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Objective:To prioritise and refine a set of evidence-informed statements into advice messages to promote vegetable liking in early childhood, and to determine applicability for dissemination of advice to relevant audiences.Design:A nominal group technique (NGT) workshop and a Delphi survey were conducted to prioritise and achieve consensus (≥70 % agreement) on thirty evidence-informed maternal (perinatal and lactation stage), infant (complementary feeding stage) and early years (family diet stage) vegetable-related advice messages. Messages were validated via triangulation analysis against the strength of evidence from an Umbrella review of strategies to increase children’s vegetable liking, and gaps in advice from a Desktop review of vegetable feeding advice.Setting:Australia.Participants:A purposeful sample of key stakeholders (NGT workshop, n 8 experts; Delphi survey, n 23 end users).Results:Participant consensus identified the most highly ranked priority messages associated with the strategies of: ‘in-utero exposure’ (perinatal and lactation, n 56 points) and ‘vegetable variety’ (complementary feeding, n 97 points; family diet, n 139 points). Triangulation revealed two strategies (‘repeated exposure’ and ‘variety’) and their associated advice messages suitable for policy and practice, twelve for research and four for food industry.Conclusions:Supported by national and state feeding guideline documents and resources, the advice messages relating to ‘repeated exposure’ and ‘variety’ to increase vegetable liking can be communicated to families and caregivers by healthcare practitioners. The food industry provides a vehicle for advice promotion and product development. Further research, where stronger evidence is needed, could further inform strategies for policy and practice, and food industry application.

The prototypical stimuli for umami taste is monosodium glutamate (MSG), which is the sodium salt form of glutamic acid. A proportion of the population has a reduced or complete inability to taste l-glutamate independent to the sodium ion. To determine individuals’ umami discrimination status, many studies use a series of triangle tests containing isomolar (29 mM) sodium chloride (NaCl) and MSG, requiring participants to correctly identify the odd sample. Across studies, inconsistent categorization criteria have been applied. The aim of this study was to determine the optimal classification criterion based on the number of tests assessed to ascertain an individual’s ability to discriminate between MSG and NaCl. Thirty-eight participants attended 3 taste assessment sessions, each involving 24 triangle tests (2 blocks of 12 tests) containing 29 mM NaCl and 29 mM MSG, detection and recognition threshold were measured for MSG, monopotassium glutamate (MPG), and sweet (sucrose) tastes. There was no learning, or fatigue trend over n = 24 (P = 0.228), and n = 12 (P = 0.940) triangle tests across each testing session. Twenty-four triangle tests produced the most consistent categorization of tasters across sessions (68.4%). The test–retest correlation across each testing session was highest for n = 24 triangle tests (ICC = 0.50), in comparison to 12 (ICC = 0.37). Overall, conducting n = 24 compared with n = 12 triangle tests provided the optimal classification to determine an individual’s ability to discriminate l-glutamate from NaCl and thus their umami discrimination status, based on the number of tests assessed in this study.

Umami non-discriminators (NDs) are a sub-group of the population with a reduced ability to discriminate between monosodium glutamate (MSG) and sodium chloride (NaCl) compared to umami discriminators (UDs). No research has investigated umami and salty taste perception associations across detection threshold (DT), recognition threshold (RT), and suprathreshold intensity perception (ST) or the habitual dietary intake of ND. Adults (n = 61, mean age of 30 ± 8 years, n = 40 females) completed taste assessments measuring their DT, RT, and ST for salty, umami (MSG and monopotassium glutamate (MPG)), and sweet tastes. To determine the umami discrimination status, participants completed 24 triangle tests containing 29 mM NaCl and 29 mM MSG, and those with ≥13 correct identifications were considered UDs. Habitual dietary intake was recorded via a food frequency questionnaire. NDs made up 14.8% (n = 9) of the study population, and UDs made up 85.2% (n = 52). NDs were less sensitive to salt at RT (mean step difference: −1.58, p = 0.03), and they consumed more servings of meat and poultry daily (1.3 vs. 0.6 serves, p = 0.006); fewer servings of discretionary food (1.6 vs. 2.4, p = 0.001); and, of these, fewer salty discretionary foods (0.9 vs. 1.3, p = 0.003) than NDs. Identifying these NDs may provide insight into a population at risk of the overconsumption of discretionary foods and reduced intake of protein-rich meat foods.

