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Extracellular DNA Trap (ET) formation by granulocyte is a strong innate immune machinery that plays crucial roles in trapping and killing of pathogens. Here, we show Eosinophil Extracellular DNA Trap (EET) formation in goats naturally infected with nodular worms (Oesophagostomum columbianum, Strongyloidae: Nematoda). By a slaughterhouse based survey, we found that 60% goats were infected with nodular worms. We detected numerous, hard and pale yellow to dark black nodules of variable sizes (0.25-2 cm) in the large intestine and the number of nodules were significantly (p < .05) higher in the cecum (21.7 ± 17.9) than in the colon (10.1 ± 9.9). Histologically, pink colored circumscribed caseous mass was surrounded by a dense zone of infiltration and fibrous proliferation along with massive infiltration of eosinophils in and around the necrotic mass. DAPI staining revealed huge accumulation of extracellular DNA, which formed wide ridge like structure surrounding the necrotic zone. Massive release of eosinophils cationic proteins (ECP), a helmintho-toxic substance, was found into the lesions. Collectively, our results suggest that nodular worm infection induces EETosis and ECP release, and is one of the major parasitic problem affecting Black Bengal goats that causes distortion of normal architecture of the gut wall., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Mixed species infections of Theileria spp. are common in nature. Experimental and epidemiological data suggest that mixed species infections elicit cross-immunity that can modulate pathogenicity and disease burden at the population level. The present study examined within-host interactions, over a period of 13 months during natural infections with two Theileria spp., pathogenic (T. lestoquardi) and non-pathogenic (T. ovis), amongst a cohort of naive sheep in Oman. In the first two months after exposure to infection, a high rate of mortality was seen among sheep infected with T. lestoquardi alone. However, subsequently mixed-infections of T. lestoquardi and T. ovis prevailed, and no further death occurred. The overall densities of both parasite species were significantly higher as single infection vs mixed infection and the higher relative density of pathogenic T. lestoquardi indicated a competitive advantage over T. ovis in mixed infection. The density of both species fluctuated significantly over time, with no difference in density between the very hot (May to August) and warm season (September to April). A high degree of genotype multiplicity was seen among T. lestoquardi infections, which increased with rising parasite density. Our results illustrate a potential competitive interaction between the two ovine Theileria spp., and a substantial reduction in the risk of mortality in mixed parasite infections, indicating that T. ovis confers heterologous protection against lethal T. lestoquardi infection.

Excretory/secretory proteins of Haemonchus contortus (HcESPs) intermingle comprehensively with host immune cells and modulate host immune responses. In this study, H contortus ES antigen named as elongation factor 1 alpha (HcEF-1α) was cloned and expressed. The influences of recombinant HcEF-1α on multiple functions of goat peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were observed in vitro. Immunoblot analysis revealed that rHcEF-1α was recognized by the serum of goat infected with H contortus. Immunofluorescence analysis indicated that rHcEF-1α was bound on surface of PBMCs. Moreover, the productions of IL-4, TGF-β1, IFN-γ and IL-17 of cells were significantly modulated by the incubation with rHcEF-1α. The production of interleukin IL-10 was decreased. Cell migration, cell proliferation and cell apoptosis were significantly increased; however, nitric oxide production (NO) was significantly decreased. The MHC II molecule expression of cells incubated with rHcEF-1α was increased significantly, whereas MHC-I was not changed as compared to the control groups (PBS control and pET32a). These findings indicated that rHcEF-1α protein might play essential roles in functional regulations of HcESPs on goat PBMC and mediate the immune responses of the host during host-parasite relationship., (© 2020 The Authors. Parasite Immunology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are one of the major constraints for grazing sheep and goat production worldwide. Genetic selection for resistant animals is a promising control strategy. Whole-transcriptome analysis via RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) provides knowledge of the mechanisms responsible for complex traits such as resistance to GIN infections. In this study, we used RNA-seq to monitor the dynamics of the response of the abomasal mucosa of Creole goat kids infected with Haemonchus contortus by comparing resistant and susceptible genotypes. A total of 8 cannulated kids, 4 susceptible and 4 resistant to GIN, were infected twice with 10 000 L3 H. contortus. During the second infection, abomasal mucosal biopsies were collected at 0, 8, 15 and 35 days post-infection (dpi) from all kids for RNA-seq analysis. The resistant animals showed early activation of biological processes related to the immune response. The top 20 canonical pathways of differentially expressed genes for different comparison showed activation of the immune response through many relevant pathways including the Th1 response. Interestingly, our results showed a simultaneous time series activation of Th2 related genes in resistant compared to susceptible kids.

