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In recent years, the clinical use of extracellular miRNAs as potential biomarkers of disease has increasingly emerged as a new and powerful tool. Serum, urine, saliva and stool contain miRNAs that can exert regulatory effects not only in surrounding epithelial cells but can also modulate bacterial gene expression, thus acting as a "master regulator" of many biological processes. We think that in order to have a holistic picture of the health status of an individual, we have to consider comprehensively many "omics" data, such as miRNAs profiling form different parts of the body and their interactions with cells and bacteria. Moreover, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) algorithms coupled to other multiomics data (i.e., big data) could help researchers to classify better the patient's molecular characteristics and drive clinicians to identify personalized therapeutic strategies. Here, we highlight how the integration of "multiomic" data (i.e., miRNAs profiling and microbiota signature) with other omics (i.e., metabolomics, exposomics) analyzed by AI algorithms could improve the diagnostic and prognostic potential of specific biomarkers of disease., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Paolini, Baldassarre, Bruno, Felli, Muzi, Ahmadi Badi, Siadat, Sarshar and Masotti.)

Celiac disease (CD) is a multifactorial autoimmune enteropathy with a prevalence greater than 1% in the pediatric population. The only therapy for CD patients is a strict gluten-free diet (GFD). Gluten-free food contamination by other cereals during packaging and cooking or accidental ingestion of gluten may cause several intestinal and extraintestinal symptoms in CD patients. Therefore, the monitoring of gluten contamination in food and assessing the level of ingested gluten by analytical biomarkers has been of great interest in recent years. To this aim, small gluten immunogenic peptides (GIPs) obtained by the hydrolysis of gluten and present in urine and feces have been studied as biomarkers of gluten intake and to monitor adherence to GFD by CD patients. More recently, the use of circulating, fecal and urinary miRNAs has emerged as a novel diagnostic tool that can be potentially applied to assess adherence to GFD. Moreover, the presence of GIPs and miRNAs in both feces and urine suggests a similar excretion modality and the possibility of using urinary miRNAs, similarly to GIPs, as potential biomarkers of GFD in CD patients.

Background: Celiac Disease (CD) is a multifactorial autoimmune enteropathy (with a prevalence of approximately 1% worldwide) that exhibits a wide spectrum of clinical, serological and histological manifestations. For the diagnosis of paediatric CD, the gold standard is the combination of serological tests (with high TGA-IgA values greater than 10 times the upper limit of normal) and duodenal biopsy (with a positive TGA-IgA but low titer). Therefore, a diagnostic test that totally excludes an invasive approach has not been discovered so far and the discovery of novel biological markers would represent an undoubted advantage for the diagnosis of CD and prognostic evaluation. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), small non-coding RNAs (18-22 nucleotides) that regulate gene expression at post-transcriptional level and play important roles in many biological processes, represent a novel class of potential disease biomarkers. Their presence in biological fluids (i.e., serum, plasma, saliva, urine) provides the opportunity to employ circulating miRNAs as novel non-invasive biomarkers., Methods: In our prospective observational study, we examined the expression of circulating miRNAs in a cohort of CD patients (both at diagnosis and on gluten-free diet, respectively referred as CD and GFD) compared to healthy controls. By small RNA-Seq we discovered a set of circulating miRNAs that were further validated by qPCR with specific assays., Findings: We found that out of the 13 miRNAs able to discriminate the three groups (i.e., CD, GFD and controls), three of them, namely miR-192-5p, miR-215-5p and miR-125b-5p (alone or in combination), were able to discriminate these three groups with high accuracy and specificity., Interpretation: Our conclusions emphasize that these circulating miRNAs can be employed not only for the diagnosis of CD patients with a low TGA-IgA titer but also to monitor the adherence to a gluten-free diet by CD patients. In conclusion, we suggest the use of the circulating miRNAs identified in this work as a novel diagnostic and follow-up tool for paediatric CD., Funding: This work was supported by Fondazione Celiachia Onlus (FC) Grant n° 018/FC/2013 and by Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Corrente)., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests All of the authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

