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The Mongol invasion, which profoundly altered the course of history in the early 13th century, had its most significant impact in the Khwarizm region. In the wake of the invasion, many residents fled in panic, migrating westward. After the defeat of the Khwarizmian forces, led by Jalal al-Din Khwarizmshah, by the Seljuk and Ayyubid armies at the Battle of Yassıçemen in 1230, the Khwarizmian soldiers scattered. The death of their leader in 1231 further disbanded their ranks, and many of the surviving soldiers began to serve as mercenaries for the Seljuk and Ayyubid states. Among those who joined the Ayyubid forces were Khwarizmian soldiers who, in 1244, became part of the campaign to capture al-Quds. At the time, al-Quds had been in Crusader hands since 1229, but it could not withstand the Khwarizmites’ siege and was forced to open its gates to the Muslim conquerors. This victory set the stage for further campaigns, as the Khwarizmian troops continued their journey and joined the Egyptian Ayyubid forces near Gaza. There, they delivered a decisive blow to an alliance of Ayyubids from Homs, Damascus, and Qarak, who had joined forces with the Crusaders. The Battle of La Forbie (or Harbiye) in 1244, where the Khwarizmian-Egyptian forces triumphed, is considered one of the most significant victories since the Battle of Hattin in 1187. This success, often overshadowed in historical accounts, is linked to the earlier achievements of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, who had defeated the Crusaders at Hattin and recaptured al-Quds in 1187. Investigating this lesser-known chapter of Islamic history and examining its intricate details not only enriches our understanding of the region’s past but also sheds light on the historical events that continue to shape the tragedies we witness today, particularly those surrounding the history of al-Quds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rule of Saladin in the Ayyūbids State represents a rich and complex historical period in terms of political and religious aspects. One of the most significant events of this period is the execution of the Muslim philosopher Sheikh Shihāb al-Dīn al-Suhrawardī and the extensive political and religious implications that followed this dramatic event. Despite being known as a benevolent ruler who generally supported scholars, Saladin displayed a harsh attitude towards philosophical studies and education. This led to an increase in the number of madrasas focusing on Islamic sciences, as opposed to philosophical sciences, in the cities under Ayyūbid rule and turning these areas into centers of knowledge. The execution of al-Suhrawardī vividly illustrates the complexity of Saladin’s relations with scholars and the political sensitivities of the time. Al-Suhrawardī’s innovative philosophical ideas and political relationships particularly concerned the influential Shāfiʿī-Ashʿarī scholars in Aleppo, leading to his perception as a threat by religious and political structures and initiating the process of his execution. This situation sheds light on the internal political dynamics during Saladin’s rule and the religious dynamics of the time. Saladin’s reign was heavily intertwined with the Crusades and sectarian conflicts in the Islamic world. While contending with the Crusaders and striving for unity in the Islamic world, Saladin supported the widespread Islamic schools of thought such as Shāfiʿī, Ḥanafī, and Mālikī, but adopted a stricter stance against the Ismāʿīlī and Ḥanbalī sects and scholars due to the influence of Ayyūbids-era scholars. This policy significantly impacted Saladin’s relations with Islamic states. The execution of al-Suhrawardī holds historical significance as it highlights the contradictions in Saladin’s relations with scholars and the political sensitivities of the time. This event reveals the complexity of the relationship between AlSuhrawardī, the son of Saladin and the ruler of Aleppo, al-Malik al-Ẓāhir, and the political sensitivity of the period. Al-Malik al-Ẓāhir demonstrated his loyalty to his mentor alSuhrawardī by punishing those who encouraged him to issue the order for his death, thus exposing Saladin’s conflicting nature with the scholars and the political sensitivities of the time. This situation is an example representing the complexity of the political and religious structure of the Ayyūbids State and the challenging balances of the period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the exception of the Haram al-Sharif area, which included the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem was ceded to the Crusaders by the Ayyubid Sultan al-Malik al-Qāmil in the Treaty of Yāfā in 1229. Pursuant to the treaty, the Crusaders could not carry out reconstruction activities in Jerusalem, whose walls