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Determining whether a state's young people are on track for a life of opportunity is a difficult task for governors and state leaders. States can be both awash in data and unable to easily access and use that data to inform policy. State longitudinal data systems that meaningfully connect workforce, higher education, K-12, and early childhood outcome data from multiple state agencies over time are foundational to strong decision-making by state leaders. State leaders are charged with determining how to advance educational and workforce opportunities, particularly for historically underserved populations, including rural students, students living in poverty, English-language learners, and students of color. Policymakers need reliable, relevant, and transparent data from PK-12 to the workforce to inform decisions and allocate resources. Researchers need access to data to assess current conditions and to identify possible solutions. Finally, the public -- including parents -- needs easily accessible, user-friendly information about readiness and opportunity for young people in the state. Well-governed and well-structured state longitudinal data systems can help. Today, most states have disparate data systems that are functionally siloed off by education level, like early childhood or K-12 or higher education. Meaningfully connected and well-governed data systems make it easier to see the relationships between metrics like early-grade reading scores, high school graduation, and wage data. Disaggregated outcome data about the youngest learners up to young adults provide invaluable insights to policymakers, researchers, and parents. This report examines how state leaders should prioritize state longitudinal data systems in legislation and policymaking.

Texas depends on a talented workforce to fuel its economy, and Texans depend on our public education system to prepare them for the jobs of today and tomorrow. But unfortunately, workforce and public education systems often operate independently, making innovation and improvement difficult. Between now and 2036, over 70% of the jobs in Texas will require a postsecondary credential. But far too few Texas students will possess those credentials. Only 22% of Texas eighth graders currently earn a postsecondary degree or credentials within six years of high school graduation. This article examines the Texas Tri-Agency Workforce Initiative. It brings together the Texas Education Agency (TEA), the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB), and the Texas Workforce Commission (TWC). The Tri-Agency is focused on three priorities: (1) Pathways: Support efficient and flexible pathways to earning degrees, certificates, and other credentials linked to high-wage, in-demand jobs; (2) Support: Ensure students receive the support necessary to succeed at all stages of their education in their transitions to the workforce; and (3) Infrastructure: Create a robust infrastructure for interagency collaboration around common goals, data, and processes to ensure improved student outcomes and meet employers' needs.

It is clear that young people bore the brunt of the pandemic's impact. Disrupted learning, sometimes stretching for two years, forced many students off track and behind academically. Leaders are now faced an unprecedented need to make smart investments with federal relief funds in efforts that accelerate student learning. District leaders should move quickly and thoughtfully to effectively spend the $190 billion in Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) grant money to help students. This report offers the following policy recommendations from the George W. Bush Institute: (1) Focus on strategies that create more time for instruction; (2) Give decision-making power to those closest to students; (3) Invest in the educators needed to lead; (4) Strengthen governance to ensure strong implementation; and (5) Prepare for transparent decision-making and progress reporting.

High-quality assessments help determine which students are on track and, importantly, which ones are falling behind and need additional support. This is true in a normal school year, and it is even more critical now because of the pandemic's massive disruption of schooling for the Nation's young people. The following policy recommendations from the George W. Bush Institute are presented for educational accountability: (1) Administer state annual exams and disseminate results; (2) Double down on rigor and high expectations for students; (3) Provide parents with clear, actionable information about state test results; (4) Make state annual exams the cornerstone of state accountability systems; and (5) Align federal pandemic relief to accelerate student learning.

