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Acetivibrio thermocellus (formerly Clostridium thermocellum) is a potential platform for lignocellulosic ethanol production. Its industrial application is hampered by low product titres, resulting from a low thermodynamic driving force of its central metabolism. It possesses both a functional ATP- and a functional PP i -dependent 6-phosphofructokinase (PP i -Pfk), of which only the latter is held responsible for the low driving force. Here we show that, following the replacement of PP i -Pfk by cytosolic pyrophosphatase and transaldolase, the native ATP-Pfk is able to carry the full glycolytic flux. Interestingly, the barely-detectable in vitro ATP-Pfk activities are only a fraction of what would be required, indicating its contribution to glycolysis has consistently been underestimated. A kinetic model demonstrated that the strong inhibition of ATP-Pfk by PP i can prevent futile cycling that would arise when both enzymes are active simultaneously. As such, there seems to be no need for a long-sought-after PP i -generating mechanism to drive glycolysis, as PP i -Pfk can simply use whatever PP i is available, and ATP-Pfk complements the rest of the PFK-flux. Laboratory evolution of the ΔPP i -Pfk strain, unable to valorize PP i , resulted in a mutation in the GreA transcription elongation factor. This mutation likely results in reduced RNA-turnover, hinting at transcription as a significant (and underestimated) source of anabolic PP i. Together with other mutations, this resulted in an A. thermocellus strain with the hitherto highest biomass-specific cellobiose uptake rate of 2.2 g/g x /h. These findings are both relevant for fundamental insight into dual ATP/PP i Pfk-nodes, which are not uncommon in other microorganisms, as well as for further engineering of A. thermocellus for consolidated bioprocessing. [Display omitted] • PP i -Pfk deletion shows that the barely-detectable ATP-Pfk can carry full flux. • PP i -Pfk was replaced with cPPase and Tal; the latter could be deleted afterwards. • PP i -inhibition of ATP-Pfk can prevent a futile cycle between PP i - and ATP-Pfk. • Combined PP i - and ATP-Pfk activity eliminates the need for dedicated PP i generation. • Findings of this study also relevant for other organisms with dual ATP/PP i Pfk node. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Futile cycles are biological phenomena where two opposing biochemical reactions run simultaneously, resulting in a net energy loss without appreciable productivity. Such a state was presumed to be a biological aberration and thus deemed an energy-wasting "futile" cycle. However, multiple pieces of evidence suggest that biological utilities emerge from futile cycles. A few established functions of futile cycles are to control metabolic sensitivity, modulate energy homeostasis, and drive adaptive thermogenesis. Yet, the physiological regulation, implication, and pathological relevance of most futile cycles remain poorly studied. In this review, we highlight the abundance and versatility of futile cycles and propose a classification scheme. We further discuss the energetic implications of various futile cycles and their impact on basal metabolic rate, their bona fide and tentative pathophysiological implications, and putative drug interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochemical covalent modification networks exhibit a remarkable suite of steady state and dynamical properties such as multistationarity, oscillations, ultrasensitivity and absolute concentration robustness. This paper focuses on conditions required for a network of this type to have a species with absolute concentration robustness. We find that the robustness in a substrate is endowed by its interaction with a bifunctional enzyme, which is an enzyme that has different roles when isolated versus when bound as a substrate-enzyme complex. When isolated, the bifunctional enzyme promotes production of more molecules of the robust species while when bound, the same enzyme facilitates degradation of the robust species. These dual actions produce robustness in the large class of covalent modification networks. For each network of this type, we find the network conditions for the presence of robustness, the species that has robustness, and its robustness value. The unified approach of simultaneously analyzing a large class of networks for a single property, i.e. absolute concentration robustness, reveals the underlying mechanism of the action of bifunctional enzyme while simultaneously providing a precise mathematical description of bifunctionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obesity results from an imbalance in energy homeostasis, whereby excessive energy intake exceeds caloric expenditure. Energy can be dissipated out of an organism by producing heat (thermogenesis), explaining the long-standing interest in exploiting thermogenic processes to counteract obesity. Mitochondrial uncoupling is a process that expends energy by oxidizing nutrients to produce heat, instead of ATP synthesis. Energy can also be dissipated through mechanisms that do not involve mitochondrial uncoupling. Such mechanisms include futile cycles described as metabolic reactions that consume ATP to produce a product from a substrate but then converting the product back into the original substrate, releasing the energy as heat. Energy dissipation driven by cellular ATP demand can be regulated by adjusting the speed and number of futile cycles. Energy consuming futile cycles that are reviewed here are lipolysis/fatty acid re-esterification cycle, creatine/phosphocreatine cycle, and the SERCA-mediated calcium import and export cycle. Their reliance on ATP emphasizes that mitochondrial oxidative function coupled to ATP synthesis, and not just uncoupling, can play a role in thermogenic energy dissipation. Here, we review ATP consuming futile cycles, the evidence for their function in humans, and their potential employment as a strategy to dissipate energy and counteract obesity.