Peste des petits ruminant (PPR), a highly contagious viral disease of small ruminants, is characterized by erosive stomatitis and pneumo-enteritis. However, its neurovirulence potential as observed with other morbilliviruses has not been fully investigated. The present study describes the neuropathological alterations induced by PPR virus through apoptotic pathway. A total number of 12 carcasses of local breed goat kids of either sex were received for postmortem examination. The clinical history was described as symptoms of mucopurulent nasal discharge, high to low grade fever, erosive stomatitis, dyspnoea and profuse watery diarrhoea followed by mortality of 35 goat kids within a week. The pathoanatomical lesions and immunohistochemical demonstration of PPRV antigen in lungs, intestine, spleen and lymph nodes confirmed PPR disease in goats. Grossly, five brain specimens showed moderate to severe leptomeningeal congestion during necropsy. Microscopically, brain sections showed leptomeningitis and nonsuppurative encephalitis characterized by vascular congestion, haemorrhages in the parenchyma, perivascular cuffing with mild to moderate mononuclear cells (mainly lymphocytes and few macrophages), focal to diffuse microgliosis, neuronal degeneration, satellitosis and neuronophagia. Immunolabelling of viral antigen was observed in the cytoplasm of neurons and glial cells. The RT-PCR amplification of N gene fragment also confirmed the presence of PPRV in the brain. The strong immunoreactivity of Caspase-3, Caspase-8 and comparatively lower expression of caspase-9 along with the absence of any reactivity for Apaf-1 antigen in the brain sections indicated the role of caspase dependent extrinsic pathway in inducing neuropathological changes. The presence of apoptotic neurons in the brain by TUNEL assay further confirmed the apoptosis and strong immunoreactivity of iNOS in neurons which suggested the generation of oxidative stress, that might have induced the apoptosis. The overall findings confirm the neurovirulence potential of PPR virus, via the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis, in natural cases of PPR disease in goat kids., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interests., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Numerous factors affect milk somatic cell score (SCS) in dairy goats including physiologic factors such as stage of lactation, and pathological factors such as bacterial intramammary infection (IMI), e.g. staphylococcal IMI. The association between IMI and udder inflammation and especially differences in the inflammatory response between the different staphylococcal species are yet to be identified. The objectives of this study were to use data from a recently published longitudinal study that characterized IMI status over time to evaluate the species-specific effect of staphylococcal IMI on udder half-level milk SCS, and to evaluate the effect of time since IMI diagnosis on this relationship. Half-level milk samples for culture and determination of SCS were collected from 171 goats starting within 10 days in milk (DIM), and then at various intervals until ≥ 120 DIM. A mixed linear model was used to assess the effect of species-specific staphylococcal IMI on SCS, accounting for confounding by lentivirus infection, parity, DIM, and the contralateral half IMI status, and for repeated measurements within udder half and for clustering of halves within goat. A second model was used to evaluate the effect of time since first IMI diagnosis and its interaction with staphylococcal IMI status on the relationship between staphylococcal IMI status and SCS. Lentivirus seropositivity and contralateral half IMI status were associated with SCS. Staphylococcal IMI status was associated with SCS, with differences between species. Staphyloccocus caprae, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus simulans, and Staphylococcus xylosus were associated with higher SCS than a number of other species. Time since first diagnosis did not modify the relationship between IMI status and SCS., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this study was to measure the effect of the nutritional status of Creole goat kids on the host responses and the nematode population established after an experimental H. contortus infection. Fifty six kids were fed with 4 diets corresponding to 2 nutritional statuses: the low nutritional status (HAY, hay ad libitum and HB, Hay ad libitum + banana) and the high nutritional status (HS, hay ad libitum + soya meal and HSB, hay ad libitum + banana + soya meal). For each diet, 8 kids were experimentally infected with 10,000 H. contortus infective larvae (L3) and 6 kids were kept as non-infected controls. From the day of infection until 6 weeks post-infection, samples were collected to measure individual intake, total tract digestibility, parasitological and hematological parameters. The dry matter intake (DMI), the average daily gain (ADG), the crude protein (CP) and the digestible CP intake were higher in goats fed the HS and HSB diets, but no statistically significant interaction between the nutritional status and the infection was observed. The packed cell volume (PCV), the red blood cell counts (RBC) and the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) were higher with the HS and the HSB diets. In kids with the high nutritional status the nematode burden and pathophysiological impact of the infection were significantly lower but not the FEC. In conclusion, this reduced establishment rate was associated with an increased production of eggs by the female parasites and suggested a phenomenon of density-dependent prolificacy of H. contortus probably inherent to the fitness of the parasite population., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Sub-acute ruminal acidosis (SARA) [1] is one of the most common problems of dairy animals causing great economical loss due to decreased milk production. Here we determined the antioxidant effect of sodium butyrate (NaB) [2] in experimentally induced SARA and its effects on mammary epithelial tissues of goat. Goats (n = 12) were equally divided into two groups: high-concentrate (HC) as control group fed with HC diet (concentrate: forage = 6:4) whereas HC + NaB as treatment group fed HC diet with NaB at 1% by weight for 24 weeks. Mammary epithelial tissue samples were analyzed for the expression of genes and proteins responsible for oxidative stress as well as biochemical markers of antioxidant activity in the form of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) of antioxidant enzymes was also calculated. Butyrate induced antioxidant effect by increasing mRNA and protein abundance of antioxidants in mammary gland of HC + NaB group compared to HC group. Likewise, the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) was significantly increased and Malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration was decreased in HC + NaB group compared to HC group. It is concluded that oxidative stress in mammary gland of goats induced by high concentrate diet was alleviated by NaB supplementation., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Caseous lymphadenitis is an infectious disease of almost all animals, particularly small ruminants that are caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. The organism causes the formation of suppurative abscesses in superficial and visceral lymph nodes and in visceral organs. This current study was designed to elucidate the clinicopathological responses and PCR detection of the aetiological agent in the vital organs of goats challenged with C. pseudotuberculosis and its immunogenic mycolic acid extract. A total of twelve clinically healthy crossbred Boer female goats were divided into three groups: A, B, and C (four goats per group). Group A was inoculated intradermally with 2 ml of sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS) pH 7 as a control group. Group B was inoculated intradermally with 2 ml of mycolic acid extract (1 g/ml), while group C was inoculated intradermally with 2 ml of 10⁹ colony-forming unit (cfu) of live C. pseudotuberculosis. The experimental animals were observed for clinical responses for 90 days post-inoculation and the clinical signs were scored according to the severity. The clinical signs observed in this study were temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, rumen motility, enlargement of lymph nodes, and body condition score. The experimental animals were euthanised and tissue samples from different anatomical regions of the vital organs were collected in 10% buffered formalin, processed, sectioned, and stained with H&E. Results of both C. pseudotuberculosis and mycolic acid treated groups indicated a significant difference (p < 0.05) in body temperature. Group C showed a significant increase in temperature (p < 0.05) at week 1 (39.59 ± 0.29 °C), week 2 (39.67 ± 0.27 °C) and week 3 (40.22 ± 0.15 °C). Whereas group B showed a significant increase in temperature (p < 0.05) only at week 1 (39.36 ± 0.14 °C). Heart rate in group C showed a significant increase between week 1 (93.35 ± 0.42 bpm) and week 11 (86.52 ± 1.32 bpm), and the mean heart rate of group B showed a significant increase (p < 0.05) between week 1 (89.90 ± 0.60 bpm) and week 9 (86.90 ± 0.99 bpm). Group C showed a significant increase of respiratory rate (p < 0.05) at week 1 (36.85 ± 0.14 bpm), week 2 (36.90 ± 0.62), week 3 (30.80 ± 1.97 bpm), and week 4 (34.85 ± 1.19 bpm). The mean of the respiratory rate of group B only increased at week 1 (32.98 ± 1.30 bpm) and week 2 (31.87 ± 0.48 bpm). Both groups C & B showed significant decreases in rumen motility and body condition score as compared to the control. The histopathological changes were significant in group C, this was shown by mild to severe haemorrhage, congestion, degeneration and necrosis, oedema, infiltration with inflammatory cells mainly lymphocytes and macrophages, while group B was less affected and showed mild to moderate haemorrhage, congestion, degeneration and necrosis, infiltration of inflammatory cells and oedema as compared to the control group. This study concluded that C. pseudotuberculosis caused typical CLA disease with a short incubation period in the experiment. While the mycolic acid extracted from C. pseudotuberculosis caused mild clinical signs, no abscess formation, and negative PCR result. Moreover, evidence of mild to moderate histopathological changes in vital organs was also observed., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis is the causative agent of caseous lymphadenitis, a debilitating chronic disease of sheep and goats. Little is known about the buck's reproductive pathophysiology with respect to inoculation with Corynebacterium pseudotuberculois and its immunogen mycolic acid extract. Therefore, this present study was designed to determine the concentration of testosterone hormone, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and semen quality of the experimental animals. A total of 12 bucks, divided into groups 1, 2, and 3 (Negative control group, Positive control group and Mycolic acid group respectively), were enrolled in this study. Following inoculation, all goats were observed for clinical responses and monitored for 60 days post-challenge and were then sacrificed. Blood samples were collected via the jugular once before inoculation and on a weekly basis post-challenge. Semen samples were collected 2 weeks post-challenge and prior to the sacrifice of the experimental animals. During the post inoculation period of 60 days, the concentration of testosterone hormone for group 2 was increased significantly (p < 0.05) in weeks 5, 6, and 9 but decreased in weeks 2 and 7 post inoculation. In group 3, the mean concentration of testosterone was increased significantly (p < 0.05) in weeks 5, 6, 7, and 9 post inoculation but decreased in week 2. The concentration of interleukin 6 (IL 6) in treated group 2 did not show any significant difference (p > 0.05) but increased significantly (p < 0.05) in week 2 post inoculation in group 3. For concentration of interleukin 1β (IL1β) in both treated groups 2 and 3 showed significant difference (p < 0.05) in weeks 2 and 3 post inoculation. The tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) concentration in both treated groups 2 and 3 did not show any significant difference (p > 0.05) as compared to group 1. The concentration of interferon-γ (IFNγ) significantly increased (p < 0.05) for group 2 for weeks 2, 3, 4, and 5 where else for group 3 was not in significant difference (p > 0.05) compared to group 1. Both group 2 and group 3 showed a reduction in semen qualities as compared to group 1, but the severity was more intense in group 2 if compared to group 3. In conclusion, therefore, the present study concluded that the mycolic acid group revealed significant responses of testosterone hormone concentration, semen quality, and its related pro-inflammatory cytokines in bucks following infection but the severity lesser compared to Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis group.

The objectives of this study were (1) to report the rates of new intramammary infection (IMI) and spontaneous IMI cure over the dry period in 3 dairy goat herds; (2) to evaluate the factors predicting infection dynamics over the dry period; and (3) to define milk quality parameter thresholds that predict infection dynamics over the dry period. Two consecutive udder-half milk samples were collected 10 to 14 d apart before dry-off from 288 goats in 3 herds, and 2 consecutive udder-half samples were collected 7 to 14 d apart in the following lactation, with the first sample being collected ≤10 d in milk, from 200 of the same goats. In 2 of the herds, udder-half milk samples were also collected at the same time points (n = 312 halves; 157 goats) for measurement of milk quality parameters. Standard aerobic culture of milk samples was performed for the detection of mastitis pathogens. To rule out the presence of Mycoplasma spp. IMI, milk samples were also cultured on modified Hayflick medium. Non-Mycoplasma isolates were speciated using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Staphylococcal isolates, when not identified by MALDI-TOF, were speciated using partial gene sequence analysis of rpoB or tuf. When >1 sample from an udder half yielded the same species, available isolates from the first and last positive samples for that species were strain-typed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Incidence of new IMI and cure rate were computed. Generalized linear mixed regression models were built to evaluate the associations between new IMI and pre-dry somatic cell score (SCS), between IMI persistence and half-level SCS, and between IMI persistence and pre-dry IMI species. Thresholds for pre-dry SCS and lactose concentration were computed to predict IMI persistence. Overall, 12.6% (48/380) of halves had a persistent IMI. Cumulative incidence of new IMI over the dry period was 13.2%, and cure rate was 52.0%. Pre-dry SCS was not associated with odds of new IMI or IMI persistence. Pre-dry IMI species was not associated with odds of persistence. Lactose concentration was not associated with odds of persistence. Regardless of culture data, the optimal pre-dry SCS threshold to detect IMI that would persist into the next lactation was 8.7, with sensitivity and specificity of 50 and 73.8%, respectively. Further studies on the effect of control measures on species-specific incidence and cure rates during the dry period are warranted., (Copyright © 2019 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP), caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae is a severe disease widespread in Africa and Asia. Limited knowledge is available on the pathogenesis of this organism, mainly due to the lack of a robust in vivo challenge model and the means to do site-directed mutagenesis. This work describes the establishment of a novel caprine challenge model for CCPP that resulted in 100% morbidity using a combination of repeated intranasal spray infection followed by a single transtracheal infection employing the recent Kenyan outbreak strain ILRI181. Diseased animals displayed CCPP-related pathology and the bacteria could subsequently be isolated from pleural exudates and lung tissues in concentrations of up to 10 9 bacteria per mL as well as in the trachea using immunohistochemistry. Reannotation of the genome sequence of ILRI181 and F38 T revealed the existence of genes encoding the complete glycerol uptake and metabolic pathways involved in hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) production in the phylogenetically related pathogen M. mycoides subsp. mycoides. Furthermore, the expression of L-α-glycerophosphate oxidase (GlpO) in vivo was confirmed. In addition, the function of the glycerol metabolism was verified by measurement of production of H 2 O 2 in medium containing physiological serum concentrations of glycerol. Peroxide production could be inhibited with serum from convalescent animals. These results will pave the way for a better understanding of host-pathogen interactions during CCPP and subsequent vaccine development.