had been completely destroyed. For this reason, the Papacy and Europe, which wanted to militarily support Jerusalem, whose defense had become a problem over time, continued the Crusades from 1239 onwards, when the treaty expired. On the other hand, the Ayyubids did not want to engage in a struggle with the Crusaders as long as they did not take any action against them. However, the Crusaders, reinforced by the arrival of Thibaut, King of Navarra and Count of Champagne, broke the existing peace by plundering a caravan on the Ayyubid frontiers. This event and the Crusaders’ construction activities in Jerusalem drew the attention of al-Adil II, the Sultan of Egypt, and al-Malik al-Nāṣir Dāwūd, the ruler of Kerek, to Jerusalem. Conquering Jerusalem in December 1239, al-Nāṣir expelled the Christians from the city. Although it was the first conquest after the Treaty of Yāfā and was likened to the conquest of Salādin Ayyūbī, this event did not attract the attention of the scholarly world. This situation must be related to the fact that Jerusalem, which had fallen under the control of the Crusaders in early 1244, was conquered by the Khwarezmians in the same year and With the death of many Christians during the struggles. Although there were more Christians in the city at the time of al-Nāṣir’s conquest than when the Khwarezmians entered the city, their safety was ensured by al-Nāṣir and they were taken out of the city in safety. When the Khwarezmians entered Jerusalem, unlike the Ayyubids, they did not tolerate the Christians. This caused the Western world to focus on the activities of the Khwarezmians in Jerusalem rather than the conquest of al-Nāṣir. In this article, the reconquest of Jerusalem in 1239, the surrender of the holy sites to the Crusaders in 1244, and the reconquest of the city by the Khwarezmians in the same year are discussed in the light of changing alliances and the Crusades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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İslam eğitim-öğretim tarihi ve bu alanın en öne çıkan hususlarından biri olan medreseler, İslam düşünce tarihi açısından önemli kurumlar olmasının yanı sıra bir o kadar da ilgi duyulan araştırma konularından biri olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Mahmut Dündar’ın doktora tezine dayanan Mısır Eyyûbilerinde Eğitim ve Öğretim Faaliyetleri adlı eseri, İslam eğitim ve öğretim tarihi alanındaki çalışmalara bir katkı niteliğindedir. Ancak kitabın hedefleri ile içeriği arasındaki uyum noktasında bazı problemler ve tarihî hususlarda birtakım hatalar dikkat çekmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Dündar’ın kitabı örneklemi üzerinden bilimsel araştırmalarda ihmal edilen bazı temel ilkeler ve bunun yarattığı sorunlar eleştirel bir yöntemle değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır.

Makrîzî, who is one of the leading authors, who grew up in the Mamluks period when Muslim historiography gained a new dimension, as he stated in his preface, he deals with the Kurdish, Turkish and Circassian rulers who ruled in the Egyptian region and the events and narrations that took place during their period with the chronicle historiography system in his work titled "Kitâb al-Sulûk li-Ma'rifat Duwal al-Mulûk". The work is an important source of information both for those who study the history of the Ayyubids and Mamluks, and for researchers who work on the Syria and Egypt region. The Ayyubids part, which is the main subject of our study covers the issue of their ancestry and the events that took place in the period starting from the period of Saladin until the marriage of Shajar al-Durr with Emir Izz al-Din Aybak after the death of Turanshah. While the events are reported year by year, the political, social and economic conditions of the Ayyubids and other administrative elements during the Crusades, starting from the time of Saladin, are also described in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Nusaybin, Anadolu’nun en kadim şehirlerinden biri olup Asurlulardan günümüze kadar birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış ve çok sayıda olaya sahne olmuştur. Selahaddin Eyyubî zamanında Nusaybin’den geçen İbn Cübeyr, bölge hakkında olumsuz bir tablo çizmiştir. Söz konusu seyahatten bir sene sonra Türkmenlerle Kürtler arasında baş gösteren kanlı çatışmalar bölgenin hassas bir dönemden geçtiğini göstermektedir. Bu çalışmada Nusaybin şehrinin o dönemdeki coğrafi ve idari yapısının yanı sıra Selahaddin Eyyubî’nin Zengî hanedanına karşı başlattığı iktidar mücadelesinin bölgeye yansımaları ele alınacaktır. Ayrıca etnik ve dinî hareketler ile kıtlık ve depremler gibi hem siyasî hem de ekonomik olarak toplumu geren hadiseler mercek altına alınacaktır. Böylece söz konusu dönemde Nusaybin ve çevresinin siyasî, sosyal ve kültürel yapısına ışık tutulacaktır.