Texas is booming thanks to economic opportunities that draw people to the Lone Star State. But beneath this success lies concerning trends that call into question if Texas students are ready to compete in the Lone Star economy. This report details how Texas students do not have the knowledge and skills to succeed as they move on to the next grade level, much less in the workforce. Key takaways include: (1) Too many Texas students do not have the knowledge and skills to succeed in their next grade, much less in the workforce. This lack of readiness begins in the early grades, and students rarely catch up; (2) Eighth-grade Texans are likely to lose out on $104 billion in future earnings -- with low-income students bearing the bulk of that loss -- due to their lack of readiness for the future; (3) 93% of students who are not on grade level in third grade are still not on grade level by fifth grade. During the 2021-2022 school year, no grade level was more than 60% ready for the next grade; and (4) Texas cannot continue on a path of prosperity if its young people are relegated to second-class status, unable to compete in their own state and capitalize on the opportunities of tomorrow. [This report was produced with Texas 2036.]

The role of school leader is increasingly complex, and the impact of the pandemic made these jobs almost impossible at times. Principal burnout is often high, and morale is often low. Retaining and supporting strong principals, who have a measurable impact on the success of their students, is a priority for the field. This case study describes how Granite School District used one strategy -- transforming the principal supervisor role -- to both improve principal skills and deepen these leaders' commitment to staying in their roles. Granite made a massive shift in the principal supervisor role from one focused on compliance to one focused on coaching. This case study describes the ideological and cultural shifts that were necessary -- as well as the positive impact they had on both educators and students. Districts which are facing increased turnover should seriously consider lowering their supervisor-principal ratios and providing their supervisors with the training to recraft their roles into ones that are focused more on the support that principals need and deserve and less on accountability. All districts should take stock of their principals' intentions to leave or stay -- and then take action to retain talent in this critical role.

The Taliban's return to power in Afghanistan last year has produced a desperate humanitarian situation in the country. Nearly half of all households are experiencing acute food insecurity, maternal and infant mortality rates are rising quickly, and 97% of families are at risk of dropping below the poverty line. Most concerning is the intentional and vicious erasure of women and girls from public life by the Taliban, especially the ban on girls' access to secondary education and the rapid deterioration of education quality across the country. What is happening to the women and girls of Afghanistan creates not simply a moral imperative, but a growing threat to regional and even global peace, prosperity, and security. Dire as the situation may be, it is not hopeless. This report discusses steps the United States and allies can take, along with civil society and others, to mitigate the suffering of Afghan women and girls and provide opportunities in an otherwise bleak situation.

Being a principal is a hard job in normal circumstances, but COVID-19 made the job of leading campuses nearly impossible for many. In a recent survey, one out of two principals said their stress level is so high that they are considering career change or retirement. This report details findings from a five-year project called the School Leadership District Cohort which entailed working with four school districts to better understand the impact of Principal Talent Management on school leaders. The belief was that if districts improve their Principal Talent Management policy and practice, principals will stay longer in their jobs. These findings can help other districts take effective action to support and retain their principals---and recruit new ones---to ensure that their campuses are led by strong school leaders.

The Biden Administration expects to resettle 95,000 Afghan evacuees in communities across the United States by September 2022. Some evacuees come to the United States with strong English proficiency and years of experience working as entrepreneurs or community leaders or for the United States military. Others, especially women, have had limited opportunities to achieve an education or learn English. City governments and resettlement agencies cannot respond to these diverse needs on their own. Because of this, the State Department launched a partnership with the nonprofit Welcome.US to coordinate the resettlement efforts to meet these disparate needs and encourage groups working with Afghan evacuees to think creatively about how they can channel their unique skills and resources to help our new Afghan neighbors.

Policy barriers at the national and state levels are preventing many student veterans from achieving their academic and professional potential. Layers of rigid rules determine when, where, and how post-9/11 GI Bill® recipients -- most student veterans -- can utilize their service-connected education benefits. Policymakers should work to knock down these barriers. The Veteran Higher Education Task Force developed five national and state policy recommendations that would enhance the lives of student veterans: (1) Ensure guidance on student veteran policy is current and accessible; (2) Increase assessment and oversight to ensure quality programs; (3) Adopt a new approach to flexible learning models; (4) Enhance degree programs through a focus on credentialing, certification, and licensing; and (5) Emphasize health and well-being. [This report was prepared by the George W. Bush Institute Military Service Initiative's Veteran Higher Education Task Force.]