Children in Australia and similar countries consume low amounts of vegetables. The present study investigated if children’s carrot consumption can be heightened by providing whole vs diced carrots in a real life setting. Children (n = 60, 25 males, ages 8.6 ± 1.6 yrs.) watched a 90-min movie on two different occasions, while randomly being served 1000 g of diced carrots on one occasion and whole carrots on the other occasion. Consumption, hunger and taste liking were measured at the start, 10 min and 90 min after the consumption period started. Overall, the consumption of whole carrots (median intake: 39 g after 10 min) was significantly higher (Z = −2.4, p = 0.02), than the consumption of diced carrots (median intake: 26 g after 10 min), and trended towards being higher after 90 min (median intake whole: 126 g, median intake diced: 66 g, z = −1.7, p = 0.08). The majority of children (67%) consumed more whole than diced carrots with the increase in consumption being on average 75% greater when carrots were presented whole as opposed to diced. Although liking of carrots was significantly correlated with consumption (diced: r = 0.63, p The present study suggests that serving carrots whole, rather than diced could be a promising strategy to increase children’s vegetable consumption in a snacking occasion.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends cutting down added sugar in processed foods and beverages. There is a growing concern for increased calorie intake from added sugar in flavored milk. To understand how to effectively reduce added sugar in flavored milk, the influence of other nutritional components such as percentage of fat, protein, and salt need to be accounted for as they are the determinants for color, flavor and mouthfeel attributes that ultimately influence consumer liking. Therefore, this study aims to identify the ideal product composition of commercial chocolate flavored milk samples and to link the existing variations to consumers' liking data using External Preference Mapping (EPM). Thirty-four commercial chocolate milk samples systematically varying in compositional profile (sugar, fat, protein, salt, stabilizer and sweetener) were analysed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with a subset of 10 chocolate milk samples varying in product composition (fat, protein, salt and sugar) selected for consumer evaluation. Consumers (n = 235) evaluated these 10 chocolate milk samples for overall liking using a 9-point hedonic scale. Significant differences (p

Owing to the public health concern associated with the consumption of added sugar, the World Health Organization recommends cutting down sugar in processed foods. Furthermore, due to the growing concern of increased calorie intake from added sugar in sweetened dairy foods, the present review provides an overview of different types and functions of sugar, various sugar reduction strategies, and current trends in the use of sweeteners for sugar reduction in dairy food, taking flavoured milk as a central theme where possible to explore the aforementioned aspects. The strength and uniqueness of this review are that it brings together all the information on the available types of sugar and sugar reduction strategies and explores the current trends that could be applied for reducing sugar in dairy foods without much impact on consumer acceptance. Among different strategies for sugar reduction, the use of natural non-nutritive sweeteners (NNSs), has received much attention due to consumer demand for natural ingredients. Sweetness imparted by sugar can be replaced by natural NNSs, however, sugar provides more than just sweetness to flavoured milk. Sugar reduction involves multiple technical challenges to maintain the sensory properties of the product, as well as to maintain consumer acceptance. Because no single sugar has a sensory profile that matches sucrose, the use of two or more natural NNSs could be an option for food industries to reduce sugar using a holistic approach rather than a single sugar reduction strategy. Therefore, achieving even a small sugar reduction can significantly improve the diet and health of an individual.

An individual's liking for food maybe associated with food consumption. This study investigates the association between food liking and dietary quality in Australian young adults.Food liking and food frequency data were collected via an online Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ) and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Food liking scores were calculated for groupings of foods. FFQ Food intake data was used to calculate diet quality using a 13 item Dietary Guideline Index (DGI). The relationship between food liking and DGI was assessed using linear regression models and the difference was assessed using an independent sample t-test and One-way ANOVA.Data were available from n=2,535 participants (BMI=24 (SD 3.74), age=21.9 (SD 5.05) years, female=77.1%). Liking for grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, plant-based protein, was weakly positively associated with diet quality. Liking for animal-based protein, fat and oil, sweet food, and salty food, was weakly negatively associated with diet quality. Liking for grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, plant-based protein and healthy foods increased across increasing DGI tertiles, and liking for animalbased protein, fat and oil, sweet food, salty food and discretionary foods decreased across increasing DGI tertiles.The results were logical with increased liking for healthy or discretionary foods linked with increased consumption of those foods. The results reinforce the strategy to introduce a variety of healthy food groups early in life to initiate flavour-nutrient learning and increase liking for healthy foods.

The volume of water is a key variable affecting texture and flavor attributes of cooked rice with a significant influence on consumer preference. The aim of this study was to determine the attributes driving consumer preference for rice cooked with different water-to-rice ratios. Descriptive analysis (DA) methodology was employed to profile aromatic white Jasmine rice and a consumer study was run to determine preference for water-to-rice ratios. A DA panel (n = 12) evaluated ten aroma, four taste and flavor, three texture, and six appearance attributes for aromatic white Jasmine rice cooked with four water-to-rice ratios (1.125:1, 1.5:1, 1.875:1, and 2.25:1). Rice consumers (n = 117) evaluated preferences of the same aromatic white Jasmine rice cooked with the aforementioned water-to-rice ratios. DA results revealed floral aroma, firmness, chewiness, coarseness, stickiness/cohesiveness, and fluffiness were significantly influenced by an increasing water-to-rice ratio. There was no significant effect of water-to-rice ratios on consumer preferences (χ2 (3, 117) = 1.17; P = 0.76). Consumers were grouped into three clusters with similar preference patterns using agglomerative hierarchical clustering. External preference mapping techniques run on each consumer cluster determined the water-to-rice ratios 1.125:1 and 1.875:1 as having the largest appeal to heavy consumers of rice, split by preferences for fluffy or sticky cooked rice. The water-to-rice ratio 1.5:1 was not dominated by any single attribute or group of attributes, appealing to less frequent rice consumers. Therefore, the water-to-rice ratios 1.125:1, 1.5:1, and 1.875:1 should satisfy the broadest groups of Australian rice consumers. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Rice, a high volume commodity can be cooked using a variety of methods and volumes of water. The findings of this research will help manufacturers market water-to-rice ratios, assisting consumers in identifying cooked rice for which they have a preference.