After the increasing number of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections all over the world, researchers and clinicians are struggling to find a vaccine or innovative therapeutic strategies to treat this viral infection. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection that occurred in 2002, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and other more common infectious diseases such as hepatitis C virus, led to the discovery of many RNA-based drugs. Among them, siRNAs and antisense locked nucleic acids have been demonstrated to have effective antiviral effects both in animal models and humans. Owing to the high genomic homology of SARS-CoV-2 and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (80-82%) the use of these molecules could be employed successfully also to target this emerging coronavirus. Trying to translate this approach to treat COVID-19, we analyzed the common structural features of viral 5'UTR regions that can be targeted by noncoding RNAs and we also identified miRNAs binding sites suitable for designing RNA-based drugs to be employed successfully against SARS-CoV-2.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Current studies have shown that miRNAs are also present in extracellular spaces, packaged into various membrane-bound vesicles, or associated with RNA-binding proteins. Circulating miRNAs are highly stable and can act as intercellular messengers to affect many physiological processes. MicroRNAs circulating in body fluids have generated strong interest in their potential use as clinical biomarkers. In fact, their remarkable stability and the relative ease of detection make circulating miRNAs ideal tools for rapid and non-invasive diagnosis. This review summarizes recent insights about the origin, functions and diagnostic potential of extracellular miRNAs by especially focusing on pediatric diseases in order to explore the feasibility of alternative sampling sources for the development of non-invasive pediatric diagnostics. We will also discuss specific bioinformatics tools and databases for circulating miRNAs focused on the identification and discovery of novel diagnostic biomarkers of pediatric diseases., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level and play a key role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune and gastrointestinal diseases. Previous studies have revealed that miRNAs are dysregulated in intestinal biopsies of patients affected by coeliac disease (CD). Combined bioinformatics analyses of miRNA expression profiles and mRNA target genes as classified by Gene Ontology, are powerful tools to investigate the functional role of miRNAs in coeliac disease. However, little is still known about the function of circulating miRNAs, their expression level compared to tissue miRNAs, and whether the mechanisms of post-transcriptional regulation are the same of tissue miRNAs. In any case, if we assume that a cell-cell communication process has to occur, and that circulating miRNAs are delivered to recipient cells, we can derive useful information by performing target predictions. Interestingly, all of the mRNA targets of dysregulated miRNAs reported in the literature (i.e., miR-31-5p, miR-192, miR-194, miR-449a and miR-638) belong to several important biological processes, such as Wnt signaling, cell proliferation and differentiation, and adherens junction pathways. Although we think that these predictions have to be necessarily confirmed by "wet-lab" data, the miRNAs dysregulated during the development of CD could be potentially involved in the pathogenesis of coeliac disease and their correlation with circulating miRNAs offers new possibilities to use them as disease biomarkers., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

The human intestinal mucosal surface represents the first defense against pathogens and regulates the immune response through the combination of epithelial cell (EC) functions and immunological factors. ECs act as sensors of luminal stimuli and interact with the immune cells through signal-transduction pathways, thus representing the first barrier that HIV-1 virus encounters during infection. In particular, the HIV-1 Nef protein plays a crucial role in viral invasion and replication. Nef is expressed early during viral infection and interacts with numerous cellular proteins as a scaffold/adaptor. Nef is localized primarily to cellular membranes and affects several signaling cascades in infected cells modulating the expression of cell surface receptors critical for HIV-1 infection and transmission, also accompanied by the production of specific cytokines and progressive depletion of CD4 + T cells. At the intestinal level, Nef contributes to affect the mucosal barrier by increasing epithelial permeability, that results in the translocation of microbial antigens and consequently in immune system activation. However, the pathological role of Nef in mucosal dysfunction has not been fully elucidated. Interestingly, Nef is secreted also within exosomes and contributes to regulate the intercellular communication exploiting the vesicular trafficking machinery of the host. This can be considered as a potential inter-kingdom communication pathway between virus and humans, where viral Nef contributes to modulate and post-transcriptionally regulate the host gene expression and immune response. In this mini-review we discuss the effects of HIV-1 Nef protein on intestinal epithelium and propose the existence of an inter-kingdom communication process mediated by exosomes.

Purpose: Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune enteropathy, triggered by dietary gluten. The only treatment is a strict gluten-free diet. Oats are included in the list of gluten-free ingredients by European Regulation, but the safety of oats in CD is still a matter of debate. The present study examined the capability of different oat cultivars of activating the gliadin-induced transglutaminase-2 (TG2)-dependent events in some in vitro models of CD. In addition, we compared this capability with the electrophoresis pattern of peptic-tryptic digests of the proteins of the oat cultivars., Methods: K562(S) cells agglutination, transepithelial electrical resistance of T84-cell monolayers, intracellular levels of TG2 and phosphorylated form of protein 42-44 in T84 cells were the early gliadin-dependent events studied., Results: The results showed that the Nave oat cultivar elicited these events, whereas Irina and Potenza varieties did not. The ability of a cultivar to activate the above-described events was associated with the electrophoretic pattern of oat proteins and their reactivity to anti-gliadin antibodies., Conclusion: We found significant differences among oat cultivars in eliciting the TG2-mediated events of CD inflammation. Therefore, the safety of an oat cultivar in CD might be screened in vitro by means of biochemical and biological assays, before starting a clinical trial to definitely assess its safety.