Student veterans face a unique educational challenge: The same characteristics that signal their potential for academic success often create the obstacles to achieving it. Student veterans are typically older, married, have families and financial obligations, and often either serve as a caregiver or are being treated for a personal disability. Leaders and administrators at institutions of higher learning have an opportunity to demonstrate that student veterans are social assets to the higher education community and beyond. In this report, the Veteran Higher Education Task Force discusses six key policy recommendations to hone institutional policies that best serve and support student veterans and the military-affiliated community. [This report was prepared by the George W. Bush Institute Military Service Initiative's Veteran Higher Education Task Force.]

Educators, policymakers, philanthropists, and others have worked for decades to improve education by implementing new policies and practices to better serve students. But the desired improvement has been elusive -- more sporadic (and anecdotal) than systemic. Success can be difficult to sustain, and what works in one school may not work on the campus down the street. Research-based initiatives should drive what happens in classrooms and schools. However, too often we see that new education initiatives fade away or have mixed results over time. The author's recent research with four district partners revealed certain conditions that need to be in place for practice and policy change to occur. These conditions are: (1) Leadership Conditions; (2) Capacity Conditions; (3) Cultural Conditions; and (4) Performance Conditions. While the research is specific to Principal Talent Management (PTM), what the authors describe as the practices and policies for recruiting, supporting, and retaining effective principals, they believe these conditions may also apply to other efforts to improve schools for students and families. [Additional funding was provided by the BNSF Railway Foundation, Carstens Family Funds, and Sammons Enterprises, Inc.]

Federal and state governments -- as well as philanthropists and foundations -- are being called upon to invest millions of dollars in the public-school system to help schools and districts navigate the impact of the pandemic on student success. The challenges facing education leaders are immense and complex. The learning loss for students is profound, and significant investment is warranted to aid and accelerate recovery. One clear way to support student learning during this time is to remove the burden of the health and safety aspects of pandemic planning and response from the school building so that teachers and principals can focus on what they do best -- educating the nation's children. This report outlines four conditions to thoughtfully manage investments and interventions during a fast-moving and complex challenge: (1) prioritize student academic success and engagement; (2) organize people to support campuses; (3) communicate clearly and often with principals, educators, and families; and (4) act, reflect, and adjust in regular swift cycles.

State standardized exams help parents, educators, and policymakers understand which students are on track -- and who is falling behind -- so that the adults can intervene to meet the needs of all students. This information is more crucial than ever given that COVID-19 upended traditional schooling. This report's recommendations for federal and state policymakers, as well as school district leaders, will maximize the power of tests to support all children through and beyond this school year.

Determining whether a state's young people are on track for a life with opportunity is a critical -- but diffcult -- task for governors and state leaders. States can be both awash in data and unable to easily access and use that data to inform policy. State longitudinal data systems that meaningfully connect workforce, higher education, K-12, and early childhood outcome data are foundational to strong decision-making by state leaders. State leaders should prioritize legislation that follows the recommendations in this report for state longitudinal data systems. The recommendations are adapted from "Time to Act: Making Data Work for Students" (see ED568716) and are the foundation of the George W. Bush Institute's rating of the State Longitudinal Data Systems.

Despite warnings that the school schedule that has been around for more than 100 years is not optimal for serving students' needs, little has changed. The needs of kids and families look very different today than they did 50 years ago. One-size-fits-all prescriptions do not meet the needs of a diverse student population. Rethinking the school schedule could address these issues. This can be accomplished by proactively surveying parents to understand who schools are serving and what their specific needs are, examining state laws and regulations that sometimes make more flexible scheduling impossible, reimagining how time is used within the hours that kids are in school, and using existing funding streams, such as Title I, to support innovative school schedules. Policy recommendations put forth in this report include: (1) The education community needs to gain a better understanding of the needs of families; (2) States should make more flexible scheduling possible; (3) Schools should rethink their roles in communities; and (4) Funding streams can be used to support innovative school schedules.