Mısırlı tarihçi Abdul Rahman Azzam, Saladin adlı eserinde Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî’nin başarısının temel nedenlerini IV. (X.) ve V. (XI.) yüzyıllarda İslam dünyasında ortaya çıkan Sünnî uyanışın siyasî ve entelektüel boyutları bağlamında yeniden değerlendirmektedir. Selâhaddin’in parlak askerî başarılarına dayanan imajının gerçek mirasını anlamada yetersiz kaldığını düşünen Azzam, onun gerçek büyüklüğünün siyasî ve manevi vizyonuna dayandığını iddia etmektedir. Müslüman bir tarihçi tarafından İngilizce kaleme alınan ilk Selâhaddin biyografisi olma özelliğini taşıyan bu kitap, Selâhaddin’in başarısını etkileyen siyasî ve entelektüel arka planı tahlil ederek tarihi Selâhaddin’i efsanevi olandan ayırt etmeyi amaçlamaktadır.

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Copyright of Journal of Islamic Research / İslâmi Araştırmalar Dergisi is the property of Turkey Economical & Cultural Solidarity (TEK-DAV) Foundation and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this study, the reasons for the preference of Hanafi sect against other sects have been examined in the context of the work titled "el-İntisar ve'ttercih li'l-mezhebi's-sahih" of the Sıbt Ibnü'l-Cevzî. The purpose of the ex In this study, the reasons for the preference of Hanafi sect against other sects have been examined in the context of the work titled "el-İntisar ve'ttercih li'l-mezhebi's-sahih" of the Sıbt Ibnü'l-Cevzî. The purpose of the examined work was to defend Abu Hanifa against some claims made against the Abu Hanifa and Hanafi sects during the Ayyubid period and to reveal that he was a superior interpreter of Islamic law than others. In his work, Sıbt İbnü'l-Cevzî defines the Hanafi sect as a sect that provides public benefits, gives wider powers to the head of state, facilitates the affairs of the people, and includes the most appropriate provisions for the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The work is a satisfying answer to the claims of the Shafiis at a time when the political preference prioritizing the Shafii sect in terms of subject and content started to turn in favor of the Hanafi sect. In addition, this work emerges as one of the pioneering and voluminous works that contributed to the Hanafi sect's existence in Damascus and Cairo. Since it is seen that various evidence and examples here are an inspiration for some works written in the following periods. It can be said that the understanding of tolerance, which sees fiqh diversity as richness, is determinant in this geography, except for the struggle between inter-sectarian activities that arise from time to time due to political and social conditions. On the other hand, this work is also valuable in terms of the identity of those who try to demonstrate the superiority of the Hanafi sect. Since it is known that both the director who promotes the writing of the work and the author preferred the Hanafi sect while they belonged to other sects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Mankind has used various means of communication since the earliest days of history. The Means of communication have made significant progress in the historical process with tools such as sound, fire, smoke, drums, arrow. People used various kind of animals such as horse, camel, pigeon as an aid when letters were delivered. Among these animals, pigeons were most accepted ones in terms of cost, speed, and safety. The use of postal pigeons in medieval Islamic world began with Umayyads and Abbasids. In the following years, it became widespread during Nur al-Din Zangi's struggles against the Crusaders. Ayyubids and Mamluks also gave great importance to carrier pigeons in their postal organization. Muslims achieved to make quick intelligence among the capital and the provinces with pigeons mail during the wars between they had undertaken with Crusaders and Mongols, Pigeon towers were built at each province center for the carrier pigeons. Approximately two thousand pigeons were available in each tower for the postal services. In the Middle Ages, pigeons were used not only for intelligence purposes but also for Cargo transportation. The Medieval Islamic states, which were adhering to the “Strong state is provided by powerful, strong intelligence network", benefited from the pigeon mail with great success in getting fast and reliable news. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Saladin (Salah ad-Din Ayyub) who was born in Tikrit in 532 (1138) participated in the campaigns against the Crusaders and achieved significant success despite his young age. When Saladin took over Egypt in 566 (1171), he gave a sermon and got coins minted in the name of the Sunnite Abbasid caliph and ended the Fatimid caliphate. He won a great victory in the war he fought against the Crusaders in Hattin i n 583 (1187) by defeating the Crusader Army. A few weeks after this victory, the Sultan besieged Jerusalem and took the city back from the Crusaders on Friday, which made him a great hero of the Islamic World. With the conquest of Jerusalem, Saladin became one of the most famous heroes of the Turkish Islamic history. In the scope of the current s tudy, we found 15 coins that have been minted in the n ame of Saladin. These coins are currently exhibitied in the Mardin Museum collection. This study is a preliminary attempt addressing the coins of the Saladin era about which there are very few publications available. Unfortunately, investigating all the coins in the museum collection was not possible. However, it could be possible to find m any m ore examples i n case a longer time period is dedicated to further studies. Our purpose is to pave the way for future researchers to make more comprehensive studies. In our study, coins made of two different mines, copper and silver, were found. The coins appear in two groups as coins featuring only figures and coins featuring only writings. The coins featuring figures were minted on copper and there were no examples found of silver coins featuring figures. As it is common in Medieval Age Islamic coins, the title and lakab of Saladin are incripted on the front side of the Saladin coins. To the back side of the coins, as the tradition goes, the place and date of minting and the name of the era's caliph and his titles appear. In accordance with this, the names of al-Nasr Li-Din Allah and Al-Mustad ibn Amir are mentioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the beginning of the 1160s, Iranian dai Râshid al-dîn Sinan became the leader of Nizârî Ismailis in Syria and achieved an independent position against the leaders in Alamut, the center of the Nizârî dawa. Recognized as one of the most influential names in Ismaili history, Râshid al-dîn reorganized the Nizârîs and reinforced their defensive and offensive capabilities. The founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, Salâh al-dîn al-Ayyûbî was one of the targets chosen by Râshid al-dîn, who started his assassination attempts against his enemies by assasins he selected from his fidâ'îs. Although Salâh al-dîn sieged the Misyaf Fortress, which was the residence of Râshid al-dîn, who had attempted two unsuccessful assassinations against him, and overwhelmed Râshîd al-din, he terminated the siege after the mediation initiatives of the Hama ruler and his uncle Shihâb al-dîn Mahmûd b. Takash. Râshid al-dîn Sinân, who had to end the assassination attempts against Salah al-dîn after the siege of Misyaf, was careful not to confront the Sultan. Salah al-dîn ensured for a relationship based on friendship between his successors and the Nizârîs, by including the Nizârî regions under Sinan's control to the peace agreement he signed with the Richard, king of England in 1192. In the present article on the association between Salâh al-dîn al-Ayyûbî and the Nizârî community in Syria, initially the organization of the Nizârî dawa in Syria under the leadership of Râshid al-dîn Sinân was discussed, and then the historical and mythological records about the reasons of assassination attempts to murder Salâh al-dîn and Misyaf siege were assessed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The development and strengthening of intelligence organizations is imperative for states with large territories and the managers who decided to take on major political roles. The establishment of central administration and administrative infrastructures in every corner of the country, prevention of external threats, the other things to one side, depend on the power and the functioning of internal and external intelligence. The intelligence network in the Zangids and Ayyûbids period improved as a result of these processes. During the Zangids and Ayyûbids, the struggles against the Crusaders necessitated the strengthening of the intelligence agency. Atabeg Imâdaddin Zangi, his son Nuruddin Mahmud, and Saladin Ayyûbî, benefited from all sources and communication means that provided internal and external intelligence information. During the Saladin Ayyûbî period, the Ayyûbids spies played a crucial role against the crusader threat and the Ismailî assassinations and conspiracies of Fatimid statesmen. This study aims to evaluate the importance of the sources, duties, and procedures of intelligence, mostly through the periods of Atabag Zangi, Nureddin Mahmud b. Zangi and Saladin Ayyûbî, during the Zangids and Ayyûbids period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Müslüman yöneticiler ve güney batı Asya halkları arasında, kendi aralarında yaşayan (protoemperyalist veya kafir gibi betimlemeleri bulunan) Haçlılara karşı koyma ve onları defetme miti baş­ langıçtan beri mevcuttu.