Abstract Background Reaction networks (RNs) comprise a set X of species and a set $$\mathscr {R}$$ R of reactions $$Y\rightarrow Y'$$ Y → Y ′ , each converting a multiset of educts $$Y\subseteq X$$ Y ⊆ X into a multiset $$Y'\subseteq X$$ Y ′ ⊆ X of products. RNs are equivalent to directed hypergraphs. However, not all RNs necessarily admit a chemical interpretation. Instead, they might contradict fundamental principles of physics such as the conservation of energy and mass or the reversibility of chemical reactions. The consequences of these necessary conditions for the stoichiometric matrix $$\mathbf {S}\in \mathbb {R}^{X\times \mathscr {R}}$$ S ∈ R X × R have been discussed extensively in the chemical literature. Here, we provide sufficient conditions for $$\mathbf {S}$$ S that guarantee the interpretation of RNs in terms of balanced sum formulas and structural formulas, respectively. Results Chemically plausible RNs allow neither a perpetuum mobile, i.e., a “futile cycle” of reactions with non-vanishing energy production, nor the creation or annihilation of mass. Such RNs are said to be thermodynamically sound and conservative. For finite RNs, both conditions can be expressed equivalently as properties of the stoichiometric matrix $$\mathbf {S}$$ S . The first condition is vacuous for reversible networks, but it excludes irreversible futile cycles and—in a stricter sense—futile cycles that even contain an irreversible reaction. The second condition is equivalent to the existence of a strictly positive reaction invariant. It is also sufficient for the existence of a realization in terms of sum formulas, obeying conservation of “atoms”. In particular, these realizations can be chosen such that any two species have distinct sum formulas, unless $$\mathbf {S}$$ S implies that they are “obligatory isomers”. In terms of structural formulas, every compound is a labeled multigraph, in essence a Lewis formula, and reactions comprise only a rearrangement of bonds such that the total bond order is preserved. In particular, for every conservative RN, there exists a Lewis realization, in which any two compounds are realized by pairwisely distinct multigraphs. Finally, we show that, in general, there are infinitely many realizations for a given conservative RN. Conclusions “Chemical” RNs are directed hypergraphs with a stoichiometric matrix $$\mathbf {S}$$ S whose left kernel contains a strictly positive vector and whose right kernel does not contain a futile cycle involving an irreversible reaction. This simple characterization also provides a concise specification of random models for chemical RNs that additionally constrain $$\mathbf {S}$$ S by rank, sparsity, or distribution of the non-zero entries. Furthermore, it suggests several interesting avenues for future research, in particular, concerning alternative representations of reaction networks and infinite chemical universes.

