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WASH (water, sanitation, and hygiene) has become the most crucial amenity in the past decade for every individual on the planet. In the UN agenda for 2030, which created 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), SDGs 3, 4, and 6 directly correlate with WASH practices and management for creating a good health hygiene environment for all. The dearth of WASH facilities has created barriers for averting the transmission of COVID-19, motivating the concept of WASH as the primary step of precaution and prevention, which includes WASH practices, communication for literacy, and positive behavioral changes primarily in developing and low-income countries. This Review deals with the complex concept of correlation of WASH and SDGs 3, 4, and 6 while defining elaborate WASH practices, including the prominence of clean water, the need for sanitation facilities, and health hygiene for good health and immunity for preparedness for and during epidemics and pandemics. Certain risk factors explain the sectors in which the gaps exist, creating a gap for implementation of WASH practices in epidemics and pandemics across the globe. Further, COVID-19 surge succession is presented along with data of different variants that have occurred. The need of WASH understanding is required using different tools (audio-visual, social media, print media, and mass media) and strategies (communication, advocacy, and positive behavioral changes) for every individual as an act to counter consequences during and after the COVID-19 pandemic and as a routine practice for future preparedness. This Review gives a detailed concept of WASH understanding for every sector from community to government agencies and research professionals to act immediately for the sustainable future of humanity.

The study was conducted to assess the seasonal water quality of four stations located along the River Henwal (one of the major tributaries of River Ganga, flows in the region of Uttarakhand, India). To assess the pollution load, comprehensive pollution index (CPI) was used by considering the most significant water quality parameters for which a standard permissible limit is proposed by different government agencies. The minimum value of CPI (1.25) was observed at control site during winter and maximum (8.52) was at Jajal during monsoon which indicates that control site was moderately polluted followed by severely polluted Nagni, Kharee and Jajal. The river water was dominated by a group of blue-green algae among phytoplankton and protozoans dominate zooplankton. Besides this, Simpson’s index (D) and Shannon–Wiener index (H) were used to observe the diversity of plankton and Taxon Evenness (E) was also estimated to know the distribution of individuals within a community. The high value of D (4.69), H (1.57) and E (0.45) was found to be for Nagni site. The relationship between abiotic properties of water and planktonic composition was developed with the help of Karl Pearson’s correlation matrix. For the identification of main responsible water quality parameters and the influencing sources, PCA and CA were used. The quality of river water is declining as a result of developmental activities, and this work is expected to give the essential support to future water management systems in the area.

Groundwater pollution of the watershed is mainly influenced by the multifaceted interactions of natural and anthropogenic process. To analyse the spatial-temporal variation and pollution source identification and apportionment, the dataset was subjected to a globally acknowledged coherent technique using water quality indices and chemometric techniques (principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis. The bulk of the samples tested were below the BIS's permissible levels. Groundwater samples from the pre- and post-monsoon seasons mostly contained the anions HCO

Water quality can be considered a key contributor to both health and disease for humans. To obtain more advanced information about water quality the principal component analysis (PCA) was applied using the drinking water supply network data during four seasons in 2018 in Souk Ahras city/Algeria in order to extract principal factors that can explain the quality of drinking water. These factors aim to bring together the main explanatory elements of the water quality and their order of responsibility on the quality of the water through physicochemical parameters measured in situ. During the course of study 14 parameters were used for the characterization of the quality of drinking water in Souk Ahras city, these parameters were replaced by six (6) principal components explaining approximately 65.33% of the variance of the data. The study highlights two main problems, the strong signs of the presence of harmful germs and probably malfunction in part of the equipment of the processing and distribution facilities; and second, amount of the residual chlorine in water

The research area is a heavy tourist occupied place due to the presence of various scared and adventures spots. The present study refers to the assessment of groundwater quality of five different sites demarcated in Haridwar district. Water samples were collected for three consecutive years (2017–2019) to test physicochemical parameters for tap water and hand pump water in the vicinity of a national park. The water quality index (WQI) was proposed on huge data set for the evaluation of quality status. The yearly index value was found 3.69, 3.72 and 4.32 respectively whereas, for all five sites index values were 3.62, 4.38, 4.24, 3.99 and 3.47 respectively, which indicated the groundwater quality was in very good condition (as WQI 200 mg/L) and hardness (200 mg/L). Therefore, it is suggested that the groundwater quality should be regularly monitored so that the risk of any contamination can be detected and treated before drinking and irrigation purposes.