İlmi araştırma yapan kimseler için çeşitli ilim dallarındaki klasik kaynaklar büyük önem taşımaktadır. Makalede Suriye ilmi dergilerinde ilk dönem islâm tarihi, Emeviler, Abbasiler, Fatımiler, Eyyubiler, Begteginliler, Osmanlılar ve 20.yy tarihi ile ilgili makaleler alt başlıklar halinde sıralanmaktadır.

Dımaşk Eyyübi meliki ei-Melikü'I-Muazzam, Eyyübiler içerisinde alim ve devlet adamlığı yanında Hanefi mezhebini tercih etmesi ile temayüz etmiştir. EI-Melikü'IMuazzam, babası ei-Melikü'I-Adil'in 1201 yılında Eyyübi Sultanı olmasından sonra Dımaşk meliki oldu. Hanedan üzerinde babasının hakimiyet kurması için başarılı hizmetlerde bulunan ei-Melikü'I-Muazzam bundan sonra Haçlılarla mücadelede etkin gö- rev aldı. V. Haçlı seferi sırasında özellikle Dimyat muhasarasında kard\'!Şi ei-Melikü'IKamil'e destek veren ei-Melikü'I-Muazzam tehlikenin atlatılmasından sonra kardeşleri ile mücadele etmek zorunda kaldı. Bu makalede ei-Melikü'I-Muazzam'ın hayatı ve yaptığı siyasi mücadeleler incelenmeye çalışılmıştır.

Doğu Anadolu'dakı faaliyetlerinin ardından Anadolu Selçuklu Sultanı Alaeddin Keykubad ile karşı karşıya gelen Celaleddin Harizmşah, 28 Ramazan 627110 Ağustos 1230 tarihinde Yassıçimen savaşında ağır bir yenilgiye uğradı. Bu olaydan sonra Erzincan ve Erzurum bölgeleri Selçuklu hakimiyetine girerken Diyarbakır bölgesinde de Eyyfibller'in nüfuzu arttı. Uğradığı bu hezimetin ardından Amid'e sığınan Celaleddin Harizmşah'ın 62811231 yılında Kürt bir dağ köylüsü tarafından öldürülmesi ile lidersiz kalan Kanglı-Kıpçak grubu iki devletten birine sığınarak hayatiyetini devam ettirmek zorunda kaldı. Kaynakfarımızın Harizmliler diye adlandırdığı bu insanlar Moğol zulmünden kaçarak Celaleddin Harizmşah'ın hizmetine giren askeri gücü ifade etmektedir. Harizmliler kendilerine Kayır Han' ı reis seçtikten sonra Alaeddift Keykubad'ın hizmetine girdiler'. Selçuklu Sultanı, Kayır Han'a Erzincan' ı, Bereke Han'a Amasya'yı, Güçlü Han'a ise Uirende'yi ikta olarak verdi? Alfieddin Keykubad bu katılımın ardından, 1234 yılında Anadolu'ya sefer düzenleyen Me! ik Kamil'in hiçbir sonuç elde ederneden geri dönmesini sağladı. Seruc, Urfa, Harran ve Rakka'yı ele geçiren Selçuklu ordusunun Anadolu'ya dönmesinden sonra adı geçen bölgeleri tekrar istila eden Eyyfibller üzerine saldırı düzenlemek isteyen Alaeddin Keykubad, Kayır Han'ı Sivas valiliğine atadıktan sonra İzzeddin Keykavus'u veliahd olarak ilan etti. Ancak çok geçmeden 1237 yılında Selçuklu sultanının vefat etmesi ile Harizmliler için zor günler başladı. 3 Harizmlilerin başladıkları bu kaçış ya da daha güvenli bir mekan arayışından bölgede bulunan Eyyubiler Devleti doğrudan etkilenmiştir. Eyyfibller devleti içerisinde mevcut pek çok hanedan arasından Harizmlilerden en fazla etkilenen Haleb Eyyubileri olmuştur. Özellikle Anadolu' tarihini doğrudan etkileyen Harizmliler meselesi konusunda. Celaleddin Harizmşah'tan sonraki devir hakkın.da pek fazla çalışma bulunmamaktadır. İşte biz makalemizde Harizmlilerin bu yolculuklannda ortaya çıkan siyasi ve sosyal etkiyi gün yüzüne çıkarmayı amaçladJc