An individual's liking of food may be associated with Body Mass Index (BMI) due to its subsequent impact on food consumption. This study investigates the association between food liking and BMI in young adults from Australia and Thailand.Food liking data were collected via a validated online Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ). Food liking scores were calculated for overall liking of groupings of foods: grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, animal protein, plant-based protein, fat and oil, sweet food, salty food, and alcohol. The relationship between food liking and BMI (calculated from self-reported height and weight) was assessed using linear regression models including country and gender, and mean differences were assessed using independent sample t-test.Data were available from n=4,173 participants (BMI=22.25 (SD 4.18), age=20.6 (SD 4.22) years, female=71.6%, Thai=52.5%). There were significant differences of food liking between countries for all of food groups (p0.01) except for animal-based protein and plantbased protein liking. BMI was positively, but weakly, associated with liking of animal-based protein (β=0.20 [0.12, 0.28], p0.001), and alcohol (β=0.08 [0.02, 0.13], p0.01) and negatively associated with plant-based protein (β=-0.09 [-0.18, -0.01], p0.05). There was significant difference of food liking between weight status for all of food groups.This study supports only minor associations between food liking and BMI, but cultural and gender variation in liking was evident.

Applied taste research is increasingly focusing on the relationship with diet and health, and understanding the role the sense of taste plays in encouraging or discouraging consumption. The concept of basic tastes dates as far back 3000 years, where perception dominated classification with sweet, sour, salty, and bitter consistently featuring on basic taste lists throughout history. Advances in molecular biology and the recent discovery of taste receptors and ligands has increased the basic taste list to include umami and fat taste. There is potential for a plethora of other new basic tastes pending the discovery of taste receptors and ligands. Due to the possibility for an ever-growing list of basic tastes it is pertinent to critically evaluate whether new tastes, including umami, are suitably positioned with the four classic basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, and bitter). The review critically examines the evidence that umami, and by inference other new tastes, fulfils the criteria for a basic taste, and proposes a subclass named ‘alimentary’ for tastes not meeting basic criteria.

Food liking can be directly measured in specialised sensory testing facilities, however, this method is not feasible for large population samples. The aim of the study was to compare a Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ) against lab-based sensory testing in two countries. The study was conducted with 70 Australian and Thai participants (35 Australian, 35 Thai, mean (SD) age 19 (3.01) years, 51% men). Participants completed a FLQ (consisting of 73 food items Australia, 89 Thai) and then, after tasting the food, rated their liking of a selection of 10 commercially available food items using a nine-point hedonic scale. Both tasks were completed on the same day and were repeated one week later. The reliability of and a comparison between methods was determined using Intra-Class Correlation Coefficients (ICC), and the difference was assessed using an independent sample t-test. The results indicate that the test-retest reliability of FLQ and the laboratory-based liking assessment range was moderate (0.40&ndash, 0.59) to excellent (0.75&ndash, 1.00). There were significant differences for the FLQ and the laboratory-based liking assessment between countries for three food items: soft drink, instant vegetable soup, and broccoli (p &lt, 0.01). However, the data produced from the FLQ reflects the laboratory-based liking assessment. Therefore, it provides representative liking data in large population-based studies including cross-cultural studies.

Rice is a common staple for about 50% of the world population. Sodium based ingredients such as table salt (NaCl) and mono-sodium glutamate (MSG) are often added to rice to increase flavour intensity and subsequent liking. Due to negative health consequences of excessive NaCl consumption and negative consumer perception of MSG, alternative strategies to increase perceived flavour intensity of rice are needed. As such, the present research aimed to investigate the effect of a visual product cue on perceived flavour intensity and liking of rice. In a within-subject, randomised design, 151 participants tasted six different rice samples (i.e., with and without a visual cue, at 0%, 0.05% and 0.1% MSG concentrations). Next, they rated perceived flavour intensity (rank-order and general labelled magnitude scale measures), liking (9-point hedonic scale) and preference (rank-order), over two sessions separated by one week. Across all MSG concentrations, the presence of the visual cue significantly increased reported perceived flavour intensity. No effect of the visual cue on liking nor preference were found. In conclusion, a visual product cue increased perceived flavour intensity of rice, but not liking or preference.