The consequences of aneuploidy have traditionally been studied in cell and animal models in which the extrachromosomal DNA is from the same species. Here, we explore a fundamental question concerning the impact of aneuploidy on systemic metabolism using a non-mosaic transchromosomic mouse model (TcMAC21) carrying a near-complete human chromosome 21. Independent of diets and housing temperatures, TcMAC21 mice consume more calories, are hyperactive and hypermetabolic, remain consistently lean and profoundly insulin sensitive, and have a higher body temperature. The hypermetabolism and elevated thermogenesis are likely due to a combination of increased activity level and sarcolipin overexpression in the skeletal muscle, resulting in futile sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) activity and energy dissipation. Mitochondrial respiration is also markedly increased in skeletal muscle to meet the high ATP demand created by the futile cycle and hyperactivity. This serendipitous discovery provides proof-of-concept that sarcolipin-mediated thermogenesis via uncoupling of the SERCA pump can be harnessed to promote energy expenditure and metabolic health.

Introduction: Non shivering thermogenesis is partly yielded by a futile-calcium-cycle mechanism that is regulated by Sarco/Endoplasmic Reticulum ATPase2 (SERCA2) and Ryanodine Receptor2 (RYR2). This study aimed to investigate the effect of a high-fat diet and endurance training under near-thermoneutrality (in which humans live) on the gene expression of SERCA2 and RYR2 in inguinal subcutaneous adipose tissue in mice. Material & Methods: A total of 28 C57BL/6 male mice were assigned into four groups of seven animals per group. The groups included 1) control 2), high-fat diet (HFD), 3) endurance training (ET), and 4) HFD-ET. The environment temperature was set out at 26°C. The mice in the HFD group were fed a high-fat diet (fat=42%) for 12 weeks. The mice in the ET group underwent ET on the treadmill for six weeks. The mice of the HFD-ET had both the HFD and ET. The real-time-PCR method was used to measure the gene expression of SERCA2a, SERCA2b, and RYR2 in adipose tissue. (Ethic code: ABRU.AC.IR/15664-96.44) Findings: Two-way ANOVA showed that the relative gene expression of SERCA2a, SERCA2b, and RYR2 were not significantly affected by HFD, ET, and HFD-ET (P>0.05). Discussion & Conclusion: The HFD and ET did not change the regulatory proteins of the futile-calcium-cycle under near-thermoneutrality in the beige adipose tissue. Therefore, it was speculated that the non-shivering thermogenesis that is induced by these conditions might occur independently of futile-cycle-calcium.

Background: Reaction networks (RNs) comprise a set X of species and a set R of reactions Y → Y ′ , each converting a multiset of educts Y ⊆ X into a multiset Y ′ ⊆ X of products. RNs are equivalent to directed hypergraphs. However, not all RNs necessarily admit a chemical interpretation. Instead, they might contradict fundamental principles of physics such as the conservation of energy and mass or the reversibility of chemical reactions. The consequences of these necessary conditions for the stoichiometric matrix S ∈ R X × R have been discussed extensively in the chemical literature. Here, we provide sufficient conditions for S that guarantee the interpretation of RNs in terms of balanced sum formulas and structural formulas, respectively. Results: Chemically plausible RNs allow neither a perpetuum mobile, i.e., a "futile cycle" of reactions with non-vanishing energy production, nor the creation or annihilation of mass. Such RNs are said to be thermodynamically sound and conservative. For finite RNs, both conditions can be expressed equivalently as properties of the stoichiometric matrix S . The first condition is vacuous for reversible networks, but it excludes irreversible futile cycles and—in a stricter sense—futile cycles that even contain an irreversible reaction. The second condition is equivalent to the existence of a strictly positive reaction invariant. It is also sufficient for the existence of a realization in terms of sum formulas, obeying conservation of "atoms". In particular, these realizations can be chosen such that any two species have distinct sum formulas, unless S implies that they are "obligatory isomers". In terms of structural formulas, every compound is a labeled multigraph, in essence a Lewis formula, and reactions comprise only a rearrangement of bonds such that the total bond order is preserved. In particular, for every conservative RN, there exists a Lewis realization, in which any two compounds are realized by pairwisely distinct