Ozone is generally formed in the inner atmosphere of the earth in the presence of UV light by the pollutants emitted from vehicles and different sources. Even in trace amounts, the ozone can adversely affect the environment and human health. Being highly reactive, it can cause a 25% increase in skin carcinomas and melanomas. The chapter aims to analyze the risk assessment, health hazards, and environmental effects of ozone and the factors controlling its exposure. With the wide selection of possible applications and toxicity of ozone at environmental level, research on its use and toxicity is probably going to extend in the future. Further studies are necessary to regulate the factors affecting ozone exposure and need to be taken into consideration.

River Ganga covers around 26% of India’s land area and sustains diverse ecosystems in this overly populated area. The globally accepted coherent approach of water quality indices (WQIs) and multivariate statistical models (principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA)) were applied on the dataset to evaluate the spatial-temporal variation and pollution source identification and apportionment. Twenty-two hydro-chemical parameters were analyzed by collecting the samples from 20 different vertically elevated monitoring locations for different seasons. The CA evaluation of data, grouped the monitoring locations into five clusters of varied water quality with human perturbations and geo-genic inputs. The PCA analysis of an extensive dataset indicated the seven significant principal components (PCs) explaining 93.0% of the total variance and finalized 8 water quality parameters out of preselected 22 to represent good aspects of the water quality. The seasonal variation in river water quality by the Canadian Council of Ministers for Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) showed the quality class at a marginal level in summer (62.16), monsoon (59.96), and post-monsoon (60.20) season, whereas in winters (71.18), water quality was in fair condition. The response of National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI) classified the river water in medium quality class for summer, monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter season, respectively. The present observations contribute in the usefulness of these statistical methodologies to interpret and understand large dataset and also provide reliable information to reduce the tedious and cost of water quality monitoring and assessment programs.

The Ganga River system is one of the most important water resources in North India by providing water for drinking and other purposes. This study aimed to determine the suitability of river water for drinking purposes in the Himalayan region by using a water quality index (WQI). The transformation of water quality data set into index value is understandable and usable by the public. To interpret the seasonal water quality, a total of 20 monitoring locations were selected to collect water samples from Gangotri to Roorkee, for various reasons. After applying the WQI, water quality was found in good condition in three seasons except during monsoon season. In winter, summer, and autumn seasons, the value of WQI was observed 41.69, 39.4, and 35.6, respectively, which indicates good water quality, but in monsoon season, the value of WQI was found 65.3 which showed the poor water quality. To assess the metal contamination, metal index (MI) and pollution index (PI) were applied for Fe, Pb, Zn, and Cu. The MI and PI values (MI: > 6 and PI: > 5) represent that the water quality is seriously affected condition which makes river water unfit for drinking purposes. Therefore, it is needed to evaluate the river water quality as well as the implementation and formulation of an integrated plan to control the contamination level.

Present study is to reveal the seasonal variations in the river water quality by heavy metals contamination. To get the extent of heavy metals contamination, water samples was collected from 12 different locations along the course of the River Ganga and its tributaries in winter, summer, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. The concentrations of trace metals such as Zn, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Si, Al, Ni, Cd, Mg, and Co were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Most of the samples were found within the limit of standards i.e. Indian drinking water standard (IS: 10500). The data collected by on-site and lab analysis was used to calculate the heavy metal pollution index (HPI) of river water. During the study Ni showed the highest positive correlation value with Al and the highly negative was recorded with Mg. The values of HPI were 33.34, 26.12, 27.88 and 26.86 in respective seasons. These values are below the critical index limit (100) in all the seasons because of the sufficient flow in River System. So, the present study shows that the water quality of River Ganga is unpolluted with respect to heavy metals.