The relationships between rectal temperatures and physiological and cellular responses to heat stress can improve the productivity of Saanen goats in tropical environments. In this context, this study evaluated the physiological responses and gene expression of heat shock proteins (HSP60, 70, and 90) and genes related to apoptosis (Bax, Bcl-2, and p53) of Saanen goats subjected to acute heat stress. Ten health Saanen goats were exposed to solar radiation during 3 consecutive days. The expression of HSP60, HSP70, HSP90, Bax, Bcl-2, and p53 genes in blood leukocytes, rectal and superficial temperatures, respiratory frequency, cortisol, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine was measured at 06:00, 13:00, and 18:00 h. In vitro, blood leukocytes were subjected to 38 °C and 40 °C for 3 h to measure the expression of the same target genes. The temperature humidity index, measured from 12:00 to 15:00, was greater than 80 and black globe temperatures were greater at 40 °C, indicating the intensity of the solar radiation. Although the solar radiation caused acute heat stress, increased cortisol release, and the expression of HSP60 and 70 in dry Saanen goats, the increased respiratory frequency and decreased T4 and T3 restored the homeothermy of the experimental goats. In vitro, the 40 °C increased the expression of p53 (pro-apoptotic protein), Bcl-2 (anti-apoptotic protein), HSP60, HSP70, and HSP90, suggesting that these genes have protective functions. However, further studies are necessary to understand the physiological and cellular responses to heat stress.

Hydrometra is characterized by the accumulation of fluid within the uterus due to the persistence of corpus luteum. The diagnosis of this disorder occurs with an ultrasonic exam. This study evaluated uterine drainage and fertility rates in goats after the use of d-cloprostenol in association or not with Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) treatment. Twenty Saanen goats, diagnosed with hydrometra, received three 37.5-μg doses of d-cloprostenol laterovulvarly at 10-day intervals. On D5, the goats were assigned into two groups receiving 1 mL of GnRH or saline solution intramuscularly. Ultrasonography (US) was performed from D0 to D25. An US approach was used to rank hydrometra in scores. The pregnancy rate was assessed 45 and 90 days after the end of treatment. The uterine fluid was totally drained after the first and second administration of d-cloprostenol in 50% and 95% of the goats, respectively. In one female, full emptying of the uterus occurred only after D20. US performed at 45 and 90 days after the end of treatment indicated there was a pregnancy rate of 45.0% and 55.0%, respectively. Fertility did not differ between the GnRH-treated and control goats. Those goats not pregnant at 45 days had a follicular cyst, hydrosalpinx or hydrometra. At 90 days, no change was observed in the hydrosalpinx, and four goats had hydrometra. The use of three doses of d-cloprostenol 10 days apart was efficient for induction of draining the contents of the uterus, resulting in a relatively acceptable pregnancy rate. This treatment associated with the US approach can be important when applied in the field., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The present study aims to reveal the mechanisms of hepatocyte apoptosis induced by dietary feeding. Eighteen midlactating goats were randomly divided into three groups: the low concentrate group (LC), the high concentrate group (HC), and the sodium butyrate (SB)-supplemented group (SHC). After 10 weeks, the HC diet successfully induced subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA), which increased the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and cytokine concentrations and the expression of genes and proteins related to inflammation and apoptosis. The addition of SB to the HC diet notably decreased the levels of those parameters. Additionally, Bcl2 mRNA and protein expression was lower in the HC group than those in the LC and SHC groups. Furthermore, the HC diet reduced the percentages of caspase 3 and 8 promoter methylation compared to those of goats fed the LC diet, whereas the SHC diet partially recovered the methylation ratio to reduce caspase 3 and 8 expression. Collectively, HC diet-induced SARA caused hepatocyte apoptosis via activating the extrinsic apoptosis pathway, whereas dietary addition of SB depressed the inflammatory response and attenuated hepatocyte apoptosis. DNA methylation contributed to regulation of the expression of key apoptotic genes in the livers of lactating goats.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), an economically important viral transboundary disease of small ruminants is not only prevalent in Pakistan but also in other countries where people rely on agriculture and animal products. The present study was aimed at describing the pathology and antigen localization in natural PPR infections in local (Kajli sheep; Beetal goats) as well as imported small ruminant breeds (Dorper sheep; Australian Boer goat). Morbidity and mortality rates were significantly (P < 0.001) higher in indigenous Kajli sheep (75.37 and 32.80%) and Beetal goats (81.10 and 37.24%) as compared to Dorper sheep (6.99 and 1.48%) and Australian Boer goat (5.01 and 2.23%). Affected animals exhibited high fever, severe diarrhea, abdominal pain, respiratory distress and nodular lesions on lips and nostrils. Thick mucous discharge was oozing out from nostrils. On necropsy, lungs were congested and pneumonic, with nodular and cystic appearance. Intestines were hemorrhagic with zebra stripping. Characteristic histopathological lesions of PPR were noted in intestines, lymphoid organs and lungs. In GI tract, stunting and blunting of villi, necrotic enteritis, and infiltration of mononuclear cells in duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Small intestines exhibited diffuse edema of the submucosa along with proliferation of fibrocytes leading to thickened submucosa which has not been reported previously. Lymphoid organs showed partial to complete destruction of lymphoid follicles. Lesions of the respiratory tract included depictive of bronchopneumonia, severe congestion of trachea and apical lobe of lungs with deposition of fibrinous materials. Histopathological lesions of respiratory tract were severe and characteristic of broncho-interstitial pneumonia, bronchopneumonia, interstitial pneumonia and fibrinous pneumonia. The alveoli were filled with edematous fluid mixed with fibrinous exudate, numerous alveolar macrophages, mononuclear cells along with thickened interalveolar septa and presence of intranuclear eosinophilic inclusion bodies. One-Step RT-PCR using NP3 and NP4 primers confirmed a PPR virus of 352 bp size in spleen, lungs and mesenteric and brachial lymph node samples. It was concluded that morbidity and mortality due to PPR were significantly higher in indigenous breeds of sheep and goat as compared to imported sheep and goat breeds. PPR has rendered various lesions in GI and respiratory tract which are characteristic in nature for the diagnosis of the disease under field condition., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) remains the most important pathogenic constraint of small ruminant production worldwide. The improvement of the host immune response against GIN though breeding for improved animal resistance, vaccination and nutritional supplementation appear as very promising methods. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of four nutritional status differing in protein and energy levels (Hay: 5.1 MJ/Kg of dry matter (DM) and 7.6% of crude protein (CP), Ban: 8.3 MJ/Kg of DM and 7.5% of CP, Soy: 7.6 MJ/Kg of DM and 17.3% of CP, BS: 12.7 MJ/Kg of DM and 7.4% of CP) on the haematological disturbances due to Haemonchus contortus infection in Creole kid goats., Results: No significant effect of the nutritional status was observed for faecal egg count (FEC) but the experimental infection induced haematological disturbances whose intensity and lengthening were dependent on the nutritional status. A transient marked regenerative macrocytic hypochromic anaemia as revealed by a decrease of packed cell volume (PCV), red blood cells (RBC) and hemoglobin and an increase of reticulocytes was observed in all infected groups except Hay. In this latter, the anaemia settled until the end of the experiment. Furthermore, H. contortus induced a thrombocytopenia significantly more pronounced in the group under the lowest nutritional status in term of protein (Hay and Ban). A principal component analysis revealed that the variables that discriminated the nutritional status were the average daily gain (ADG) and the PCV, considered as measures of the level of resilience to H. contortus infection. Moreover, the variables that discriminated infected and non-infected animals were mostly related to the biology of RBC (i.e. size and hemoglobin content) and they were correlated with FEC., Conclusions: The severity and the lengthening of the regenerative anaemia and the thrombocytopenia induced by H. contortus have been affected by the nutritional status. The protein enriched diets induced resilience to the infection rather than resistance. This suggests that resilience is associated with an improved regenerative capacity of the bone marrow. However, this needs to be further investigated to understand the relationships between resistance, resilience and dietary supplementation.