İslam Tarihinde Abbas! Halifeleri tarafından başlatılan Mem!Gkleri istihdam etme geleneğinin Eyyilbl Devletinde de sürdüğü ve Salih Necmeddin ile bu istihdamın kurumsaliaşmaya başladığı bilinmektedir. Aslında Eyyilbllerin askeri gücünün büyük oranda Türk askerlerinden oluştuğu görülmektedir. Memluklerin istihdam edilmesi ile önemli başarılar kazanan Eyyilbl sultanları devletin sonlarına doğru bu gücün kendi aleyhlerine dönmesi durumu· ile karşılaştı1ar. Salih Necmeddin'den sonra Muazzam Turanşah'ın MemlukJere karşı sarfettiği sözleri ve tutumları onun bir suikastla ortadan kaldırılarak Mısır'da yönetimin Memluklere geçmesini sağlarken Hal eb Eyyilbl Sultanı II. Salahaddin Yusuf liderliğinde EyyubiMemlilk mücadelesini başlatmıştır

Copyright of Dîvân: Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies / Disiplinlerarasi Calismalar Dergisi is the property of Bilim ve Sanat Vakfi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of International Social Research is the property of Journal of International Social Research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In all the Islamic and Turkish states and societies, colours have a special significance. When the sources are analyzed, we see that colours, in Islamic and Turkish state traditions, are generally used as symbolic element and are not simply arbitary. Because of being a specific matter and existing in a range of scattered historical sources, this topic, which has a long tradition in Islamic/Turkish state and society, hasn't been emphasized enough and then only in political meanings. However we see that colours have in places social and intellectual meanings, even used as a communication tool. It is important to clarify this historical tradition because many of our habits about colours today are based on these. So, in this article I touch on the political, social, spiritual and representative meanings of colours in Islamic/Turkish states and socities in the light of the sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Middle Ages of the Mediterranean basin as an important civilization geography has been under the control of the Cairo-based Islamic rule for centuries. The Non-Muslim communities in this region of the Islamic state as the basic social groups have always been there. In the end of the nineteenth century, the Cairo geniza have been discovered in Fustat/Cairo. Written sources belonging to the Jewish tradition, the Cairo Geniza offers important information on social, economic and everyday life of the Jews. These hidden and historical records of Jews shed light on the Medieval Muslim Mediterranean Basin of the early classic age of Islam as well as Jewish history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Pursuit of History is the property of Selcuk University, Faculty of Arts & Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Faculty of Letters / Edebiyat Fakultesi Dergisi is the property of Hacettepe University Faculty of Letters and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)