Objective: Celiac disease (CD) has strongly been established as associated with some site-specific gastrointestinal malignancies. On the contrary, according to the few reports available, the risk of colon carcinoma in CD patients has been described similar to that of general population. In this cohort study, we describe the risk of colon carcinoma in a group of Italian celiac patients., Materials and Methods: The study population included all CD patients diagnosed at the Collaborating Centers of the Italian Registry of CD between 1st January 1982 and 31st December 2006. Upon diagnosis of CD and upon at every subsequent clinical control, the Collaborating Centers filled in a validated form for each CD patient reporting information about demographic data, possible occurrence of a neoplasm and adherence to a gluten-free diet., Results: Out of 1757 celiac patients enrolled, 6 developed a colon carcinoma during the follow-up period (mean: 18.1 years). The standardized incidence ratio (SIR) resulted 0.29 (95% CI=0.07-0.45). Stratifying the risk for the dietary gluten intake, the SIR dropped to 0.07 (95% CI=0.009-0.27) for CD patients with a strict adherence to a gluten-free diet., Conclusion: We confirm the previous finding that there is low risk to develop a colon cancer in celiac patients.

Celiac disease (CD) is a small intestinal enteropathy, triggered in susceptible individuals by the ingestion of dietary gluten. Dendritic cells (DC) are instrumental in the generation and regulation of immune responses and oversee intestinal immune homeostasis promoting and maintaining oral tolerance to food antigens. The aim of this study was to monitor the effect of peptic-tryptic digest of gliadin (PT-gliadin) on the maturation of human monocyte-derived DC and the impact of pDAV and pRPQ decapeptides in the modulation of PT-gliadin-induced phenotypic and functional DC maturation. Immature DC (iDC) were challenged in vitro with PT-gliadin. In some experiments iDC were pre-treated with pDAV or pRPQ and after 2h PT-gliadin was added to the cultures. We found that PT-gliadin up-regulates the expression of the maturation markers HLA-DR, CD83, CD80 and CD86. The functional consequence of PT-gliadin treatment of iDC is a significant increase in IL-12, TNF-alpha production as well as in their T cell stimulatory capacity. On the contrary, the digest of zein had no effect on DC maturation. Interestingly, we found that pre-treatment of iDC with pDAV or pRPQ decapeptides significantly prevents the functional maturation of DC induced by PT-gliadin. On the other hand, pDAV and pRPQ did not revert the PT-gliadin-induced phenotypic maturation of DC. Here we report, for the first time, that naturally occurring peptides are able to prevent the gliadin-dependent DC maturation. This finding could have implication for CD, raising the perspective of a potential therapeutic strategy alternative to a gluten free diet., (© 2013 Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Celiac Disease (CD) is a chronic inflammatory enteropathy, triggered in genetically susceptible individuals by dietary gluten. Gluten is able to elicit proliferation of specific T cells and secretion of inflammatory cytokines in the small intestine. In this study we investigated the possibility that p10-mer, a decapeptide from durum wheat (QQPQDAVQPF), which was previously shown to prevent the activation of celiac peripheral lymphocytes, may exert an inhibitory effect on peptic-tryptic digested gliadin (PT-Gly)-stimulated intestinal carcinoma CACO-2 cells. In these cells, incubated with PT-Gly or p31-43 α-gliadin derived peptide in the presence or in the absence of p10-mer, IRAK1 activation and NF-kB, ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK phosphorylation were measured by immunoblotting, Cyclooxigenase 2 (COX-2) activity by PGE-2 release assay, and production of cytokines in the cell supernatants by ELISA. Our results showed that pre-treatment of CACO-2 cells with p10-mer significantly inhibited IRAK1 activation and NF-kB, ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK phosphorylation, as well as COX-2 activity (i.e. PGE-2 release) and production of the IL-6 and IL-8 pro-inflammatory cytokines, induced by gliadin peptides. These findings demonstrate the inhibitory effect of the p10-mer peptide on inflammatory response in CACO-2 cells. The results of the present study show that this p10-mer peptide can modulate "in vitro" the inflammatory response induced by gliadin peptides, allowing to move towards new therapeutic strategies. Turning off the inflammatory response, may in fact represent a key target in the immunotherapy of celiac disease.