Background: Visceral hypersensitivity (VH) is a common condition in many gastrointestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) in human and animals. Most studies often induce Crohn's disease/colitis to investigate VH in small experimental animals. Although farm animals commonly suffer from IBDs, their VH has not been investigated so far. Because goats can suffer from Johne's disease, a naturally occurring Crohn's-like disease, they may be suitable to be used for studying the mechanism underlying VH in common intestinal disorders of large animals. In the present study, 60 healthy goats of either sex were equally divided into a 2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) group and saline group. A volume of 1.2 ml of TNBS-ethanol solution (30 mg TNBS in 40 % ethanol) or an equal volume of isotonic saline was injected into the wall of the terminal ileum through laparotomy. The severity of the developing ileitis was determined according to macro- and microscopic pathologic scores and the levels of myeloperoxidase, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α, and VH was evaluated with visceromotor responses (VMR) to colorectal distension on days 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28. VMRs were assessed with a continuous ramp distention mode with 6 s for each pressure (20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 mmHg)., Results: Compared to the saline group, the TNBS-treated goats showed apparent transmural pathological changes and a significant increase (P < 0.05) in macroscopic and microscopic change scores, and levels of myeloperoxidase, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α in the ileum, and VMR to colorectal distension. The goats exhibited apparent ileitis at days 3 to 21, and VH at days 7 to 28 following TNBS treatment., Conclusion: This experiment successfully established a reproducible ileitis and VH with administration of TNBS-ethanol solution in the ileal wall of goats. This model is useful for studying the pathogenesis of the IBD and the mechanism underlying VH, and for evaluating the efficacy of new therapeutic regimens.

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of Trypanosoma vivax infection on the shape of the lactation curve and the milk quality of dairy goats experimentally infected with T. vivax. In total, twenty Saanen goats, aged 26-30 months and the same number of calving (two calvings), were divided into two experimental groups: an infected group, consisting of ten goats intravenously infected with 0.5 ml of blood containing approximately 1.25 × 10(5) trypomastigotes of T. vivax and ten uninfected animals as the control group. Clinical tests and hematocrit, parasitemia, and serum biochemistry evaluations were performed on all of the goats. Milk production was measured daily for 152 days by hand milking the goats and weighing the milk. Every seven days, physiochemical analyses were performed to evaluate the milk. Wood's nonlinear model was used to analyze the lactation curve parameters. The infected goats had high levels of parasitemia and hyperthermia, significantly reduced hematocrit, serum total protein, albumin, and glucose levels and increased cholesterol and urea concentrations. Wood's model indicated that the milk production of goats in the infected group declined sharply over a short period of time and produced a flattened yield curve and significant difference (P < 0.05) in the rate of increase of peak milk production, rate of decrease of milk production after the peak, day of peak milk production, and maximum peak milk production compared with that of the control group. Trypanosomiasis also affected the persistency of lactation, which was significantly reduced in goats in the infected group. In addition, the physico-chemical properties of the milk, including the fat content, defatted dry extracts (DDE) and protein content, decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in the goats in the infected group compared with those in the control group. The T. vivax-infected goats showed reduction in milk production, persistence of lactation, and fat levels, the defatted dry extract (DDE) content, and protein, changing the quality of milk., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In the semiarid region of Brazil, in areas with vegetation composed mainly of Poincianella pyramidalis, several cases of congenital malformation and reproductive losses were observed in goats and sheep from 2012 to 2014. To determine the teratogenic effect of P. pyramidalis, two groups of eight goats each were used. Goats from Group 1 received fresh P. pyramidalis, harvested daily, as the only roughage during the whole breeding and pregnancy period. Goats in Group 2 (control) received Cynodon dactylon (tifton) hay free choice. Ultrasound examination for pregnancy diagnosis was performed every 28 days. Four goats from Group 1 were pregnant on day 28 but not on day 56, suggesting embryonic death or abortion. Another goat from Group 1 died at day 70 of pregnancy, and the fetuses exhibited micrognathia. The other three goats bore six kids, three of which showed bone malformations in the limbs, spine, ribs, sternum, and head, including arthrogryposis, scoliosis and micrognathia. One kid also showed hypoplasia of the left pulmonary lobes. In the control group, all goats bore a total of 13 kids and none of them exhibited malformations. These results demonstrated that P. pyramidalis causes congenital malformations and other reproductive losses in goats., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In small ruminants, the response against gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections is influenced not only by the host genotype and the physiological stage but also by environmental factors, particularly the nutritional status at the time of infection. In this study we evaluated the long-term effect and the interaction between the host species and the nutritional history on the response to GIN infection in two animal models differing in their phenotypic growth and their level of GIN resistance: Black Belly sheep and Creole goats. Lambs and kids were subjected to three distinct nutritional conditions at weaning: low dietary conditions (100% of the theoretical energy requirement for maintenance, corresponding to 548v. 484KJ/Kg BW(0.75) for lambs and kids respectively and 6% of crude protein, CP), medium dietary conditions (150% of the theoretical energy requirement for maintenance and 13% CP) and high dietary conditions (200% of the theoretical energy requirement for maintenance and 20% CP). This 3-months period was followed by a 1-month period on the medium dietary conditions for all the animals before an experimental Haemonchus contortus infection. We monitored the impact of the nutritional history (nutritional condition after weaning), on the intensity of the GIN infection by measuring individual faecal egg counts (FEC), growth rate (ADG), blood eosinophil counts and other pathophysiological parameters. The FEC, growth rate and blood eosinophil counts were significantly affected by the nutritional history in lambs but not in kids. The lowest FEC was found for lambs placed in high dietary conditions, however during the same period body weight loss was observed in this group. In low dietary conditions, kids were more resistant than lambs and the ADG was higher in lambs. However, the anaemia and the level of serum pepsinogen, marker of the abomasal mucosa integrity, were higher in kids. Our data suggest that the impact of the post-weaning nutritional history on the response to an experimental H. contortus infection is significantly affected by the host species., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In dairy animals, a successful transition from one lactation to the next includes minimizing negative energy balance. Cows experiencing excessive negative energy balance typically develop metabolic complications following parturition (e.g., ketosis); does are also susceptible before kidding (e.g., pregnancy toxemia). It is not known to what extent the provision and the length of the dry period affect these conditions in does. Furthermore, whereas clinical symptoms of these conditions include lethargy, behavioral changes resulting from ketosis and pregnancy toxemia have not been quantified in small ruminants. The aims of this study were to (1) describe the relationship between the dry period and negative energy balance, and (2) determine if lying behavior changes are indicative of the metabolic status of dairy goats. A total of 420 does on 10 commercial dairy goat farms in southern Ontario, Canada, were enrolled in the study (mean ± SD: 42±18 does/farm). Each doe was affixed with a data logger to measure lying behavior from 12 d before to 12 d after kidding. Blood samples were collected at least once before and at least once following kidding to determine blood β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) concentration as an indicator of negative energy balance. Does were categorized as healthy (HLTH; both pre- and postkidding samples BHBA <0.9 mmol/L), PREGTOX (prekidding BHBA ≥1.7 mmol/L), or KET (postkidding BHBA ≥1.7 mmol/L). Behaviors were analyzed according to 5 periods: P-2 (d -12 to d -2 relative to kidding), P-1 (d -1 relative to kidding), P0 (d 0, kidding day), P1 (d 1 relative to kidding), and P2 (d 2 to 12 relative to kidding). Dry period length and milk production after kidding were recorded when available. Farms ranged from 0 to 15% and 0 to 50% in prekidding and postkidding ketonemia, respectively. The HLTH does had shorter dry periods compared with PREGTOX and KET does (43 vs. 55 d, SE of the differences of means=4 d). One farm kept some does milking, while drying off others; on this farm more PREGTOX and KET does (11/28) were found in the dry group versus the continuously milked group (1/16). Overall, does that had ketonemia before kidding (PREGTOX) spent more time lying down compared with healthy does (16.1 vs. 12.7 h/d, SE of the differences of means=0.9). Both PREGTOX and HLTH does had increased lying bouts in P-2 compared with the day before (P-1) kidding [(mean (95% CI): 16.8 (15.8-17.8) vs. 20.5 (19.4-21.8) bout/d]. Compared with HLTH does, animals that were ketonemic following kidding (KET) had higher mean lying times throughout the study (14.5 vs. 13.5 h/d, SE=0.4). Previous work has shown a relationship between shorter and skipped dry periods and improved energy balance in dairy cows; the current study is the first to indicate a similar relationship in dairy goats. Furthermore, goats that developed ketonemia, particularly before kidding, displayed decreased activity, including longer lying times and fewer lying bouts in the days around kidding., (Copyright © 2015 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a common pathogenic agent that causes many diseases and metabolic disorders. Hypoglycemia is often observed when animals are infected with LPS. To explore the influence of LPS on blood glucose and hepatic gluconeogenesis in goats, 12 goats were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: the LPS-treated group (60 μg/kg BW of LPS; jugular vein injections) or the control group (saline vehicle; jugular vein injections). Blood samples were collected from jugular veins at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 h, and liver tissue samples were biopsied 8 h after the injections. The dynamic changes in blood glucose levels as well as key hepatic gluconeogenic enzyme mRNA and protein expression, ATP and ADP levels, and glutathione reductase (GR) activity were determined. The results showed that blood glucose levels in the LPS group were dramatically reduced after an initial, short-term increase. In liver tissue, the mRNA of key gluconeogenic enzymes, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (PEPCK1;P < 0.05), fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase 1 (FBP1;P < 0.01), pyruvate carboxylase (PCB;P < 0.05), and acyl-CoA synthetase short-chain family member 3 (ACSS3; < 0.01), in the related pathways and PPAR-γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α;P < 0.05) were decreased in the LPS group compared with those in the control group, whereas glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase-α) was not different (P > 0.05). The protein expression of PEPCK1 decreased (P < 0.01), whereas that of G6Pase-α increased (P < 0.05) significantly. The ratio of ADP to ATP ( < 0.05) and the activity of GR (P < 0.01) were markedly increased in the LPS group compared with those in controls. This research showed that LPS markedly affects and reduces blood glucose in dairy goats. The crucial reasons for the marked change in blood glucose are the altered expression of key gluconeogenic enzymes in different pathways and of essential factors associated with gluconeogenesis in the liver.

