. When examining aerobic exercise interventions, a quantitative interaction of study design was observed. RCTs resulted in a greater SDM than UCTs (1.337 vs. 0.446). Power interventions displayed a qualitative interaction with study design. UCTs where baseline measures were obtained 24 h before exercise had an SDM of -1.128, whereas UCTs where baseline was determined immediately prior to exercise had an SDM of 0.486. The single CT trial had an SDM of 2.260. Resistance exercise interventions were primarily UCTs; however, an observed influence of baseline sampling time whereby immediately pre- and 24 h pre-exercise resulted in differing SDMs. The sole resistance exercise RCTs resulted in the greatest SDM (2.500)., Conclusion: The current body of evidence regarding acute responses of sal-T to exercise is weak. This meta-analysis identifies varying exercise-dependent effect sizes. Each appear to be greatly influenced by study design and sample timing. There is a need for more RCTs and a standardised methodology for the measurement of salivary hormones in order to better determine the effect of exercise modality.

Introduction: Advancing age in men is associated with a progressive decline in serum testosterone (T) and interactions between exercise, aging and androgen status are poorly understood. The primary aim of this study was to establish the influence of lifelong training history on serum T, cortisol (C) and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in aging men. A secondary aim was to determine the agreement between serum and salivary measurement of steroid hormones in ageing men., Methods: Serum and salivary steroid hormones (serum C, T and SHBG, and salivary measures of C and T) were determined and compared between two distinct groups; lifelong exercising males (LE [n = 20], 60.4 ± 4.7 year) and age matched lifelong sedentary individuals (SED [n = 28], 62.5 ± 5.3 years)., Results: T-test revealed a lack of significant differences for serum C or SHBG between LE and SED, while Mann-Whitney U revealed a lack of differences in total T (TT), bioavailable T (bio-T) or free testosterone (free-T). Further, salivary T (sal-T) did not correlate with serum markers of T in LE, SED, or when pooled (r = 0.040; p > 0.05)., Conclusions: Findings from this investigation suggested that resting levels of serum T and calculated free-T was unable to distinguish between diverse lifelong training histories in aging men. Further, sal-T was not an appropriate indicator of serum T and calculated free-T values in older males and considerable caution should be exercised when interpreting sal-T measurements in aging males.

Aging is associated with diffuse impairments in vascular endothelial function and traditional aerobic exercise is known to ameliorate these changes. High intensity interval training (HIIT) is effective at improving vascular function in aging men with existing disease, but its effectiveness remains to be demonstrated in otherwise healthy sedentary aging. However, the frequency of commonly used HIIT protocols may be poorly tolerated in older cohorts. Therefore, the present study investigated the effectiveness of lower frequency HIIT (LfHIIT) on vascular function in a cohort of lifelong sedentary (SED; n = 22, age 62.7 ± 5.2 years) men compared with a positive control group of lifelong exercisers (LEX; n = 17, age 61.1 ± 5.4 years). The study consisted of three assessment phases; enrolment to the study (Phase A), following 6 weeks of conditioning exercise in SED (Phase B) and following 6 weeks of low frequency HIIT in both SED and LEX (LfHIIT; Phase C). Conditioning exercise improved FMD in SED (3.4 ± 1.5% to 4.9 ± 1.1%; P < 0.01) such that the difference between groups on enrolment (3.4 ± 1.5% vs. 5.3 ± 1.4%; P < 0.01) was abrogated. This was maintained but not further improved following LfHIIT in SED whilst FMD remained unaffected by LfHIIT in LEX. In conclusion, LfHIIT is effective at maintaining improvements in vascular function achieved during conditioning exercise in SED. LfHIIT is a well-tolerated and effective exercise mode for reducing cardiovascular risk and maintaining but does not improve vascular function beyond that achieved by conditioning exercise in aging men, irrespective of fitness level., (© 2015 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of the American Physiological Society and The Physiological Society.)