The framework describes how to manage complex changes to practice and policy. Research-based initiatives should drive what happens in classrooms and schools. However, new education initiatives tend to fade away mid-year or that they have mixed results. Commonly the "what" -- the new program or initiative -- is where leaders solely put their focus. As a result, improvement is usually anecdotal and sporadic. The Effective Implementation Framework was created to address this gap between vision and reality directly. The framework outlines the work and resources required to meaningfully change practice or policy in an organization in service of student success.

Each school year, approximately 6.8 million students miss at least 15 days of school, putting their academic success at risk and making them chronically absent as defined by the federal government. This report provides case studies that detail specific ways cities are leading efforts to get students to school each day. Case studies for the following locations are detailed in this report: (1) Baltimore, Maryland; (2) Grand Rapids, Michigan; (3) State of New Jersey and Paterson City; and (4) Tacoma, Washington. Looking across the four case study sites in this spotlight, one can see several differences in definitions, data collection procedures, and strategies for addressing absenteeism. Examining these differences can help local leaders determine the structures and interventions most appropriate for their own context.

Success in math is important to all students; it provides them with college and career options in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. In the middle grades, students build upon the critical skills taught in elementary school and prepare for entry into algebra, which is considered a gateway to later achievement in school and career. Research-based principles and practices in math intervention research can be applied in the middle grades to improve student outcomes. These research-based strategies will enable middle grade students to develop important mathematics knowledge and skills to become algebra-ready. This report presents a few questions school leaders might ask while providing instructional leadership, observing classrooms, or working with teachers on effective math instruction or intervention, and how Middle School Matters' math researchers would respond based on their knowledge of research in the area.

The George W. Bush Institute began the Middle School Matters (MSM) initiative in 2010 with the goal of increasing the number of students who are prepared for high school and postsecondary success. The initiative accomplishes this by drawing upon evidence-based research to develop practical tools and engaging support opportunities for middle grade campuses, allowing research-based practices to be brought to life in classrooms across the nation. The heart of the initiative is the deliberate connection between research and the instructional practice of educators. More specifically, MSM turned high-quality research into actionable strategies for districts, schools, and teachers to use to improve reading, writing, and math instruction -- and to improve use of data systems to identify students who are at-risk of dropping out. This report continues the Bush Institute's commitment to advancing educational outcomes broadly by sharing learnings to date about creating and implementing MSM. The report's goal is to help school leaders, policymakers, philanthropists, and others learn from our experience to better understand: (1) The power and promise of connecting high-quality research to instructional practice; (2) The importance of rigorous (and supported) implementation when seeking to improve teacher or leader performance; and (3) What to look for--both in terms of challenges and solutions--when implementing school-based improvement initiatives. [This report was produced in partnership with the Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk (MCPER) at the University of Texas, Austin and Middle School Matters (MSM), a partnership between the Bush Institute and the University of Texas' MCPER.]