In the tropics one of the major constraints to goat production is infection by gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN). One promising alternative to chemotherapy is the improvement of host nutrition. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of infection and supplementation on packed cell volume (PCV), average daily gain (ADG) and carcass quality in growing Creole kids. Sixty male goats were reared indoors following a 2 × 3 factorial design: two experimental infection levels, (infected (I) and non-infected (NI)) and three diets D (G, kids were fed exclusively with tropical forages; B, kids were supplemented with dried and crushed banana and C, kids were supplemented with commercial pellets). Faecal egg counts did not vary among I groups (on average 2,200 ω/g). The PCV and ADG were improved (P < 0.001) for NI vs. I animals. There was a D effect (P < 0.001) and no I × D interaction was observed. There was no significant effect of GIN on the main carcass data, except the weights of liver, white offal and abdominal fat, which increased slightly in I compared with NI goats (P < 0.05). All carcass data increased significantly with the addition of supplement in the diet (P < 0.001), except for carcass-cut proportions. Meat physical parameters were degraded when I kids received low N diets (B or G) with higher lightness and water loss than in the C groups. Given that GIN affect the animal's N metabolism it is recommended to avoid the use of unbalanced diet such as those banana-based. Further research is necessary to assess the nutrition × parasitism interactions on physiological features and carcass quality of Creole goats.

Border Disease (BD), caused by Pestivirus from the family Flaviviridae, leads to serious reproductive losses and brain anomalies such as hydranencephaly and cerebellar hypoplasia in aborted fetuses and neonatal lambs. In this report it is aimed to investigate the expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease with Thrombospondin type I repeats-13 (ADAMTS-13), and neurofilament (NF) in the brain tissue in small ruminants infected with Border Disease Virus (BDV) and to identify any correlation between hypomyelinogenesis and BD neuropathology. Results of the study revealed that the levels of ADAMTS-13 (p<0.05), nNOS (p<0.05), and NF (p<0.05) were remarkably higher in BDV-infected brain tissue than in the uninfected control. It was suggested that L-arginine-NO synthase pathway is activated after infection by BDV and that the expression of NF and nNOS is associated with the severity of BD. A few studies have focused on ADAMTS-13 expression in the central nervous system, and its function continues to remain unclear. The most prominent finding from our study was that ADAMTS-13, which contain two CUB domains, has two CUB domains and its high expression levels are probably associated with the development of the central nervous system (CNS). The results also clearly indicate that the interaction of ADAMTS-13 and NO may play an important role in the regulation and protection of the CNS microenvironment in neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, NF expression might indicate the progress of the disease. To the best of the authors'knowledge, this is the first report on ADAMTS-13 expression in the CNS of BDV-infected small ruminants.

Three-year cohort study was carried out to investigate the influence of small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) infection on cheese yield in goats. For this purpose records of milk yield, milk composition and cheese yield were collected in a dairy goat herd. Cheese yield was recorded as the amount of fresh cheese obtained from 1 kg milk. All goats were serologically tested for SRLV infection twice a year. The analysis included 247 records in total (71 for seropositive and 176 from seronegative individuals) and was carried out with the use of the four-level hierarchical linear model (α = 0·05). SRLV infection proved to be a statistically significant independent factor reducing cheese yield (P = 0·013)--when other covariates were held constant cheese yield was reduced by 4·6 g per each 1 kg milk in an infected goat compared with an uninfected goat. Other statistically significant covariates positively associated with cheese yield were protein contents, fat contents and the 3rd stage of lactation (P < 0·001 for all).

Objective: To quantify if, and to what extent, permanent incisor wear differed with age of goat and farm of origin on commercial Australian Angora goat farms., Design: Observations were made on three Angora goat farms in the wheat-sheep zone of Victoria, each managed according to the farmer's practices. Farmers provided a representative flock of does., Methods: The proportion and pattern of wear of permanent incisors were recorded and percentage wear calculated. After log(y + 10) transformation, a parsimonious general linear model was developed to relate wear to farm and age, with age considered as a continuous variate., Results: The range in wear of the permanent incisors was 0-100%. For each farm, the most parsimonious model for permanent first incisor wear and average wear of all permanent incisors was a separate straight line relating the transformed incisor wear to the age of doe. The models accounted for 66-73% of variance. On each farm the incisor wear was similar and low for ages up to approximately 4 years. On all farms, the amount of incisor wear increased dramatically with age, although the rate of increase differed with each farm., Conclusions: Permanent incisor wear increased with age of goat and differed with farm of origin. Angora goat farmers need to be aware of the potential for incisor wear to affect doe production and health., (© 2015 Australian Veterinary Association.)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the suitability of the electronic handheld devices FreeStyle Precision (FSP; Abbott Germany, Wiesbaden, Germany) and GlucoMen LX Plus (GML; A. Menarini GmbH, Vienna, Austria) for the measurement of β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) in whole blood in dairy goats. Additionally, glucose concentration was analyzed with the FSP device. For method comparison, the samples were also analyzed in the laboratory by standard methods, which served as the gold standard in our study. A further objective was to evaluate the agreement between samples obtained by minimal invasive venipuncture of an ear vein and measurements of whole blood samples from the jugular vein (vena jugularis). In total, 173 blood sample pairs collected from 28 goats were obtained from an ear vein and from the jugular vein. The Spearman correlation coefficients (rsp) for BHBA concentrations determined with the FSP or GML and the gold standard were 0.95 and 0.85 for the ear vein and 0.98 and 0.88 for the jugular vein, respectively. Bland-Altman plots of differences showed a positive bias of 0.12 (ear vein) and 0.21 (jugular vein) when determination was performed with the FSP and a negative bias of 0.21 (ear vein) and 0.24 (jugular vein) when using the GML. For the FSP, applying the adjusted thresholds determined by ROC analysis of 0.9 (ear vein) and 1.0 mmol/L (jugular vein) allowed to distinguish between healthy goats and animals with hyperketonemia with sensitivities (Se) and specificities (Sp) for samples from the ear vein of 0.98 and 0.85, and from the jugular vein of 0.99 and 0.94, respectively. For the GML, adjusted thresholds were 0.5 mmol/L for the ear vein (Se=0.94, Sp=0.75) and 0.6 mmol/L for the jugular vein (Se=0.88, Sp=0.91). Repeated analyses of defined whole blood samples showed average inter- and intraassay coefficients of variation of 6.6 and 7.3% for FSP, and of 35.6 and 35.4% for GML, respectively. Test characteristics for determining glucose concentration with the FSP compared with the gold standard were poor (ear vein: rsp=0.41; jugular vein: rsp=0.51), with low validity to distinguish between hypo- and normoglycemia (Se=0.71, Sp=0.66). The present study showed good test characteristics for the FSP and moderate for the GML device for determining BHBA concentrations in whole blood. Additionally the results demonstrate the suitability of testing BHBA concentration in a blood drop obtained from an ear vein. Based on the results of this study, the FSP device is not suitable to differentiate normo- from hypoglycemia in goats., (Copyright © 2014 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The publication of the "Recommendations of husbandry and welfare of sheep and goats" by the German Small Ruminant Veterinary Association provides guidelines that are also used for assessing animal welfare. The included statements concerning lameness are reviewed according to the available literature and commented on with the help of practical examples. Diagnostic tools, criteria, appropriate measures and target values are discussed to facilitate the application of the guidelines.