Sixty percent of milk consumed in China has a long shelf life (UHT), presumably because milk with a short shelf life (pasteurized) is comparatively expensive. This in contrast to Australia, where 10% of consumed milk is UHT and the price between UHT and pasteurized milk is equivalent. Whether UHT is actually more liked than pasteurized milk by Chinese consumers is unknown. However, the potential positive halo around the expensive pasteurized milk might result in Chinese consumers liking milk more when it is labeled as "short shelf-life milk." To test these hypotheses, Chinese ( n = 48, 20 males, 28 females, 23 ± 7.2 yr) and Australian ( n = 93, 11 males, 82 females, 24 ± 5.6 yr) consumers tasted and rated (9-point hedonic scale), in a randomized order, 3 × 30-mL samples of UHT milk (labeled as "long shelf-life milk," "short shelf-life milk," or "milk") and 3 × 30-mL samples of pasteurized milk (also labeled as "long shelf-life milk," "short shelf-life milk," or "milk"). Australian participants' liking of milk was not influenced by labeling. Regardless of what the label stated, they always preferred the taste of pasteurized milk over the taste of UHT milk. This was different for Chinese participants, who preferred the taste of UHT milk over the taste of pasteurized milk, but in general had a higher liking for any milk that was labeled "short shelf-life milk." Both Australian and Chinese were more positive about pasteurized than UHT milk. In conclusion, Chinese, but not Australian, consumers' liking of milk was guided by the positive expectations of pasteurized milk and the negative expectations of UHT milk. Further research is needed to investigate if the present findings can be extrapolated to a larger and more varied group of Chinese and Australian consumers.

Gamification and serious games have increasingly been used in dietary interventions for children. This review evaluates these game-based interventions by examining the following questions: Can game-based approaches change children’s eating behaviour (positively or negatively)? If yes, what game elements are characterised among the effective interventions? and, What are the potentials of applying game-based approaches to improve children’s eating behaviour? Medline (Ovid), Scopus and PSYCINFO were used to identify experimental studies. Forty-three studies, including video or physical games and gamification, were identified and presented in four topics according to the study aim and eating behaviour target: 1) increase fruit and vegetable intake, 2) modify snacking behaviour, 3) encourage food exploration, and 4) promote healthy eating. Both gamifications and serious games can enhance children’s fruit and vegetable intake, and promote healthy eating behaviour by improving their nutritional knowledge and attitudes. They may also encourage children’s food exploration to increase novel food acceptance and reduce picky eating behaviour. However, playing snack-promoting games (advergames) significantly increases children’s subsequent snack intake, and profound effects were found for unhealthy snacks. As game elements, rewards were repeatedly used across studies to incentivise behaviour change. The combination of narrative context, feedback, progress and challenge was frequently used to motivate and engage children to establish healthy eating behaviour. In conclusion, game-based interventions have potential for increasing fruit and vegetable intake and educating children about healthy eating. Further research is needed to examine long-term effects and the underlying mechanisms for behavioural change.

Despite the efforts to make fish sustainable, it is largely unknown if young educated consumers&rsquo, taste of fish and their willingness to pay more for fish is influenced by positively framed messages regarding sustainable farming practices. This research investigated if a positively framed description of sustainable farming opposed to positively framed descriptions of flavour, health benefits, or socially responsible farming, influences young consumers&rsquo, liking, and willingness to pay for farmed salmon. Young consumers of fish (n = 119) randomly tasted Fresh and hot Smoked salmon and rated their liking and willingness to pay more on structured line scales. The salmon were labelled with either a description of sustainable farming practices, flavour benefits, nutrition/health benefits, socially responsible farming practices, or no descriptions. Descriptive labelling about Sustainability (p = 0.04), Flavour (p = 0.01), and Health/nutrition (p = 0.01) significantly increased consumers&rsquo, liking of Fresh salmon compared to Fresh salmon without labelling. No such a difference was found between the social responsibility label and the sample without labels (p = 0.2). Participants were willing to pay more for 250 g of Fresh and Smoked Salmon with descriptive labels (Fresh: $9.3 &plusmn, $0.003, Smoked: $10.1 &plusmn, $0.003), than for the same Salmon without such labels (Fresh: $9.0 &plusmn, $0.06, Smoked: $9.8 &plusmn, $0.08) (p &lt, 0.001). The sustainability descriptive label had no added benefit above other descriptive labels. The liking and buying intent were, for all labels and fish types, strongly correlated (r = 0.80, p &lt, 0.001). In conclusion, sustainability labelling is promising, but does not differentiate from other positively framed messages.