When an effective principal is at the helm of a school, students benefit. Principals play a critical role in establishing a school's climate and culture and in selecting and developing teachers, among other roles. Indeed, school leadership is second only to direct classroom teaching among school-level influences on achievement. Although there may be little disagreement that good principals make a difference, what is less clear is how to systematically prepare good principals. The George W. Bush Institute has made school principals a focus of its education reform initiative through the Alliance to Reform Education Leadership (AREL) program. The AREL program was launched by convening a network of 28 innovative principal preparation programs for 3 years to learn from the programs, help the programs learn from each other, and spotlight the work done by these programs. With this current study, the Bush Institute sought to go beyond sharing information about best practices in principal preparation and connect information about program graduates to student outcomes. Specifically, this study evaluated the impact of five AREL Network programs on student achievement. The George W. Bush Institute also gathered information on graduates' perceptions of their programs. The five principal preparation programs were selected for inclusion in the study based on a set of criteria developed to reflect the best available theory and research on promising practices in principal preparation. The study was designed to address the following research questions (RQs): (1) What are the characteristics of the selected preparation programs and the district-provided supports to program graduates?; (2) What are the characteristics of schools in which program graduates were placed?; (3) What effect do program graduates in their first placements as principals have on student achievement and other outcomes?; (3a) How much variation is there in program graduates' effects on student achievement?; and (4) What effect do program graduates with varying levels of experience as principals have on student achievement? Key findings include: (1) Districts and preparation programs lacked high-quality data on principal characteristics and placements; (2) Selected program graduates had generally positive perceptions of program coursework and hands-on experiences, but they have mixed perceptions of district supports and ongoing supports from their programs; (3) The George W. Bush Institute found little consistent evidence that student achievement in schools led by program graduates is better (or worse) than student achievement in similar schools led by graduates of other programs; and (4) Significant variation occurred in effectiveness among principals from selected and other programs. Taken together, these findings suggest that focusing on how to reduce variation in the performance of graduates through training, selection, or other means or how to systematize or better tailor supports may be the keys to success in preparing effective school leaders. The following are appended: (1) Program Selection Criteria; (2) Program Documentation Request: Evaluating the Impact of Principal Preparation Program Documentation Request; (3) Program Administrator Interview Protocol: Evaluating the Impact of Principal Preparation Program Staff Interview Protocol; (4) Principal Interview Protocol: Evaluating the Impact of Principal Preparation--Principal Interview Protocol; (5) Detailed Principal Perception Findings; (6) Detailed Quantitative Methods; and (7) Detailed Quantitative Findings.

Research on school leadership shows that principals can significantly impact student achievement by influencing classroom instruction, organizational conditions, community support and setting the teaching and learning conditions in schools. Moreover, strong principals provide a multiplier effect that enables improvement initiatives to succeed. The role of today's principal is changing, as is the principal workforce. The new generation of principals is younger with less teaching experience, and is more mobile, working more hours, and experiencing more job stress. Understanding how to better prepare new leaders for the role of principal is an urgent policy concern. The George W. Bush Institute, in partnership with the American Institutes for Research (AIR), has been evaluating the impact of five principal preparation programs in the United States on student outcomes. Although the information produced by an impact evaluation may have limitations in what it can tell about best practices in principal preparation program design, this information should be considered as one aspect of preparation program improvement and accountability. The study team lays out its recommendations in this policy paper: (1) Accurate and comprehensive data collection systems and analysis measures are needed to improve both principal preparation and principal performance; (2) States and districts should collect data that are more systematic on outcomes in addition to student standardized test scores; (3) Impact evaluations using student outcomes are necessary and critical for program improvement and district awareness; (4) A full evaluation of principal preparation programs should include multiple measures, and focusing on measures of individual principal effectiveness in addition to overall averages may be very informative; (5) More sustained research is needed on issues of developing and retaining our most effective principals; (6) Education leadership also can learn from the body of leadership research in other fields; and (7) Districts and policymakers should consider how preparation fits into a continuum of development and supports along principals' career pathways and work to improve all aspects of principal talent management.

In recognition of the importance of effective school leadership, many states and districts have implemented policies and programs that aim to improve their capacity to attract and retain great principals. Too often, though, these policies and practices do not combine to form a coherent system that ensures effective leadership development. To be successful, these efforts require a comprehensive, systematic approach to principal talent management (PTM) that encompasses the entire continuum of a principal's career: preparation, recruitment and selection, professional learning, performance evaluation, and compensation and incentives. This literature review aims to provide district leaders with an understanding of the research and best evidence regarding the components of effective PTM systems. Based on the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) standards as the criteria for identifying studies with rigorous research designs and evidence of causal relationships, the review focuses on two key outcomes of PTM systems and components: (1) the extent to which certain policies and practices lead to improved student achievement; and (2) principal retention. The review also highlights gaps in the existing research and offers recommendations for district leaders, policymakers, education-focused researchers, and funders of education leadership research, policy, and practice.