Inadequate management practices and poor reproductive performance have been reported as fundamental factors on reducing the levels of productivity in livestock. Different pathogens have been reported in small ruminants' herds/flocks with reproductive failures. The aim of the present study was to review aspects of leptospirosis in small ruminants, mainly its impact on reproduction and consequently on productivity of the herds/flocks under tropical conditions. Leptospiral infection in goats and sheep is common in several countries, and those species can also act as carriers of leptospires. Severe disease is often associated to young animals and is frequently associated to incidental serovars. In contrast, subclinical infection is mainly characterized by reproductive problems, such as infertility, abortion, occurrence of stillbirths, and weak lambs/goat kids. Moreover, laboratorial tests are essential to achieve an accurate diagnosis of the infection. Microscopic agglutination test is the most common indirect test of leptospirosis, being used worldwide. In small ruminants, PCR consists on a recommendable method for diagnosing animals that carry leptospires. Control of leptospirosis in small ruminants involves measures such as the identification and treatment of the carriers and other sources of infection, quarantine in acquired animals, and systematic immunization with commercial vaccines containing the circulating serovars in the herd/flock. Productivity of small ruminant breeding can dramatically increase with adequate sanitary conditions and control of leptospirosis. Immunization of all the animals combined to the treatment of carriers may successfully control the infection and importantly reduce the economic reproductive hazards that are observed under tropical conditions.

This study investigated the effects of wheat-induced subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) on rumen bacterial populations and in situ degradabilities of NDF, starch, and crude protein of feeds. Four multiparous dairy goats (BW=60±3.3kg) fitted with ruminal cannulas were assigned to a 2×2 crossover design (28-d treatment periods separated by a 7-d washout interval). The treatment diets consisted of 2 levels of cracked wheat: 0 (control, corn based concentrate) and 35% (diet-induced SARA, wheat-based concentrate), with a constant forage- (45% alfalfa hay and 5% corn silage of DM) to-concentrate (50% of DM) ratio. Results indicate that diets with a 35% wheat decreased ruminal pH (6.21 vs. 5.98) and increased the duration (1.13 vs. 4.72h/d) and area (0.12 vs. 0.78 pH × h/d) of ruminal pH below 5.6 and induced SARA. The SARA increased ruminal total volatile fatty acid concentration, from 105.0 to 123.8mM, and decreased the acetate molar proportion (62.8 vs. 56.6mol/100mol) and the acetate-to-propionate ratio (3.5 vs. 2.8). Compared with the control group, SARA decreases the relative abundance of Fibrobacter succinogenes (-59.3%) and Ruminococcus flavefaciens (-68.4%), whereas it increased Succinimonas amylolytica (198.1%) and Ruminobacter amylophilus (125.2%). The SARA decreased 24- and 48-h dry matter (DM) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) degradabilities of corn silage. The 48-h degradabilities of DM (51.0 vs. 48.2%) and NDF (40.3 vs. 36.0%) in alfalfa hay were not affected by SARA, but the SARA tended to reduce the 24-h DM (49.6 vs. 46.3%) and NDF (37.8 vs. 33.2%) degradabilities. The effective ruminal degradabilities of DM and NDF in alfalfa hay and corn silage were reduced during SARA. In situ degradability parameters of DM and starch of wheat were not affected by SARA, but starch degradability of corn (9.5 vs. 13.3%/h) increased. The SARA reduced in situ 12-h degradabilities of DM and crude protein of soybean meal and extruded soybean without affecting the degradabilities of the other protein supplements (corn gluten meal, cottonseed meal, corn dried distillers grains with solubles, rapeseed meal, and wheat germ meal). These results indicated that the cracked wheat-induced SARA reduced the degradation of NDF in roughages and that of protein in soybean meal (-19.8%) and extruded soy (-18.9%) and increased the starch degradability in corn, due to the increased amylolytic bacteria and decreased cellulolytic bacteria counts in the rumen., (Copyright © 2014 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Johne's disease is an infectious chronic inflammatory bowel disease in ruminants. The key factor for the management of this disease is an early positive diagnosis. Unfortunately, most diagnostics detect animals with Johne's disease in the clinical stage with positive serology and/or positive fecal cultures. However, for effective management of the disease within herds, it is important to detect infected animals as early as possible. This might only be possible with the help of parameters not specific for Johne's disease but that give an early indication for chronic infections such as weight development. Here we report our findings on the development of total body weight and weight gain during the first six months of goats experimentally infected to induce Johne's disease. Twenty dairy goat kids age 2 to 5 days were included in this study. Goats were divided into two groups: a negative control group and a positive infected group. The weight was obtained weekly throughout the study. Goats of the positive group were infected at the age of seven weeks. We detected significant changes in weight gain and total body weight as early as one week after infection. Differences are significant throughout the six month time period. Weight as a non-specific parameter should be used to monitor infection especially in studies on Johne's disease using the goat model. Our study suggests that goats with Johne's disease have a reduced weight gain and reduced weight when compared with healthy goats of the same age.