Ganga River system is a life support system to sustain the people of northeast region, India, by providing freshwater resource. In this study, the seasonal heavy metal concentrations of Ganga River system at Haridwar region (India) have been characterised for metal pollution. The collection of water samples was done from 10 different locations and analysed for various metal parameters (Zn, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Si, Al, Ni, Cd, Mg and Co) using a standard laboratory procedures. The pollution level was assessed from the observed concentrations by using Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI) for nine heavy metals. The observed values of HPI were found lower than the Critical Pollution Index value of 100 (average value 78.62 and 81.18) during the study period. The concentration of Fe and Mg is exceeding the desirable limits of the World Health Organization, Bureau of Indian Standards and US Environmental Protection Agency in all water samples throughout the study period. The levels of all the metals were higher in the monsoon season and lower in the winter season. The Karl Pearson’s correlation matrix was developed by using the mean values of all parameters and showed the light intensity positively correlated with biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and sulphate which indicate good microbial activity. Dissolved oxygen and BOD is found negatively correlated. From this study, it is easy to understand the various harmful effects of metal pollution to irrigation water and health of local people.

The assessment of the Ganga River System at Rishikesh was investigated at five different sites for three different seasons (summer, winter and monsoon) using comprehensive pollution index (CPI), considering 10 physicochemical parameters such as conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total hardness, Cl, phosphate and sulphate. The CPI was found to be 0.54–2.47, which indicates the variation in pollution level of the River Ganga. The variation in pollution index value clearly shows that water quality was slightly polluted in winter (0.54–0.72) and summer (0.64–0.88) whereas high contamination (1.68–2.47) was observed during monsoon season. Among various sampling stations, Pashulok Barrage (Site 5) was more contaminated than other sites. All the studied parameters were under the permissible limit of W.H.O. (2011) except turbidity, total solids and suspended solids which were higher than the permissible limit. This study also illustrates the correlation between parameters by developing correlation matrix. The result of this study clearly elucidates that the water quality is getting contaminated as we moved from upstream to downstream of river and helps to understand the potential effects of water quality on drinking, irrigation and other purposes.

Henwal is a spring-fed river and a source of freshwater in Garhwal region, India. It is one of the important tributaries of River Ganga and its water is useful for irrigation and hydropower production. The purpose of this study was to check the pollution level in river water by using the comprehensive pollution index (CPI). The assessment of CPI was based on different hydrological parameters. CPI was found within the range of 2.11–4.66 which indicates that the river water was severely polluted. The diversity and density of different planktonic groups were also observed and found to be higher in at Jajal site. Blue-green algae dominate phytoplanktons, and Protozoa was dominant among zooplankton. It is recommended that pollution control practices should be adopted and planktonic composition should be monitored on a regular basis.

Water one of the most important vital source for the survival of living forms on earth. In the last two decades, a rapid increase in population has given a tremendous increase in uncontrolled development activities leading to the destruction of all major water bodies on earth. River Ganga System, covering 2525 km from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal nourishing millions of peoples of India and one of the major source of water and other use in India. With its tremendous use and importance, it is very much important to monitor it on regular basis and categorize its water quality on the basis of water quality indexing. This categorization will help to aware mass depended on the water body for various uses and to policy makers to improve the decision-making system for the betterment of the River Ganga System for its conservation and rejuvenation.

Beach litter surveys represent a fundamental tool for monitoring marine litter pollution in the marine environment and have been used worldwide to quantify the amounts of litter deposited on the coastline and detect its sources. This study investigated the abundance, composition and sources of marine litter stranded on five beaches located at the bay of Durres and the Bay of Lalzi in Albania. During April 2018, a total of 3,321 marine litter items were collected, classified and recorded. Within this study the mean litter density was found to be 0.14 items/m2 and 333 items/100m stretch of beach. The sites investigated differed in terms of human-induced pressures with 2 sites being classified as semi-urban; 2 sites as urban and 1 as semi-rural. Artificial/anthropogenic polymer materials accounted for the majority of marine litter items found, with a percentage of 65%. The most abundant type of items was glass and ceramic fragments accounting for 19.7%, followed by cigarette butts and filters accounting for 17.9% of all litter collected. The vast majority of litter items (58.5%) originated from shoreline sources including poor waste management practices, tourism and recreational activities. Single-use plastics (SUPs) accounted for 48% of all items recorded ranging from 16.8% to 69.1% for the different beaches.