Research on school leadership has highlighted the impact principals have on student achievement through their influence on classroom instruction, organizational conditions, community support, and setting the teaching and learning conditions in schools. However, there is limited rigorous quantitative research on the best district policies and practices for principal preparation, the selection and recruitment of effective principal candidates, effective principal career development and management, and the retention of the most effective principals. Despite this gap in clear evidence on best practices, districts are responsible for finding, supporting, and keeping effective principals for their schools. State agencies play a key role in ensuring principals are adequately prepared through their regulation of preparation programs and licensure policies. Many states are undertaking efforts to improve data systems to capture more information about teachers and school leaders, which can help begin to answer outstanding questions about the effectiveness of different policies and practices. Districts should also take steps to ensure that they have the data necessary to answer important questions about how to identify, develop, and retain great principals. This report highlights limitations of district-level data on principals encountered during data collection for a study on principal preparation programs. This report also describes the importance of improving the accuracy and availability of these data to explore questions about how to find, support, and keep the best leaders, and includes highlights from three districts that have developed comprehensive leader tracking systems. Included are guiding questions and a checklist of data elements for districts to consider in addressing key questions to support finding, supporting, and keeping the best leaders.

The ability to write effectively and use writing as a tool for learning is essential for students' success in the middle grades--and beyond. This practice guide highlights several research-based practices that can be used school-wide to help middle grades students become better writers. This paper presents four questions middle grades educators might ask about effective writing instruction and assessment, followed by the authors' responses, based on their knowledge of research in this area. The question-and-answer segment summarizes key information from the available literature, including several recent meta-analyses. Educators can use this information to compare and contrast the practices currently implemented at their school with those that have been validated as effective, and then identify ways to improve student success. A list of resources is provided in order to learn more about the recommendations described in this paper.

There is growing awareness among educators and policymakers that effective school leaders are critical to school success and student achievement. Many studies illustrate the important benefits of effective school leadership for teachers, pointing to the significant influence on teacher satisfaction, development, and retention. This case study highlights the efforts of Gwinnett County Public Schools (GCPS), located in the metro Atlanta area of Georgia, to create an intentionally systemic school leadership strategy to improve its schools and raise student achievement. What makes the Gwinnett school leadership case particularly interesting is the fact that the district has taken a wholly comprehensive and multi-pronged approach to school leadership that includes: (1) making school leadership a strategic priority; (2) creating the conditions that enable school leaders to be successful in their roles by driving school and student success; and (3) developing a robust leadership pipeline. These individual building blocks are components of a comprehensive leadership development strategy developed by GCPS. Their integration as part of a comprehensive district strategy and vision for change is a unique and powerful example of a district investing in effective school leadership to improve student achievement. This case study is intended to illustrate how essential school leadership is as a driver of student achievement, and to share GCPS' policies and practices that lead to highly effective school leadership. The report also includes the appendices: (1) Interviewees; (2) App Application and Sample Instrument; (3) Guide to University Partner Programs Sample Page; (4) Leadership Development Seminar/Summer Leadership Conference List of Topics; and (5) Sample Principal Evaluations.

This paper focuses on what research has shown about the impact of teacher quality on student achievement, the connection between quality and observable teacher characteristics and traits, and what all this might mean for teacher policy. Teacher quality is the largest factor contributing to student achievement in schools, but teacher characteristics such as education level and certification status are poor proxies for teacher quality. This paper explains the weak relationship between teacher effectiveness and how teacher compensation currently is determined. The author discusses policies designed to act on the differences that exist between teachers, and concludes with possible pathways for improving teacher quality. [An extensive list of resources is included.]