Sodium is an essential nutrient for the human body. It is widely used as sodium chloride (table salt) in (processed) foods and overconsumed by both children and adults, placing them at risk for adverse health effects such as high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases. The current review focusses on the development of salt taste sensitivity and preferences, and its association with food intake. Three -to- four month old infants are able to detect and prefer sodium chloride solutions over plain water, which is thought to be a biological unlearned response. Liking for water with sodium chloride mostly decreases when infants enter early childhood, but liking for sodium chloride in appropriate food contexts such as soup and snack foods remains high. The increased acceptance and preference of sodium chloride rich foods coincides with infants' exposure to salty foods, and is therefore thought to be mostly a learned response. Children prefer higher salt concentrations than adults, but seem to be equally sensitive to salt taste. The addition of salt to foods increases children's consumption of those foods. However, children's liking for salt taste as such does not seem to correlate with children's consumption of salty foods. Decreasing the exposure to salty tasting foods during early infancy is recommended. Salt plays an important role in children's liking for a variety of foods. It is, however, questionable if children's liking for salt per se influences the intake of salty foods.

Children’s vegetable consumption is often lower than that needed to promote optimal health and development, and practical approaches for increasing vegetable consumption are needed. Sensory Specific Satiety (SSS) reduces the liking and consumption of a consumed food over the course of an eating occasion and is an important factor in meal termination. The present study aimed to investigate the development of SSS when children ate vegetables of different sizes. The absence of SSS would be an encouraging sign to provide children more vegetables during a meal. Seventy-two children (33 boys, ages 8.8 ± 1.5 years) were recruited from Australian primary schools. Participating children consumed either whole or diced carrots for a maximum period of 10-min from a 500 g box. Cucumber was used as a control vegetable. Children’s liking of carrots and cucumber was measured with a 5-point child friendly hedonic scale prior to and after carrot consumption. In comparison to cucumber, liking for neither diced (p = 0.57) nor whole carrots (p = 0.18) changed during ad libitum consumption of carrots, indicating that SSS did not occur. However, children (n = 36) who finished eating carrots within the 10-min time limit, spent more time eating the whole carrots compared to the diced carrots (p < 0.05), which tended to result in a higher consumption of whole carrots (p < 0.06). This suggests that, in order to increase vegetable consumption, it is better to present children whole carrots than diced carrots. These findings might aid in the development of strategies to promote children’s greater vegetable consumption.

Health labels such as “reduced in salt” or the “healthy choices” logo aim to facilitate consumers’ healthy food choices. However, they may act as a warning sign for those consumers who are more worried about the taste of the products, rather than healthiness. This study assessed the potential effect of front-of-pack health labels on consumers’ expectations and actual perceived taste quality of a chicken soup. Participants ranging from 19 to 67 years of age (28 females, 18 males, mean age 45.3 ± 13.7 years) were invited to come to a central location to taste a variety of soups. Consumers tasted the same soup with different labels (e.g. now reduced in salt, healthy choices-tick logo) in a within-subjects design. Before and after consumers tasted the soup, they were asked to rate liking, saltiness, and desire to consume the soup. The results suggest that consumers expected the salt taste intensity (P This study suggests that labels which notify consumers of a reduction in salt may have an adverse effect on consumers’ expectation and potentially on the actual perceived taste of products.

ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of front-of-pack labels on taste perception and use of table salt for currently available and sodium-reduced soups.DesignWithin-subject design.SettingSensory laboratory.SubjectsParticipants (n 50, mean age 34·8 (sd 13·6) years) were randomly served nine soups (250 ml each) across 3 d. Servings differed in: (i) health label (i.e. no health label, reduced-salt label or Heart Foundation Tick); and (ii) sodium reduction (no reduction – benchmark, 15 % less sodium or 30 % less sodium). Before tasting, participants rated their expected salt intensity and liking. After tasting, participants rated their perceived salt intensity and liking, after which they could add salt to the soup to make it more palatable.ResultsReduced-salt labels generated a negative taste expectation and actual taste experience in terms of liking (P < 0·05) and perceived saltiness (P < 0·05). Perceived saltiness of sodium-reduced soups decreased more (P < 0·05), and consumers added more salt (P < 0·05), when soups carried the reduced-salt label. The tick logo and soups without health labels had no such influence on taste perception.ConclusionsEmphasizing salt reduction by means of a front-of-pack label can have a negative effect on taste perception and salt use, especially when consumers are able to taste differences between their regular soup and the sodium-reduced soup. Overall health logos which do not emphasize the reduction in salt are less likely to affect perceived salt intensity and therefore are viable solutions to indicate the healthiness of sodium-reduced products.

Sodium is an essential micronutrient and, via salt taste, appetitive. High consumption of sodium is, however, related to negative health effects such as hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and stroke. In industrialized countries, about 75% of sodium in the diet comes from manufactured foods and foods eaten away from home. Reducing sodium in processed foods will be, however, challenging due to sodium’s specific functionality in terms of flavor and associated palatability of foods (i.e., increase of saltiness, reduction of bitterness, enhancement of sweetness and other congruent flavors). The current review discusses the sensory role of sodium in food, determinants of salt taste perception and a variety of strategies, such as sodium replacers (i.e., potassium salts) and gradual reduction of sodium, to decrease sodium in processed foods while maintaining palatability.