Assessment of physicochemical parameters of Ganga Canal water was carried out during 2012–2013 at Haridwar (Uttarakhand) with two different sites, i.e., Bhimgoda Barrage (site 1—control site) and Bahadrabad (site 2—contaminated site), where canal water flows with loads of pollution from highly commercial and industrial areas. During investigation, maximum turbidity (287.72 ± 56.28 JTU), total solids (1167.60 ± 303.90 mg l−1), free CO2 (1.88 ± 0.22 mg l−1), total hardness (60.14 ± 1.13 mg l−1), pH (7.1 ± 0.13), nitrate (0.048 ± 0.010), nitrite (0.019 ± 0.001), biochemical oxygen demand (2.866 ± 1.098), chemical oxygen demand (6.8 ± 2.61) and phosphate (0.087 ± 0.015), while minimum velocity (1.71 ± 0.19 ms−1), transparency (0.12 ± 0.08 m) and dissolved oxygen (7.95 ± 0.44 mg l−1) were recorded in monsoon season at site 2 in comparison with site 1. The mean values of these parameters were compared with WHO and ISI standards and found significant differences (p

The observations of present investigation revealed that the groundwater regime at State Infrastructure and Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand Limited (SIDCUL) Industrial Estate (IE) was highly responsive to the anthropogenic stress of recharge and discharge parameters concerning the distressing industrial activities. The present study on groundwater characteristics of SIDCUL-IE, Haridwar in year 2013-2014 showed that the water of Sampling station-D (SSD) had relatively poor quality in comparison to the groundwater collected from Sampling station-A (SSA), Sampling station-B (SSB) and Sampling station-C (SSC). The samples had a high mineral load with relatively wider pH range. The physico-chemical parameters like pH (6.35 in October) at SSA, TDS (553.5 mg/l in November) at SSC, TH (600.0 mg/l in July) at SSB and alkalinity (525.0 mg/l in October) at SSD were beyond the prescribed limits of Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). The Karl Pearson correlation matrix showed moderate to significantly positive correlation between various parameters like COD-phosphorus (r=0.629), temperature-DO (r=-0.477) at SSA; pH and bicarbonate (r=0.668) at SSB; pH-temperature (r=-0.551),turbidity-BOD (r=0.467), BOD-phosphorus (r=0.518), bicarbonate-acidity (r=-0.833) at SSC and TSS-turbidity (r=0.616), BOD-COD (r=0.6771) at SSD and temperature-DO (r=-0.666), hardness-acidity (r=-0.6542) BOD-COD (r=0.654) at control site. The overall quality of groundwater, though hard, was found acceptable for drinking purpose. The divergence in the results of groundwater samples taken from SIDCUL-IE and the Control site, 2 km away from SIDCUL-IE, indicated that groundwater pollution is increasing alarmingly which may have serious threats to human health in near future.

A forest may consist either of closed forest formations where trees of various storeys and undergrowth cover a high proportion of the ground or open forest. Forests take many forms, depending on their latitude, local soil, rainfall and prevailing temperatures. A forest fire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. A Forest fire frequency is an average time interval between successive fires. Fires in forested areas can be regarded as an environmental disaster caused by either natural forces or anthropogenic activities. Nainital district of Uttarakhand state experiences forest fires frequently every year with a peak during the months of April to July. The present study was done for Estimation of forest fire frequency from 2001-2016 of Nainital district of Uttarakhand state. Results were made by using the highest frequency of Nainital district was 9 and is categorized into 4 classes. The No fire areas contain 55% of total geographical area(TGA), Low fire areas contain 25%, Medium fire areas contain 18% and High fire area contains only 2% of TGA.

The drinking water quality (underground water) of Bareilly city has been assessed by estimating physicochemical parameters and calculating Water Quality Index (WQI). Water Quality Index plays an important role in interpreting the information on water quality. The WQI of different sites shows that drinking water is of good quality. The correlation between different parameters was also estimated. During course of study the average value of physico-chemical parameters studied were observed as temperature 20.17 o C, turbidity 2.17 NTU, pH 8.13, electrical conductivity 1360 mmhos/cm, total dissolved solids 1218.9 mg/l, total hardness 515.0 mg/l chlorides 106.34 mg/l, alkalinity 342.15, fluorides 0.44 mg/l, sulphates 84.68 mg/l, nitrates 22.83 mg/l, DO 2.44 mg/l, BOD 1.26 mg/l. While average MPN were observed as 5.66 and average WQI as 21.48.