Many state education leaders are taking a fresh look at their school finance formulas in hopes of finding ways to contain costs and get more for their dollar. That is an understandable response given that education is the largest item on most state budgets. This paper examines how current funding practices lead to inefficiencies, particularly through the funding of "phantom students." The authors explain current accounting procedures in K-12 education, propose ways to make them more precise, and discuss how ending these practices would reduce costs and encourage districts to innovate. This paper begins with a short section describing the typical operational relationship between expenditures and revenues in districts to set the stage for how state allocations affect spending behavior in districts. Next, the authors describe each of the four policies funding phantom students and dig deeper into the rationale for the policies, why the rationale doesn't necessarily hold true, and the expense of the policy.

The authors concentrate on financial resources available to schools, how to improve fiscal equity, and how schools can use resources in smarter ways. They explain why political progressives should assist in--and even lead--efforts to bring the idea of managing performance with measurable outcomes to public schools. The first section dwells on issues of fairness in financial resources available to schools. This theme, of course, is familiar terrain for the political left, and progressives have a special role to play in shoehorning productivity into debates and policy formation around improving fiscal equity in the nation's public schools. The second section takes on the idea of using resources in smarter ways. This idea, difficult for everyone, is especially challenging to those more comfortable tinkering with inputs than managing performance based on measurable outcomes. But mounting evidence of desperate misalignment between traditional uses of resources and outcome-oriented goals undermines public support for existing levels of investment, dashing hopes for strategically defensible increases.

If a rational system of teacher compensation, aimed at recruiting and retaining high-quality teachers, were designed from scratch, it is unlikely it would bear any resemblance to the system that is currently in place. In this paper, the author takes a deep look into how the method of paying teachers evolved. He shows that compensation systems have unintentionally become dysfunctional. He shows how efficiencies can be gained through rethinking decisions such as how many teachers a district actually needs. [An extensive list of resources is included.]

This paper draws upon the expertise of two leading educators, Michael Casserly, director of the Council of the Great City Schools, and Michael Eugene, chief operating officer of the Orange County Public Schools in Florida. They outline a set of key performance indicators that some urban districts use to benchmark the results of their operating systems against those of other major districts. As the pair concludes, the goal is to spread these measures into other districts and start applying the indicators to academic performance. The Key Performance Indicator (KPI) system is now in use, at least in part, in the vast majority of the nation's big-city school systems. It is beginning to produce efficiencies and savings in a number of these urban school districts, and is helping to identify best practices. Moreover, it has been evaluated by an independent third-party. It is expanding into the academic arena, and it is being rolled out for the use of other school systems across the nation. Still, there is much more potential to realize. This report summarizes some of the ongoing work on the system, its results to date, and what is envisioned for its future. [A list of resources is included.]

The lack of productivity of school systems stems from a number of reasons, including the way in which schools are governed. The author explains in this paper that policies from on high often work against campuses being more productive. His list includes state policies that stop districts from hiring experts to teach subjects that other educators aren't prepared to teach. As with the other papers in this series, Hill explains how to change the bias against productivity. This paper ends with definite recommendations about how new governance arrangements can promote productivity.iii Many of these ideas are already present, in at least rudimentary form, in leading school districts including New York City, New Orleans, and Denver. These are pursuing a "portfolio strategy" of continuous improvement.iv However, districts following this strategy are exceptions to the norm in K-12 public education. This paper will show how, in the vast majority of localities, current governance arrangements encourage little effort on behalf of productivity. It will also lay out preconditions for productivity, which will establish premises for a proposed new governance system. [A list of resources is included.]