multigraphs. Finally, we show that, in general, there are infinitely many realizations for a given conservative RN. Conclusions: "Chemical" RNs are directed hypergraphs with a stoichiometric matrix S whose left kernel contains a strictly positive vector and whose right kernel does not contain a futile cycle involving an irreversible reaction. This simple characterization also provides a concise specification of random models for chemical RNs that additionally constrain S by rank, sparsity, or distribution of the non-zero entries. Furthermore, it suggests several interesting avenues for future research, in particular, concerning alternative representations of reaction networks and infinite chemical universes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic production of pyruvic acid from glucose by recombinant Escherichia coli strains with impaired fermentation ability during respiration with nitrate as an external terminal electron acceptor was studied. During nitrate respiration in a minimal salt medium lacking ammonium ions, the core E. coli strain MG1655 ∆ackA-pta, ∆poxB, ∆ldhA, ∆adhE, ∆ptsG, PLglk, PtacgalP, ∆frdAB, ∆pflB, ∆sdhAB, ∆aceEF converted glucose into pyruvic acid with a yield of 1.72 mol/mol, secreting lactic acid as the only detected byproduct. The deletion of the lldD and dld genes blocked the secretion of this byproduct. The corresponding strain lacking the respiratory L- and D-lactate dehydrogenases LldD and Dld synthesized pyruvic acid from glucose with a yield of 1.76 mol/mol, consuming the available carbohydrate substrate incompletely. Enforced ATP hydrolysis due to the action of the pyruvic acid–oxaloacetic acid–malic acid–pyruvic acid or pyruvic acid–phosphoenolpyruvate–pyruvic acid futile cycles led to a drastic increase in glucose consumption by recombinants while maintaining the levels of substrate to the target product conversion. As a result, during anaerobic nitrate respiration and enforced ATP hydrolysis pyruvic acid was produced from glucose with a yield of 1.77–1.78 mol/mol with almost exhaustive consumption of the substrate by recombinants and no or minimal byproduct formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatty acyl coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) thioesterase (Tes) and acyl-CoA synthetase (FadD) catalyze opposing reactions between acyl-CoAs and free fatty acids. Within the genome of Corynebacterium glutamicum, several candidate genes for each enzyme are present, although their functions remain unknown. Modified expression of the candidate genes in the fatty acid producer WTΔfasR led to identification of one tes gene (tesA) and two fadD genes (fadD5 and fadD15), which functioned positively and negatively in fatty acid production, respectively. Genetic analysis showed that fadD5 and fadD15 are responsible for utilization of exogenous fatty acids and that tesA plays a role in supplying fatty acids for synthesis of the outer layer components mycolic acids. Enzyme assays and expression analysis revealed that tesA, fadD5, and fadD15 were coexpressed to create a cyclic route between acyl-CoAs and fatty acids. When fadD5 or fadD15 was disrupted in wild-type C. glutamicum, both disruptants excreted fatty acids during growth. Double disruption of these genes resulted in a synergistic increase in production. Additional disruption of tesA revealed a canceling effect on production. These results indicate that the FadDs normally shunt the surplus of TesA-generated fatty acids back to acyl-CoAs for lipid biosynthesis and that interception of this shunt provokes cells to overproduce fatty acids. When this strategy was applied to a high-fatty-acid producer, the resulting fadD-disrupted and tesA-amplified strain exhibited a 72% yield increase relative to its parent and produced fatty acids, which consisted mainly of oleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid, on the gram scale per liter from 1% glucose. IMPORTANCE The industrial amino acid producer Corynebacterium glutamicum has evolved into a potential workhorse for fatty acid production. In this organism, we obtained evidence showing the presence of a unique mechanism of lipid homeostasis, namely, formation of a futile cycle of acyl-CoA hydrolysis and resynthesis mediated by acyl-CoA thioesterase (Tes) and acyl-CoA synthetase (FadD), respectively. The biological role of the coupling of Tes and FadD would be to supply free fatty acids for synthesis of the outer layer components mycolic acids and to recycle their excess to acyl-CoAs for membrane lipid synthesis. We further demonstrated that engineering of the cycle in a high-fatty-acid producer led to dramatically