The present study investigated whether children were able to communicate stable flavour preferences and whether mothers' ability to correctly identify their child's flavour preferences is related to the stability of their child's flavour preferences. On 2 consecutive days, 75 girls and 77 boys (3-10 years, mean age=7.1+/-2.3 years) carried out a preference ranking task for five ice-cream flavours: mint, coffee, chocolate and two variants of vanilla. Without input from their child, mothers ranked four of these flavours according to their own understanding of their child's flavour preferences. Spearman rank order correlations suggest that older aged children (5-10 years) have more stable flavour preferences than younger aged children (3-5 years) (p0.05). Only 39% of mothers were able to correctly predict children's most preferred flavour, but significantly more parents (61%) were able to predict children's least preferred flavour (p0.05). Mothers' ability to correctly predict their children's least preferred flavour seemed to be facilitated by children's ability to communicate their least preferred flavours in a consistent manner (p0.05). It is recommended to apply proper sensory methodologies with children rather than relying on mothers' report when interested in children's likes. When interested in children's dislikes mothers' report might be suitable.

Aim To determine the impact of competitive and cooperative instructions on children’s motivation and performance of sensory tests. Subjects and methods German children ( n = 202; 101 girls, 101 boys, 6–9 year-olds) participated in liking and similarity tests after giving either (1) competitive: “I want to see if you can do it better than others”, (2) cooperative: “Would you like to help me”, (3) competitive–cooperative: “Would you like to help me to be better than the other group”, or (4) neutral instructions: “Could you perform this test”. Furthermore, they were asked questions about their motivation. Results Competitive–cooperative instructions were associated high intrinsic motivation ( p p p Conclusion German children’s sensory sensitivity can be increase by giving competitive–cooperative instructions. This is likely to be associated with a high intrinsic motivation.

The global high prevalence of hypertension and cardiovascular disease has raised concerns regarding the sodium content of the foods which we consume. Over 75% of sodium intake in industrialized diets is likely to come from processed and restaurant foods. Therefore international authorities, such as the World Health Organisation, are encouraging the food industry to reduce sodium levels in their products. Significant sodium reduction is not without complications as salt plays an important role in taste, and in some products is needed also for preservation and processing. The most promising sodium reduction strategy is to adapt the preference of consumers for saltiness by reducing sodium in products in small steps. However, this is a time-consuming approach that needs to be applied industry-wide in order to be effective. Therefore the food industry is also investigating solutions that will maintain the same perceived salt intensity at lower sodium levels. Each of these has specific advantages, disadvantages, and time lines for implementation. Currently applied approaches are resulting in sodium reduction between 20-30%. Further reduction will require new technologies. Research into the physiology of taste perception and salt receptors is an emerging area of science that is needed in order to achieve larger sodium reductions.

The present study investigated (1) whether consumption of a nibble-size snack, as compared to a bar-size snack, leads to more sensory specific satiety (SSS) and a lower intake; and (2) whether attention to consumption, as compared to usual consumption, leads to more SSS and a lower intake. Subjects (N=59) tested two snack foods which differed in size, nibbles and bars, in two consumption conditions. In the attention condition, the instruction to chew the food well was given. In the control condition no such instruction was given. For each of the four SSS sessions ad libitum intake was measured and SSS scores were calculated. Mean intake of the nibbles was 12% lower than of the bars in the control condition, but not in the attention condition. Although non-significantly, attention to consumption tended to reduce intake of the bars but not of the nibbles. SSS scores were slightly higher for the bars than for the nibbles. Our results suggest that a smaller food size results in a lower intake. The data do not clearly support the idea that attention to consumption decreases intake. Hypothetically consumption of small foods and attentive consumption prolong the oral sensory stimulation, which results in a lower intake.

Rank-order and paired comparison tests are widely used methods to assess previous termsensorynext term perception of young children. Small age differences could, however, influence the ability of children to carry out such tasks. This study compared rank-order and paired comparison tests for previous termconsistencynext term in previous term4next term- and 5-year-old children. During previous termfournext term sessions, 22 young adults, 21 previous term4next term-year-old and 47 5-year-old children carried out rank-order and paired comparison tests to measure discriminatory ability (0.22 M, 0.25 M, 0.29 M, 0.34 M, 0.39 M sucrose in orangeade) and preference (0.14 M, 0.20 M, 0.29 M, 0.42 M, 0.61 M sucrose in orangeade). Young adults and 5-year-old children were able to discriminate between all solutions and showed a high previous termconsistencynext term between the rank-order and pair-wise tests for discriminatory ability (>76% previous termconsistency)next term and preference (>71% previous termconsistency)next term. In contrast, previous term4next term-year-olds detected differences in sweetness during the preference tests, but failed to distinguish sweetness intensities during the discriminatory ability tests. It is concluded that the dissimilarity between previous term4next term-and 5-year-olds in performing previous termsensorynext term tests was due to a difference in their cognitive skills rather than their previous termsensorynext term perceptual differences.