With limited resources and fiscal strain, it is more important than ever for states and school districts to use available funds for education as efficiently and productively as possible. This is even more true today in order to educate young people to a higher standard of true readiness for college or career. This paper reviews both economic and education research to identify characteristics that typify enterprises that are efficient. It focuses on the principles of x-efficiency set out in the work of Henry Levin: (1) A clear objective outcome with measurable outcomes; (2) Incentives that are linked to success on the objective function; (3) Efficient access to useful information for decisions; (4) Adaptability to meet changing conditions; and (5) Use of the most productive technology consistent with cost constraints. The paper evaluates the degree to which Texas in its law and policy follows these principles in its use of resources in two areas crucial to the successful education of students: the effectiveness of teachers and the impact of the instructional materials they use. The paper focuses on Texas, but states across the country can draw upon findings presented here and apply them to their own policy discussions. Other states have clauses in their state constitutions mandating efficiency, and the methods used here to assess efficiency are likely to apply in these states too.

There are research-based principles and practices that can be found in reading intervention research and applied in the middle grades to improve student outcomes. School leaders and teachers of all disciplines can consider using these strategies to provide effective reading instruction school-wide, as well as more intensive interventions for those students who struggle to learn to read and perform below grade level, including students who are English language learners (ELLs). These research-based strategies will enable middle grades students to have the reading skills they need not only for high school success but also for post-secondary education and/or future careers. This report presents a few questions that school leaders might ask while providing instructional leadership, conducting classroom observations, and working with teachers, and Dr. Vaughn's response based on her knowledge of research in reading instruction and reading interventions.

The "Principal Policy State Survey" is a first-of-its-kind effort to capture the current state of affairs in state principal preparation, licensure policy, principal tenure, and data collection on the output of these policies. This report explores how states are using their authority to increase the supply of effective principals focused on raising student achievement. The findings are based on self-reported data from all 50 states and the District of Columbia. "Operating in the Dark" includes state policy recommendations to drive needed reforms and gives the educational community new insights on promising efforts by states to improve the supply of high-quality principals. This report, supplemented by the individual state snapshots and the state database, details the findings. It is hoped that these will be used to drive needed reforms and give state policymakers new insights on what their peers are doing to improve the supply of high quality leaders.This executive summary presents these cross-state findings. [For the full report, see ED560209.]

The "Principal Policy State Survey" is a first-of-its-kind effort to capture the current state of affairs in state principal preparation, licensure policy, principal tenure, and data collection on the output of these policies. This report explores how states are using their authority to increase the supply of effective principals focused on raising student achievement. The findings are based on self-reported data from all 50 states and the District of Columbia. "Operating in the Dark" includes state policy recommendations to drive needed reforms and gives the educational community new insights on promising efforts by states to improve the supply of high-quality principals. This report, supplemented by the individual state snapshots and the state database, details the findings. It is hoped that these will be used to drive needed reforms and give state policymakers new insights on what their peers are doing to improve the supply of high quality leaders. [For the executive summary, see ED560210.]

There are research-based principles and practices from the learning and cognitive sciences that can be applied to all content areas in middle grades education to improve student outcomes. Even teachers of courses like Physical Education can consider these strategies for assisting students in remembering rules of sports, different sports strategies, etc. More importantly, these principles and practices can provide study skills for students to prepare them for the increased rigor of high school coursework, where they may experience final exams for the first time. Therefore, the more these principles and practices can become adopted and implemented school-wide, the more proficient students will become in their use. This will enable middle grade students to have the skills they need not only for high school success, but also for success in postsecondary education and/or future careers. This report provides few questions school leaders might ask while providing instructional leadership, observing classrooms, and working with teachers, and how Dr. Graesser would respond based on his knowledge of research in the learning and cognitive sciences.

A student's experience in the middle grades is a selection of classes they go through in a day. If they experience inconsistent expectations across those classes, they and the school will struggle to achieve high outcomes. Middle grade students need to have common behavioral and academic expectations, recognitions, and consequences throughout the school day in all their classes. This report provides questions answered by Dr. Balfanz on what school leaders might ask while providing instructional leadership, observing classrooms, and working with teachers.. [A list of resources is included.]