improved production, which provides a useful engineering strategy for fatty acid production in this industrially important microorganism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combined fatty acid esterification and lipolysis, termed lipid cycling, is an ATP‐consuming process that contributes to energy expenditure. Therefore, interventions that stimulate energy expenditure through lipid cycling are of great interest. Here we find that pharmacological and genetic inhibition of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) in brown adipocytes activates lipid cycling and energy expenditure, even in the absence of adrenergic stimulation. We show that the resulting increase in ATP demand elevates mitochondrial respiration coupled to ATP synthesis and fueled by lipid oxidation. We identify that glutamine consumption and the Malate‐Aspartate Shuttle are required for the increase in Energy Expenditure induced by MPC inhibition in Brown Adipocytes (MAShEEBA). We thus demonstrate that energy expenditure through enhanced lipid cycling can be activated in brown adipocytes by decreasing mitochondrial pyruvate availability. We present a new mechanism to increase energy expenditure and fat oxidation in brown adipocytes, which does not require adrenergic stimulation of mitochondrial uncoupling. Synopsis: Inhibition of mitochondrial pyruvate import in brown adipocytes activates lipid cycling and increases energy expenditure even in the absence of adrenergic stimulation. In the absence of mitochondrial pyruvate entry, the TCA cycle receives carbons from glutamine to support beta‐oxidation. Genetic and pharmacological targeting of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) activates lipolysis and shifts metabolism towards fatty acid utilization.The activation of lipolysis induces an energy demanding cycle of esterification and triglyceride breakdown.The increase in energy expenditure is supported by glutamine oxidation and the activation of the malate‐aspartate shuttle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nucleosides and nucleotides at μM concentrations stimulated a 300% increase in acid secretion in HepG2 cells, which was quantitatively accounted for as increased export of lactate generated by glycogenolysis. Agonist selectivity encompassed nucleosides and nucleotides for all 5 natural nucleobases and, along with antagonist profiles, was inconsistent with a role for purinergic receptors in mediating this activity. Agonist catabolism did not contribute significantly to either low selectivity or lactate production. Lactate production was driven by an increase in ATP turnover of as much as 56%. For some agonists, especially adenosine, ATP turnover decreased precipitously at mM concentrations, correlating with known adenosine-stimulated apoptosis. We propose that nucleoside/nucleotide agonists induce a futile energy cycle via a novel mechanism, which results in increased ATP turnover and initiates a continuum of events that for some agonists culminates in apoptosis. • Purinergic agonists induce up to 300% increase in acid secretion in HepG2 cells at μM concentrations. • Agonist selectivity is very low and encompasses all natural nucleosides and nucleotides. • Acid secretion is driven by increased ATP turnover by as much as 56% over control levels. • Subsequent precipitous decline in ATP turnover at mM concentrations correlates with apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Metformin, the first line drug for treatment of type 2 diabetes, suppresses hepatic gluconeogenesis and reduces body weight in patients, the latter by an unknown mechanism. Methods: Mice on a high fat diet were continuously fed metformin in a therapeutically relevant dose, mimicking a retarded formulation. Results: Feeding metformin in pharmacologically relevant doses to mice on a high fat diet normalized HbA1c levels and ameliorated glucose tolerance, as expected, but also considerably slowed down weight gain. This was due to increased energy expenditure, since food intake was unchanged and locomotor activity was even decreased. Metformin caused lactate accumulation in the intestinal wall and in portal venous blood but not in peripheral blood or the liver. Increased conversion of glucose-1-13C to glucose-1,6-13C under metformin strongly supports a futile cycle of lactic acid production in the intestinal wall, and usage of the produced lactate for gluconeogenesis in liver. Conclusions: The reported glucose–lactate–glucose cycle is a highly energy consuming process, explaining the beneficial effects of metformin given continuously on the development of a type 2 diabetic-like state in our mice.