Two repeated experiments were carried out in 2 different years to study the effect of estrus on somatic cell count (SCC) in dairy goats. In the first year, 36 Murciano-Granadina goats were used [12 primiparous and 24 multiparous; 22 healthy and 14 with an intramammary infection (IMI)] and, after a 6-d pre-experimental period, were divided into 2 groups according to lactation number, udder health status, SCC, and milk production. One group was kept as a control, whereas the other received an estrus synchronization hormonal treatment lasting 11d. At 24, 48, and 72h after cessation of the hormone treatment, goats were placed in contact with a buck to confirm that they were in estrus. For 32 consecutive days (6 pre-experimental, 11 in hormone treatment, and 15 post-treatment) the SCC per gland and udder were monitored in all animals. In the second year, we repeated the same experimental design using a total of 38 Murciano-Granadina breed goats (12 primiparous and 26 multiparous; 26 healthy and 12 with IMI). Throughout this experiment, milk yield and composition were also recorded daily for each goat. Upon termination of the hormonal treatment, the SCC in udder milk increased significantly in the treatment group compared with the control group over 3 consecutive days. This increase was observed for year (1 and 2), parity (primiparous and multiparous), and udder health status (healthy and IMI). The log10 SCC (cells/mL) increased from 5.5±0.09 before estrus to 6.04±0.09 during treatment; therefore, the geometric mean of the SCC increased 3.5 times during treatment. The maximum values obtained in healthy glands of primiparous goats (geometric mean=0.37 million cells/mL) were lower than in healthy glands (1.1 million cells/mL) or infected glands (1.7 million cells/mL) of multiparous goats. The increase in SCC observed during estrus (200% increase in geometric means) could not be explained by the changes in milk production, which only fell by 13%. During estrus, the percentage of protein and dry matter in the milk also increased significantly. We concluded that it is necessary to consider the presence of estrus to correctly interpret milk SCC, as an indirect method for detecting IMI or as a commercial milk quality parameter., (Copyright © 2013 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are the most commonly isolated bacteria from goat milk. The goal of this study was to explore and describe differences between CNS species in persistence of intramammary infection (IMI) and in effect on somatic cell count (SCC) and milk yield (MY). Milk samples were collected from 530 does from 5 Dutch dairy goat herds on 3 occasions during 1 lactation. Coagulase-negative staphylococci species were identified at the species level by transfer RNA-intergenic spacer PCR (tDNA-PCR) followed by capillary electrophoresis. The most prevalent CNS species were Staphylococcus caprae, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus simulans, and Staphylococcus xylosus, but large differences were seen in species distribution between herds. Staphylococcus caprae and Staph. xylosus appeared to be more persistent than other species, but confidence intervals were overlapping. The effect of IMI caused by the 4 most prevalent CNS species on SCC and on MY was determined with linear regression models, and Staph. aureus and Corynebacterium bovis were included in the analyses as reference organisms. Most species were associated with a significantly higher SCC than noninfected udder halves, but the effect of CNS species on SCC was much smaller than the effect of Staph. aureus on SCC. We found a significant positive association between infection with Staph. caprae and MY. Intramammary infection caused by Staph. xylosus, on the other hand, had a negative association with milk yield, comparable to the effect of Staph. aureus, but these effects were not significantly different from zero. Intramammary infections with CNS species have a high prevalence in goats and are persistent, but have a limited effect on SCC compared with IMI with Staph. aureus. The effect of CNS species on MY differed between species, but differences were nonsignificant because limited numbers per species were available for analysis. Therefore, CNS species appear to behave as minor pathogens in goats, but larger studies are needed to give better estimates for the effect on MY., (Copyright © 2012 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Eleven Murciano-Granadina goats in late pregnancy were separated into two groups (1) control (n=6) and (2) fasting for 72 h to induce pregnancy toxaemia (n=5). Venous blood was taken daily to determine acid-base and electrolyte parameters. Significant decreases in blood pH, bicarbonate concentration and base excess, and a significant increase in anion gap were observed after 24h of fasting. These changes were significantly correlated with non-esterified fatty acid concentration. No significant changes were observed in pCO(2), and electrolyte or lactate concentrations. Clinical signs of pregnancy toxaemia in fasted goats appeared by 72h post-fasting. These signs and the changes in acid-base balance disappeared once feed was reintroduced. Blood pH, bicarbonate concentration, base excess and anion gap could be indicators of early pregnancy toxaemia in goats., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This long-term observational cohort study was carried out to evaluate the effect of caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) infection on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of milk production in dairy goats. For this purpose, a dairy herd comprising both CAEV-infected and uninfected female goats was observed for 12 consecutive years. Records on daily milk yield, somatic cell count (SCC), and contents of the major milk components (fat, protein and lactose) were collected every month. In total, 3,042 records (1,114 from CAEV-positive and 1,928 from CAEV-negative animals) from 177 female goats were used for statistical analysis. The multi-trait repeatability test-day animal model using the derivative-free multivariate analysis package with the average information-REML method was applied to eliminate the influence of factors other than CAEV infection on milk production in goats. The statistical significance of the differences between estimates for seropositive and seronegative goats was evaluated using Student's t-test. The effect of age of goats (parity) on their serological status was also estimated with the one-trait repeatability test-day model. The serological status of goats was linked to parity: the higher the parity, the greater the probability of CAEV infection. No significant differences between infected and uninfected goats with respect to daily milk yield and SCC were found. On the other hand, the milk of uninfected goats contained more total protein (3.40% vs. 3.35%), fat (3.69% vs. 3.54%), and lactose (4.30% vs. 4.25%) than the milk of infected goats. Even though these differences were highly significant, they were small when expressed numerically., (Copyright © 2012 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Measurements of electrical conductivity (EC) of milk are used in mastitis detection in cows due to the low cost, possibility of automation, and rapid diagnosis, but the literature about EC measurement in goats is scarce. In this study, we studied the effect of the establishment of intramammary infection (IMI) on EC of goat milk by gland using daily measurements. Additionally, the effects on milk yield, somatic cell count (SCC), and mineral content were analyzed. Eight primiparous and 10 multiparous Murciano-Granadina goats free from IMI were included in the study. Health conditions of the participating animals were monitored for 16 d and then various unfavorable health situations that may arise on commercial farms were simulated to increase the chances of IMI. Once the IMI was confirmed, the experiment continued for another 16 d. Statistical analysis was conducted using a linear mixed model considering several periods regarding the establishment of the infection and whether it affected one or both glands in the animal. The establishment of IMI caused a significant increase of EC, SCC, and chlorides in the infected glands, whereas the sodium:potassium ratio and the ratio of EC between collateral glands showed significant increases only in bilaterally infected animals. The microorganisms that caused greater increases of EC were Staphylococcus aureus and a gram-negative bacterium. Changes due to other isolated microorganisms (coagulase-negative staphylococci and streptococci) were small. No significant differences in milk yield were determined. The significant effect of infection on EC in the affected glands suggests that the use of a system based on daily readings of EC could be useful in IMI detection of goats., (Copyright © 2012 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This study examined feeding patterns and their relation to rumen pH. The measured variables were the cumulative time spent chewing (eating or ruminating) and the mean rumen pH, per 20-min intervals (46 intervals altogether). A total of 333 feeding patterns, defined as time-series of measurements for 1 animal and 1 given day during 15 h and 20 min following the afternoon feeding, were collected from 12 stall-housed dairy goats fed a total mixed ration twice daily. The first objective of this study was to analyze the within-day variability of feeding behavior to characterize different feeding patterns. The second objective was to analyze, for each goat, the between-day variability of its feeding behavior. The third objective was to study the influence of feeding behavior on rumen pH. A multivariate method (principal component analysis) was performed on the time spent eating or ruminating during each of the 46 intervals. The factor score plots generated by the principal component analysis highlighted the evolution in time of chewing activities. They also were used to determine 4 different types of feeding behavior in the extreme patterns of the first 2 axes. These feeding patterns were associated with different rumen pH patterns in goats with the same total dry matter intake and mean rumen pH. Some goats had a major eating period immediately after feeding, followed by a period of rumination; this pattern was associated with a marked decrease in rumen pH and a pH nadir below 6.0. Other goats performed alternate periods of eating and ruminating throughout the studied period. The latter feeding pattern was associated with a shorter total duration of rumination, but a more stable rumen pH than the feeding pattern described previously. Feeding pattern was quite constant between days for some goats, but highly variable for others. However, the continuum observed between these 4 groups shows that many intermediate types of behavior can be observed. In conclusion, characterizing animals according to their feeding behavior by using a principal component analysis may provide information on the animal's predisposition to rumen acidosis., (Copyright © 2011 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objective of the present study was to investigate the hemato-biochemical changes and status of oxidative stress in goats with scabies infection. The study was conducted on 12 Jamunapari goats; six clinically infected with scabies (group I) and six healthy goats as control (group II). The examination of skin scraping revealed the presence of Sarcoptes scabiei in the infected group. In hemato-biochemical indicators, hemoglobin%, packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, albumin and albumin: globulin ratio decreased whereas, globulin, alanine aminotransferase, bilirubin, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen increased significantly (p<0.05) in group I animals as compared to group II healthy goats. Among the oxidative stress indices, plasma nitrate and erythrocytic lipid peroxidation were increased and reduced glutathione levels decreased significantly (p<0.05) in group I goats as compared to group II healthy goats. The results of the present study suggest that scabies infection alters the hemato-biochemical indicators, increases oxidative stress and decreases antioxidant status in goat.

We analyzed the extent of livestock involvement in the latest Rift Valley fever (RVF) outbreak in Kenya that started in December 2006 and continued until June 2007. When compared with previous RVF outbreaks in the country, the 2006-07 outbreak was the most extensive in cattle, sheep, goats, and camels affecting thousands of animals in 29 of 69 administrative districts across six of the eight provinces. This contrasted with the distribution of approximately 700 human RVF cases in the country, where over 85% of these cases were located in four districts; Garissa and Ijara districts in Northeastern Province, Baringo district in Rift Valley Province, and Kilifi district in Coast Province. Analysis of livestock and human data suggests that livestock infections occur before virus detection in humans, as supported by clustering of human RVF cases around livestock cases in Baringo district. The highest livestock morbidity and mortality rates were recorded in Garissa and Baringo districts, the same districts that recorded a high number of human cases. The districts that reported RVF in livestock for the first time in 2006/07 included Kitui, Tharaka, Meru South, Meru central, Mwingi, Embu, and Mbeere in Eastern Province, Malindi and Taita taveta in Coast Province, Kirinyaga and Murang'a in Central Province, and Baringo and Samburu in Rift Valley Province, indicating that the disease was occurring in new regions in the country.

Listeriosis is a serious food-borne disease with increasing frequency in humans and ruminants. Despite the facts that in both hosts, listeriosis can occur as rhombencephalitis and ruminants are a reservoir of Listeria monocytogenes (LM) strains pathogenic for humans, little work has been done on the pathogenesis in ruminants. This study investigates the neuropathogenesis of listeric encephalitis in over 200 natural cases in cattle, sheep and goats by analyzing anatomical distribution, severity, bacterial load and temporal evolution of the lesions. Our results suggest that LM gains access to the brainstem of all three species via axonal migration not only along the trigeminal nerve, but also along other nerves. The ensuing encephalitis does not remain restricted to the brainstem. Rather, LM spreads further from the brainstem into rostral brain regions likely by intracerebral axonal migration. Significant differences in severity of the lesions and bacterial load were found between cattle and small ruminants, which may be caused by species-specific properties of antibacterial immune responses. As histopathological lesions of human rhombencephalitis caused by LM strongly resemble those of ruminants, the disease likely has a similar pathogenesis in both hosts.