The present study examined the agreement between peak power output during a standard Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) and a six second 'all-out' test on a Wattbike Pro. Nine males (40.7 ± 19.4 yrs, 1.76 ± 0.03 cm, 82.11 ± 8.9 kg) underwent three testing protocols on separate days. The protocols consisted 30 second WAnT (WAnT30), a modified WAnT over 6 seconds (WAnT6) and a 6 second peak power test (PPT6). PPT6 was correlated with WAnT30 (r = 0.9; p < 0.001) with a mean bias of 105 W. PPT6 correlated with WAnT6 (r = 0.95; p < 0.001) with a mean bias of 74 W. WAnT6 correlated with WAnT30 (r = 0.99; p < 0.001) with a mean bias of 31 W. There was no difference in time to peak power between any trial. PPT6 resulted in significantly greater power outputs than in WAnT30 and WAnT6 (p < 0.001). We conclude that PPT6 and WAnT6 are valid measures of peak power output compared with WAnT30. This identifies that PPT6 and WAnT6 as short duration 'all-out' tests that have practical applications for researchers and coaches who wish to assess peak power output without the fatiguing effects associated with a standard WAnT.

Introduction: Advancing age is associated with a gradual decline in circulating androgens, and the putative role of exercise training on systemic androgens remains to be adequately defined., Methods: The present investigation examined the impact of 6 weeks of supervised exercise training on resting levels of systemic hormones in a cohort of lifelong sedentary men [SED (n = 28), 62.5 ± 5.3 years], compared with a positive control group of age-matched lifelong exercisers [LE (n = 20), 60.4 ± 4.7 years, >30 years training history]. Blood hormones were sampled pre- and post-intervention from an antecubital forearm vein and analysed using electrochemiluminescent immunoassay. Cardiorespiratory fitness ([Formula: see text]) was determined via indirect calorimetry during an incremental cycle test to volitional exhaustion., Results: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a lack of significant change in any parameter amongst LE, whilst SED experienced a significant exercise-induced improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness and total testosterone (all p < 0.05). Concurrent increases in sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG; p < 0.05) resulted in a lack of change to either bioavailable or calculated free testosterone (p > 0.05) amongst SED., Conclusions: Although resting levels of systemic total testosterone increased in response to 6 weeks of exercise training, increases in SHBG negated any potential relationship between calculated-free or bioavailable testosterone. These findings indicate that increases in bioavailable testosterone fraction are not required for cardiorespiratory fitness improvements in aging men.

There is a demand for effective training methods that encourage exercise adherence during advancing age, particularly in sedentary populations. This study examined the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) exercise on health-related quality of life (HRQL), aerobic fitness and motivation to exercise in ageing men. Participants consisted of males who were either lifelong sedentary (SED; N = 25; age 63 ± 5 years) or lifelong exercisers (LEX; N = 19; aged 61 ± 5 years). [Formula: see text] and HRQL were measured at three phases: baseline (Phase A), week seven (Phase B) and week 13 (Phase C). Motivation to exercise was measured at baseline and week 13. [Formula: see text] was significantly higher in LEX (39.2 ± 5.6 ml kg min(-1)) compared to SED (27.2 ± 5.2 ml kg min(-1)) and increased in both groups from Phase A to C (SED 4.6 ± 3.2 ml kg min(-1), 95 % CI 3.1 - 6.0; LEX 4.9 ± 3.4 ml kg min(-1), 95 % CI 3.1-6.6) Physical functioning (97 ± 4 LEX; 93 ± 7 SED) and general health (70 ± 11 LEX; 78 ± 11 SED) were significantly higher in LEX but increased only in the SED group from Phase A to C (physical functioning 17 ± 18, 95 % CI 9-26, general health 14 ± 14, 95 % CI 8-21). Exercise motives related to social recognition (2.4 ± 1.2 LEX; 1.5 ± 1.0 SED), affiliation (2.7 ± 1.0 LEX; 1.6 ± 1.2 SED) and competition (3.3 ± 1.3 LEX; 2.2 ± 1.1) were significantly higher in LEX yet weight management motives were significantly higher in SED (2.9 ± 1.1 LEX; 4.3 ± 0.5 SED). The study provides preliminary evidence that low-volume HIIT increases perceptions of HRQL, exercise motives and aerobic capacity in older adults, to varying degrees, in both SED and LEX groups.