Main conclusion: Futile cycling between free sugars and hexose phosphates occurring under phosphate deficiency could be involved in the maintenance of a threshold level of free cellular phosphate to preserve respiratory metabolism. We studied the metabolic response of potato cell cultures growing in Pi sufficient (2.5 mM, +Pi) or deficient (125 µM, −Pi) conditions. Under Pi deficiency, cellular growth was severely affected, however −Pi cells were able to maintain a low but steady level of free Pi. We surveyed the activities of 33 primary metabolic enzymes during the course of a 12 days Pi deficiency period. Our results show that many of these enzymes had higher specific activity in –Pi cells. Among these, we found typical markers of Pi deficiency such as phosphoenolpyruvate phosphatase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase as well as enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of organic acids. Intriguingly, several ATP-consuming enzymes such as hexokinase (HK) and phosphofructokinase also displayed increased activity in –Pi condition. For HK, this was associated with an increase in the steady state of a specific HK polypeptide. Quantification of glycolytic intermediates showed a pronounced decrease in phosphate esters under Pi deficiency. Adenylate levels also decreased in –Pi cells, but the Adenylate Energy Charge was not affected by the treatment. To investigate the significance of HK induction under low Pi, [U-14C]-glucose tracer studies were conducted. We found in vivo evidence of futile cycling between pools of hexose phosphates and free sugars under Pi deficiency. Our study suggests that the futile cycling between hexose phosphates and free sugars which is active under +Pi conditions is sustained under Pi deficiency. The possibility that this process represents a metabolic adaptation to Pi deficiency is discussed with respect to Pi homeostasis in Pi-deficient conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • E. coli was engineered to produce pyruvate from glucose under anoxic conditions. • Efficient substrate-to-product conversion was resulted from the respiro-fermentative process. • Reoxidation of NADH was ensured via anaerobic respiration with external electron acceptor. • Artificial futile cycle was implemented to enforced anaerobic ATP hydrolysis. • Yield of 1.73 mol/mol, amounting to 87% of theoretical maximum, was achieved. Abstract An Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655-derived strain was engineered for respiro-fermentative production of pyruvate from glucose under anoxic conditions, which is preferred for industrial-scale microbial synthesis of valuable chemicals. The pathways of anaerobic pyruvate dissimilation were blocked in the strain by the deletion of the ackA , pta , poxB , ldhA , adhE , and pflB genes. The phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase system of glucose transport and phosphorylation was substituted by an alternative ATP-dependent system resulting from the overexpression of galP and glk upon deletion of ptsG. The channelling of pyruvate towards the oxidative branch of the TCA cycle under respiratory conditions was prevented in the strain due to the deletion of aceEF genes, encoding components of pyruvate dehydrogenase, while the operation of the entire reductive branch of the TCA cycle was interrupted by knocking out frdAB and sdhAB. Reoxidation of glycolytic NADH was ensured via anaerobic respiration with nitrate serving as an external electron acceptor. To enforce anaerobic ATP hydrolysis, an ATP-consuming futile cycle of pyruvate-oxaloacetate-malate-pyruvate was established in the strain by expressing the Bacillus subtilis pycA gene, encoding pyruvate carboxylase. In the presence of sufficient amounts of an external electron acceptor and CO 2 source, the engineered strain was able to efficiently utilise glucose and convert it to pyruvate anaerobically with a yield of 1.73 mol/mol, amounting to 87% of the theoretical maximum. The implemented strategy offers the potential for the development of highly efficient processes of bio-based pyruvate production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Folate (vitamin B9) plays a central role in one-carbon metabolism in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This pathway mediates the transfer of one-carbon units, playing a crucial role in nucleotide synthesis, methylation, and amino acid homeostasis. The folinic acid futile cycle adds a layer of intrigue to this pathway, due to its associations with metabolism, cell