ObjectiveThe objective was to investigate parents’ motives for selecting foods for their children and the associations between these motives and children’s food preferences.DesignCross-sectional survey. A modified version of the Food Choice Questionnaire was used to assess parents’ food choice motives. Parents also reported children’s liking/disliking of 176 food and beverage items on 5-point Likert scales. Patterns of food choice motives were examined with exploratory principal component analysis. Associations between motives and children’s food preferences were assessed with linear regression while one-way and two-way ANOVA were used to test for sociodemographic differences.SettingTwo Australian cities.SubjectsParents (n 371) of 2–5-year-old children.ResultsHealth, nutrition and taste were key motivators for parents, whereas price, political concerns and advertising were among the motives considered least important. The more parents’ food choice for their children was driven by what their children wanted, the less children liked vegetables (β =−0·27, Pβ=−0·19, Pβ=−0·28, Pr=0·17, Pβ=0·17, Pβ=0·17, Pβ=0·14, P=0·01). Health and nutrition motives bordered on statistical significance as predictors of children’s fruit and vegetable preferences.ConclusionsAlthough parents appear well intentioned in their motives for selecting children’s foods, there are gaps to be addressed in the nature of such motives (e.g. selecting foods in line with the child’s desires) or the translation of health motives into healthy food choices.

Chocolate is ranked among children’s favorite foods in the West and increasingly in other societies. Children’s chocolate preferences appear to be more diverse than adults’. Chocolate of the sort generally marketed to children contains approximately 30% fat and up to 45% sugar, giving it a very high energy density (2,200 Kj/100 g) likely to engender satiety, making it likely that children will acquire a taste for it without difficulty. Taste preferences are mostly learned through repeated exposure, but overexposure can lead to decreased liking, even for chocolate. Severe parental restriction of sweet foods may increase children’s liking and desire for them, which can lead to increased consumption when parents are absent.

Excessive sodium (Na) intake has been linked to development of hypertension and related pathologies. In this study, we assessed if the sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration in a prototypical food influences the liking and intake of that food. In study 1, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were assessed, and perceived salt intensity and liking for hash browns of varying sodium concentrations (40 mg, 120 mg, 170 mg, and 220 mg Na/100 g) were compared in a lab setting. In study 2, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were assessed in a lab setting, and lunches consisting of hash browns, basic salad, and beverages were consumed freely in a dining setting on 4 separate occasions. Intake and liking ratings for hash browns were recorded after the lunch. In both studies, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were not associated with perceived saltiness, liking, or intake of hash browns. Liking and perceived salt taste intensity of hash browns were correlated (r = 0.547 P0.01), and in study 1 the 220 mg sodium hash brown was most liked (P0.05). In study 2, there was no association between Na concentration and liking or consumption of hash browns. In summary, liking of hash browns were influenced by whether testing was in a lab or dining room environment. In a dining room environment, large decreases (50%) of sodium content of food were achievable with only minor decrease in liking and no effect on consumption of the food.

The present study investigated whether the most preferred balance between sweet and sour taste of children (n=50, 9.2+/-0.9 yrs of age) are related to their consumption of fruit. Taste preferences were measured with a rank-by-elimination procedure with seven sweet orangeades that differed in added citric acid (i.e. 0.009-0.065M). Fruit consumption was assessed with a questionnaire that was completed by the children's parents. Results showed that boys' but not girls' most preferred balance between sweet and sour taste was positively correlated with their consumption of fruit: that is, the more added citric acid was preferred the more fruit was consumed. We conclude that preference for high concentrations of citric acid in a sweet context may be associated with the consumption of fruit in boys. In girls, the optimal balance between sweet and sour taste seems to be of less importance; their consumption of fruit may be more influenced by their parents, availability and health related motives. AD - Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen Taste & Smell Centre, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands. AU - Liem DG AU - Bogers RP AU - Dagnelie PC AU - de Graaf C LA - ENG PT - JOURNAL ARTICLE DEP - 20051214 TA - Appetite JID - 8006808

Previous research has suggested that some children have a preference for sour tastes. The origin of this preference remains unclear. We investigated whether preference for sour tastes is related to a difference in rated sour intensity due to physiological properties of saliva, or to an overall preference for intense and new stimuli. Eighty-nine children 7-12 years old carried out a rank-order procedure for preference and category scale for perceived intensity for four gelatins (i.e. 0.0 M, 0.02 M, 0.08 M, 0.25 M added citric acid) and four yellow cards that differed in brightness. In addition, we measured their willingness to try a novel candy and their flow and buffering capacity of their saliva. Fifty-eight percent of the children tested preferred one of the two most sour gelatins. These children had a higher preference for the brightest color (P < 0.05) and were more likely to try the candy with the unknown flavor (P < 0.001) than children who did not prefer the most sour gelatins. Preference for sour taste was not related with differences in rated sour intensity, however those who preferred sour taste had a higher salivary flow (P < 0.05). These findings show that a substantial proportion of young children have a preference for extreme sour taste. This appears to be related to the willingness to try unknown foods and preference for intense visual stimuli. Further research is needed to investigate how these findings can be implemented in the promotion of sour-tasting food such as fruit.