Three consecutive years of monitoring 248 goats in the same flock, found that the first lactation milk yield was significantly higher in seronegative (578L) than in seropositive (447L) animals but this difference disappeared in the subsequent second to fourth lactations. No significant differences were found in the proportions of seronegative and seropositive does in the flock, the percentage of animals culled, the number of offspring, or in the number of cases of udder bacterial infection, irrespective of age. Removal of kids from their dams before suckling and the feeding of pasteurised colostrum resulted in reduced numbers of seropositive animals. Nevertheless, by approximately 24 months of age, 76.9% of these initially seronegative animals were seropositive, a factor that significantly contributed to flock seropositivity. This finding could be attributed to lateral virus transmission from seropositive to seronegative kids because of lack of segregation within the flock., (2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in goats maintained under semi-extensive feeding conditions in the southeast of Spain. Four farms took part in the study. Samples were obtained during the autumn and spring kidding seasons. The goats were divided into three groups: group I (0-15 days), group II (> 15 days-2 months) and group III (> 2 months-9 years). Faecal specimens were concentrated and smears of the sediment (25 microl) were stained by the modified Ziehl-Neelsen acid fast technique. Parasite oocysts were identified in all the farms; of the 582 goats, 111 were found to have the parasite in their faeces, i.e. the prevalence was 19.1%. The frequency distributions of the Cryptosporidium oocyst counts according to the age categories were 10.4%, 13.4% and 25.2% for groups I, II and III respectively. With respect to the kidding season, nodifferences were found. The present study revealed the high prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in goats in the studied zone.

The term 'thin soles' refers to the suboptimal thickness of the weight-bearing surface of claws in ruminants. These palmar/plantar surfaces of the claws support the weight of the animal and consist of the distal wall horn, the sole proper, the heel and the minute white line area. The sole should normally only bear weight on uneven or undulating surfaces. A decrease in the thickness of the weight-bearing claw surface will decrease the protective function of this structure and may alter the proportion of weight-bearing by each section with possible detrimental effects on hoof function. Horn tissue readily absorbs water and becomes softer which can lead to increased wear rates. Growth rates normally match wear rates but, unlike the latter, time is needed for the growth rate response to adapt to changes in wear rate. Concrete surfaces can be abrasive and dairy cows that spend their lactation cycle on these floors should be let out to pasture in the dry period so that their claws can recoup lost horn. Frictional coefficient is a measure of the'slipperiness' of hooves on various surfaces. Newly laid or fresh concrete is not only abrasive but the thin surface suspension of calcium hydroxide that forms has a very alkaline pH which causes keratin degradation and is mostly responsible for the excessive claw wear that occurs. Four case studies are used to illustrate the importance of the distal wall horn, the dangers of over-trimming and the effects of disease and concrete on horn growth and wear rates.

Present investigations were carried out on 10 dead animals including eight in lambs, one in goat kid and one in calf during subtropical summer at a local farm. The weather was hot and humid with rain occurring during the period. The history suggests an association of weather and concentrate/lush green diet/fodder with occurrence of the disease. The most consistent clinical signs reported were no interest in feeding, herding in a corner with head down, diarrhea of low degree and temperature around 102 degrees F. At postmortem examination, the most consistent findings were swollen soft kidneys, hydropericardium, congested and edematous lungs, congested liver, myocardial hemorrhages and ballooning of intestines. The histopathological examination revealed the most striking changes in kidney of vacuolation in renal tubular epithelial cells and increased Bowman's space in the glomeruli. The histopathological examination of liver revealed congestion. Lungs revealed congestion and edema. The urine from urinary bladder collected showed high glucose. The deaths in these animals were probably due to enterotoxaemia type D.

A disease with clinical manifestations of thickening and alopecia of the skin over the lower limbs, around the eyes, face, and nose, thickening and shrinkage of the scrotum, and presence of white granular cysts in the sclero-conjunctiva in goats in Kerman Province, were reported to the Pathology Department of Shiraz Veterinary School. Primary histopathological studies demonstrated an outbreak of caprine besnoitiosis in this region. To study the histopathological and ultrastructural features of the disease, samples were collected from various organs of the suspected slaughtered goats for further investigations. In histopathological studies, dermis and subcutaneous fascia covering lower portion of the limbs, skin over frontal sinus, ear tips, scrotum, eye lids as well as the eye's sclera, epididymal and testicular parenchyma, and their tunics were severely infected with Besnoitia cysts. Tongue, pharynx, prepuce and penis, deeper striated muscles, subcutaneous bone matrices, abomasum, esophagus, subcutaneous tendons, and periosteal surfaces of the limb bones showed lower rates of infection. Except the vagina and vestibule, no cyst was observed in other female urogenital organs, the central nervous system, intestines, heart, liver, spleen, and different lymph nodes. The host reaction to the cysts was variable, ranging from the absence of inflammatory cells around intact normal cysts up to infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils, fibroblasts, and connective tissues around the degenerated cysts. Ultrastructural studies showed this coccidian parasite belonged to eukaryotic protozoa, and the cystic form had the typical feature of the Besnoitia spp. of the apicomplexa. This study showed that the organism demonstrated ultrastructurally minor differences with other Besnoitia species infecting other animal species.

The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of gastrointestinal nematodosis on live weight gain (LWG) of sheep and goats kept in smallholder farms in Kenya. A total of 307 sheep and goats from smallholder farms were sampled using a 2-stage cluster and systematic random approach. Sampled farms were visited once a month for nine months during which a health and production survey questionnaire was administered, animals weighed and fecal samples taken for fecal egg count. Descriptive statistics and a generalized linear mixed model were performed in SAS. The mean LWG of suckling kids and lambs was low (mean=46 g/day). High fecal egg count and lack of feed supplementation were identified as the main factors limiting growth. Improved helminth control and nutrition are required to optimize production.

Density-dependent and climatic factors affect reproduction and dynamics of wild ungulates. Parasites can also decrease reproductive success through either a direct abortive effect or a negative impact on host growth and body condition. However, few studies have investigated the effect of parasitism on fecundity of ungulates in natural conditions. We studied three bacterial infections caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Abortusovis, Chlamydophila abortus and Coxiella burnetii. These bacteria are leading causes of reproductive failure in sheep, goat and cattle, which raises the question of their influence on population dynamics of wild ungulates. A long-term study of demography and epidemiology of an alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra, L.) population (Les Bauges Reserve, France) and a generalized linear modeling approach were used to analyze the reproductive success of chamois according to population density, weather conditions and the prevalence of antibodies against the three bacteria in females. This approach enabled us to identify the confounding effect of weather and parasitism on fecundity in a natural population. After accounting for density, the prevalence of antibodies against the three bacteria explained 36% of the annual variation in reproductive success, and weather conditions explained an additional 31%. This study was, to our knowledge, the first to compare the decrease in fecundity due to bacterial infections and weather conditions in a population of wild mountain ungulates.

The aim of this study was to investigate mineral metabolism and immune response in dairy goats following intramammary inoculation with varying doses of Staphylococcus aureus. Blood samples were collected at 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h after intramammary inoculation. Lowered plasma Fe concentrations were observed from 12 to 24 h postinoculation in groups SAA (Staph. aureus at 10(4) cfu, n = 5) and SAB (Staph. aureus at 10(8) cfu, n = 5). Plasma Cu concentrations increased in group SAB 2 h after inoculation and maintained greater concentrations until the end of the experiment compared with the control group (phosphate-buffered saline, n = 5). Increased plasma Zn concentrations in group SAB were observed 48 h after inoculation, and the concentration was still greater 72 h after inoculation compared with the control group. Greater plasma Mg concentrations were detected in groups SAA and SAB compared with the control group at all timepoints after inoculation. Plasma Mg concentrations were generally greater in group SAA than in group SAB through 72 h (except at 2 h). Plasma tumor necrosis factor-alpha concentrations were unchanged following intramammary inoculation with Staph. aureus throughout the study. Plasma IL-6 concentrations in groups SAA and SAB increased gradually compared with the control group and peaked at 48 h after inoculation. In group SAB, serum cortisol concentrations started to increase from 8 h postinoculation and peaked at 12 h postinoculation. In conclusion, increasing the inoculum dose does not induce more rapid proinflammatory cytokine responses, whereas the data indicate that mineral metabolic alterations occur during the course of Staph. aureus mastitis in the goat.