growth, and dormancy. It also introduces additional complexity to folate metabolism. A logical way to deal with such complexity is to examine it by using mathematical modelling. This work describes the construction and analysis of a model of folate metabolism, which includes the folinic acid futile cycle. This model was tested under three in silico growth conditions. Model simulations revealed: 1) the folate cycle behaved as a stable biochemical system in three growth states (slow, standard, and rapid); 2) the initial concentration of serine had the greatest impact on metabolite concentrations; 3) 5-formyltetrahydrofolate cyclo-ligase (5-FCL) activity had a significant impact on the levels of the 7 products that carry the one-carbon donated from folates, and the redox couple NADP/NADPH; this was particularly evident in the rapid growth state; 4) 5-FCL may be vital to the survival of the cells by maintaining low levels of homocysteine, as high levels can induce toxicity; and 5) the antifolate therapeutic trimethoprim had a greater impact on folate metabolism with higher nutrient availability. These results highlight the important role of 5-FCL in intracellular folate homeostasis and mass generation under different metabolic scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obesity has been linked to many health problems, such as diabetes. However, there is no drug that effectively treats obesity. Here, we reveal that miR-378 transgenic mice display reduced fat mass, enhanced lipolysis, and increased energy expenditure. Notably, administering AgomiR-378 prevents and ameliorates obesity in mice. We also found that the energy deficiency seen in miR-378 transgenic mice was due to impaired glucose metabolism. This impairment was caused by an activated pyruvate-PEP futile cycle via the miR-378-Akt1-FoxO1-PEPCK pathway in skeletal muscle and enhanced lipolysis in adipose tissues mediated by miR-378-SCD1. Our findings demonstrate that activating the pyruvate-PEP futile cycle in skeletal muscle is the primary cause of elevated lipolysis in adipose tissues of miR-378 transgenic mice, and it helps orchestrate the crosstalk between muscle and fat to control energy homeostasis in mice. Thus, miR-378 may serve as a promising agent for preventing and treating obesity in humans.

As a master negative regulator of RNA polymerase (Pol) III, Maf1 modulates transcription in response to nutrients and stress to balance the production of highly abundant tRNAs, 5S rRNA, and other small noncoding RNAs with cell growth and maintenance. This regulation of Pol III transcription is important for energetic economy as mice lacking Maf1 are lean and resist weight gain on normal and high fat diets. The lean phenotype of Maf1 knockout (KO) mice is attributed in part to metabolic inefficiencies which increase the demand for cellular energy and elevate catabolic processes, including autophagy/lipophagy and lipolysis. A futile RNA cycle involving increased synthesis and turnover of Pol III transcripts has been proposed as an important driver of these changes. Here, using targeted metabolomics, we find changes in the liver of fed and fasted Maf1 KO mice consistent with the function of mammalian Maf1 as a chronic Pol III repressor. Differences in long-chain acylcarnitine levels suggest that energy demand is higher in the fed state of Maf1 KO mice versus the fasted state. Quantitative metabolite profiling supports increased activity in the TCA cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway, and the urea cycle and reveals changes in nucleotide levels and the creatine system. Metabolite profiling also confirms key predictions of the futile RNA cycle hypothesis by identifying changes in many metabolites involved in nucleotide synthesis and turnover. Thus, constitutively high levels of Pol III transcription in Maf1 KO mice reprogram central metabolic pathways and waste metabolic energy through a futile RNA cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a master regulator of transcription by RNA polymerase (Pol) III, Maf1 represses the synthesis of highly abundant non-coding RNAs as anabolic signals dissipate, as the quality or quantity of nutrients decreases, and under a wide range of cellular and environmental stress conditions. Thus, Maf1 responds to changes in cell physiology to conserve metabolic energy and to help maintain appropriate levels of tRNAs and other essential non-coding RNAs. Studies in different model organisms and cell-based systems show that perturbations of Maf1 can also impact cell physiology and metabolism. These effects are mediated by changes in Pol III transcription and/or by effects of Maf1 on the expression of select Pol II-transcribed genes. Maf1 phenotypes can vary between different systems and are sometimes conflicting as in comparisons between Maf1 KO mice and cultured mammalian cells. These studies are reviewed in an effort to better appreciate the relationship between Maf1 function and cell physiology. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: SI: Regulation of tRNA synthesis and modification in physiological conditions and disease edited by Dr. Boguta Magdalena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Metformin, the first line drug for treatment of type 2 diabetes, suppresses hepatic gluconeogenesis and reduces body weight in patients, the latter by an unknown mechanism. Methods Mice on a high fat diet were continuously fed metformin in a therapeutically relevant dose, mimicking a retarded formulation. Results Feeding metformin in pharmacologically relevant doses to mice on a high fat diet normalized HbA1c levels and ameliorated glucose tolerance, as expected, but also considerably slowed down weight gain. This was due to increased energy expenditure, since food intake was unchanged and locomotor activity was even decreased. Metformin caused lactate accumulation in the intestinal wall and in portal venous blood but not in peripheral blood or the liver. Increased conversion of glucose-1- 13 C to glucose-1,6- 13 C under metformin strongly supports a futile cycle of lactic acid production in the intestinal wall, and usage of the produced lactate for gluconeogenesis in liver. Conclusions The reported glucose–lactate–glucose cycle is a highly energy consuming process, explaining the beneficial effects of metformin given continuously on the development of a type 2 diabetic-like state in our mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The efficient sequestration of nutrients is vital for the growth and survival of microorganisms. Some nutrients, such as CO2 and NH3, are readily diffusible across the cell membrane. The large membrane permeability of these nutrients obviates the need of transporters when the ambient level is high. When the ambient level is low, however, maintaining a high intracellular nutrient level against passive back diffusion is both challenging and costly. Here, we study the delicate management of ammonium (NH4+/NH3) sequestration by E. coli cells using microfluidic chemostats. We find that as the ambient ammonium concentration is reduced, E. coli cells first maximize their ability to assimilate the gaseous NH3 diffusing into the cytoplasm and then abruptly activate ammonium transport. The onset of transport varies under different growth conditions, but always occurring just as needed to maintain growth. Quantitative modeling of known interactions reveals an integral feedback mechanism by which this need‐based uptake strategy is implemented. This novel strategy ensures that the expensive cost of upholding the internal ammonium concentration against back diffusion is kept at a minimum.

ABC-transporters with broad substrate specificity are responsible for pathogenic yeast resistance to antifungal compounds. Here we asked whether highly hydrophobic chemicals with delocalized positive charge can be used to overcome the resistance. Such molecules efficiently penetrate the plasma membrane and accumulate inside the cells. We reasoned that these properties can convert an active efflux of the compounds into a futile cycle thus interfering with the extrusion of the antibiotics. To test this, we studied the effects of several alkylated rhodamines on the drug resistance of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found that octylrhodamine synergetically increases toxicity of Pdr5p substrate-clotrimazole, while the others were less effective. Next, we compared the contributions of three major pleiotropic ABC-transporters (Pdr5p, Yor1p, Snq2p) on the accumulation of the alkylated rhodamines. While all of the tested compounds were extruded by Pdr5p, Yor1p and Snq2p showed narrower substrate specificity. Interestingly, among the tested alkylated rhodamines, inactivation of Pdr5p had the strongest effect on the accumulation of octylrhodamine inside the cells, which is consistent with the fact that clotrimazole is a substrate of Pdr5p. As alkylated rhodamines were shown to be non-toxic on mice, our study makes them potential components of pharmacological antifungal compositions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]