Purpose: This study aimed at investigating the effect of corn, rice and amaranth gluten-free (GF) sourdoughs on the release of nitric oxide (NO) and synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines by duodenal mucosa biopsies of eight coeliac disease (CD) patients., Methods: Selected lactic acid bacteria were used as starters for the manufacture of corn, rice or amaranth sourdoughs. Chemically acidified doughs, without bacterial starters, and doughs started with baker's yeast alone were also manufactured from the same GF matrices. Pepsin-trypsin (PT) digests were produced from all sourdoughs and doughs, and used to assay the rate of recovery of biopsy specimens from eight CD patients at diagnosis. The release of NO and the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines interferon-γ (IFN-γ) were assayed., Results: During fermentation, lactic acid bacteria acidified and grew well (ca. log 9.0 CFU/g) on all GF matrices, showing intense proteolysis. Duodenal biopsy specimens still released NO and IFN-γ when subjected to treatments with basal medium (control), PT-digest from chemically acidified doughs and PT-digest from doughs fermented with baker's yeast alone. On the contrary, the treatment of all the biopsy specimens with PT-digests from all GF matrices subjected to sourdough fermentation significantly decreased the release of NO and the synthesis of IFN-γ., Conclusions: During manufacture of GF baked goods, the use of sourdough fermentation could be considered as an adjuvant to enhance the recovery from intestinal inflammation of coeliac patients at the early stage of the gluten-free diet.

Introduction: [corrected] K562(S) agglutination has been used as a rapid and economic tool for the in vitro screening of the toxicity of cereal fractions and prolamins in celiac disease (CD). A strict correlation has been reported between the toxicity of cereals and cereal fractions for celiac patients and their ability to agglutinate K562(S) cells. Whether this specificity of K562(S)-cell agglutination is caused by the activation of the same pathogenic events triggered by toxic cereal fractions in CD intestine or simply represents a bystander event of gluten toxicity is, however, unknown., Methods: K562(S) cells were incubated in vitro with the peptic-tryptic digest of wheat gliadin., Results: The agglutination of K562(S) cells by wheat gliadin peptides is orchestrated by a cascade of very early events occurring at the K562(S)-cell surface similar to those occurring at the intestinal epithelial surface. They involve a rapid increase in intracellular calcium levels that activate tissue transglutaminase (TG2), leading to a rapid actin reorganization that is pivotal in driving cell agglutination. These specific effects of toxic cereals are phenocopied by the gliadin-derived peptide p31-43, which orchestrates the activation of innate response to gliadin in CD., Discussion: Our study provides the rationale for the extensive use of K562(S)-cell agglutination as a valuable tool for screening cereal toxicity.

Background: The mucosal tissues play a central role in the transmission of HIV-1 infection as well as in the pathogenesis of AIDS. Despite several clinical studies reported intestinal dysfunction during HIV infection, the mechanisms underlying HIV-induced impairments of mucosal epithelial barrier are still unclear. It has been postulated that HIV-1 alters enterocytic function and HIV-1 proteins have been detected in several cell types of the intestinal mucosa. In the present study, we analyzed the effect of the accessory HIV-1 Nef protein on human epithelial cell line., Methodology/principal Findings: We used unstimulated or IFN-γ-stimulated Caco-2 cells, as a model for homeostatic and inflamed gastrointestinal tracts, respectively. We investigated the effect of exogenous recombinant Nef on monolayer integrity analyzing its uptake, transepithelial electrical resistance, permeability to FITC-dextran and the expression of tight junction proteins. Moreover, we measured the induction of proinflammatory mediators. Exogenous Nef was taken up by Caco-2 cells, increased intestinal epithelial permeability and upset the IFN-γ-induced reduction of transepithelial resistance, interfering with tight junction protein expression. Moreover, Nef inhibited IFN-γ-induced apoptosis and up-regulated TNF-α, IL-6 and MIP-3α production by Caco-2 cells while down-regulated IL-10 production. The simultaneous exposure of Caco-2 cells to Nef and IFN-γ did not affect cytokine secretion respect to untreated cells. Finally, we found that Nef counteracted the IFN-γ induced arachidonic acid cascade., Conclusion/significance: Our findings suggest that exogenous Nef, perturbing the IFN-γ-induced impairment of intestinal epithelial cells, could prolong cell survival, thus allowing for accumulation of viral particles. Our results may improve the understanding of AIDS pathogenesis, supporting the discovery of new therapeutic interventions.

A new type of agarose polyacrylamide mixed-bed gel, obtained by simultaneous gelation of a novel type of allyl-activated agarose and its copolymerization with acrylamide, has pore sizes intermediate between those of polyacrylamide and agarose. The process used to activate the agarose chains enables the substitution to be controlled. As indicated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), only one allyl group was inserted per agarose basic unit. Several formulations of mixed-bed gels, containing different percentages of acrylamide, were compared with conventional polyacrylamide or agarose gels. Resolution, migration distance and band sharpness of different molecular mass fragments were evaluated, with two types of gel run side-by-side in a vertical or horizontal system. The faster electrophoretic mobility of DNA in dilute mix-bed gels and the improved separation of the component of high molecular mass (1 to 6 kbp) of the 1 kbp ladder indicate that these matrices have larger porosity than any dilute polyacrylamide formulations. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-protein complexes migrate in the mixed gels faster than in polyacrylamide gels of the same %T.