The authors investigated the relationships in children between rules that restrict consumption of mono- and disaccharides (MDS), consumption of MDS and preferences for sucrose-containing orangeade. The background ideas of restriction rules we also investigated. To this end, 44 children (5.1±0.5 years) performed a rank-order and paired-comparison test of preference for five orangeades, which differed in sucrose concentration (0.14, 0.20, 0.29, 0.42, 0.61 M sucrose). Parents filled out a questionnaire concerning restriction rules and their children's consumption of MDS-containing foods. Stronger restriction rules were related to a lower consumption of beverages that contained MDS and to a lower consumption of MDS-containing foods during breakfast and lunch. The most freedom to choose foods that contain MDS was given during the afternoon. Fifty-five percent of the children who were highly restricted showed a preference for the highest concentration of sucrose in orangeade. None of these children preferred the orangeade with the lowest concentration of sucrose. While 19% of the children who were little restricted preferred the beverage with the lowest concentration of sucrose, 33% preferred the beverage with the highest concentration. These parents generally believed that sugar has a bad effect on health and had similar background ideas concerning restriction rules

Basic research has revealed that the chemical sensory world of children is different from that of adults, as evidenced by their heightened preferences for sweet and salty tastes. However, little is known about the ontogeny of sour taste preferences, despite the growing market of extreme sour candies. The present study investigated whether the level of sourness most preferred in a food matrix and the ability to discriminate differences in sour intensity differed between 5- to 9-year-old children and their mothers, by using a rank-by-elimination procedure embedded in the context of a game. Mothers also completed a variety of questionnaires and children were asked several questions to assess whether children's temperament and food preferences and habits related to sour preferences. The results indicated that, although every mother and all but two of the children (92%) were able to rank the gelatins from most to least sour, more than one-third (35%) of the children, but virtually none of the adults, preferred the high levels of sour taste (0.25 M citric acid) in gelatin. Those children who preferred the extreme sour tastes were significantly less food neophobic (P < 0.05) and tended to experience a greater variety of fruits when compared with the remaining children (P = 0.11). Moreover, the children's preference for sour tastes generalized to other foods, such as candies and lemons, as reported by both children and mothers. These findings are the first experimental evidence to demonstrate that sour taste preferences are heightened during childhood and that such preferences are related to children's food habits and preferences. Further research is needed to unfold the relationship between the level of sour taste preferred and the actual consumption of sour-tasting foods and flavors in children.

We investigated the effects of early experience on sweet and sour preferences in children. Eighty-three children were divided into four groups based on the type of formula fed during infancy and age. By using a forced-choice, sip-and-swallow procedure, we determined the level of sweetness and sourness preferred in juice. Children who were fed protein hydrolysate formulas, which have a distinctive sour and bitter taste and unpleasant odor, preferred higher levels of citric acid in juice when compared to older children who were fed similar formulas. No such difference was observed between the groups for sweet preference. However, the level of sweetness preferred in juice was related to the sugar content of the child's favorite cereal and whether the mother routinely added sugar to their foods. These data illustrate the wide variety of experiential factors that can influence flavor preferences during childhood.

Background Substituting sugar-free for sugar-sweetened beverages reduces weight gain. A possible explanation is that sugar-containing and sugar-free beverages cause the same degree of satiety. However, this has not been tested in long-term trials. Methods We randomized 203 children aged 7-11 years to receive 250 mL per day of an artificially sweetened sugar-free beverage or a similarly looking and tasting sugar-sweetened beverage. We measured satiety on a 5-point scale by questionnaire at 0, 6, 12 and 18 months. We calculated the change in satiety from before intake to 1 minute after intake and 15 minutes after intake. We then calculated the odds ratio that satiety increased by 1 point in the sugar-group versus the sugar-free group. We also investigated how much the children liked and wanted the beverages. Results 146 children or 72% completed the study. We found no statistically significant difference in satiety between the sugar-free and sugar-sweetened group; the adjusted odds ratio for a 1 point increase in satiety in the sugar group versus the sugar-free group was 0.77 at 1 minute (95% confidence interval, 0.46 to 1.29), and 1.44 at 15 minutes after intake (95% CI, 0.86 to 2.40). The sugar-group liked and wanted their beverage slightly more than the sugar-free group, adjusted odds ratio 1.63 (95% CI 1.05 to 2.54) and 1.65 (95% CI 1.07 to 2.55), respectively. Conclusions Sugar-sweetened and sugar-free beverages produced similar satiety. Therefore when children are given sugar-free instead of sugar-containing drinks they might not make up the missing calories from other sources. This may explain our previous observation that children in the sugar-free group accumulated less body fat than those in the sugar group. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00893529 http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00893529