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Scientists have developed a material whose magnetic properties change when it's deformed -- and that is also soft enough to respond to small movements. Scientists have developed a material whose magnetic properties change when it's deformed -- and that is also soft enough to respond to small movements., Author Affiliations: The movement of tiny magnetic particles in this bendable patch can create an electrical current. Credit: Jun Chen/UCLA Close up of two hands twisting and scrunching a flexible [...]

Modern computing technology is based on writing, storing and retrieving information encoded as magnetic bits. Although the giant magnetoresistance effect has improved the electrical read out of memory elements, magnetic writing remains the object of major research efforts (1). Despite several reports of methods to reverse the polarity of nanosized magnets by means of local electric fields (2,3) and currents (4-6), the simple reversal of a high-coercivity, single-layer ferromagnet remains a challenge. Materials with large coercivity and perpendicular magnetic anisotropy represent the mainstay of data storage media, owing to their ability to retain a stable magnetization state over long periods of time and their amenability to miniaturization (7). However, the same anisotropy properties that make a material attractive for storage also make it hard to write to (8). Here we demonstrate switching of a perpendicularly magnetized cobalt dot driven by in-plane current injection at room temperature. Our device is composed of a thin cobalt layer with strong perpendicular anisotropy and Rashba interaction induced by asymmetric platinum and Al[O.sub.x] interface layers (9,10). The effective switching field is orthogonal to the direction of the magnetization and to the Rashba field. The symmetry of the switching field is consistent with the spin accumulation induced by the Rashba interaction and the spin-dependent mobility observed in non-magnetic semiconductors (11,12), as well as with the torque induced by the spin Hall effect in the platinum layer (13,14). Our measurements indicate that the switching efficiency increases with the magnetic anisotropy of the cobalt layer and the oxidation of the aluminium layer, which is uppermost, suggesting that the Rashba interaction has a key role in the reversal mechanism. To prove the potential of in-plane current switching for spintronic applications, we construct a reprogrammable magnetic switch that can be integrated into non-volatile memory and logic architectures. This device is simple, scalable and compatible with present-day magnetic recording technology., The coupling of spin and orbital angular momenta underlies the magnetic anisotropy properties of ferromagnets. Strong anisotropy allows for permanent, stable storage but also requires stronger magnetic fields to write [...]

We report on photocurrent switching based on photoisomerization for the nondestructive readout of photochromic optical memory. The photoisomerization of a diarylethene (DAE) memory layer switched the photocurrent generated in a light-absorbing phthalocyanine layer upon irradiation of a laser light. This switching is based on the ionization potential change of the DAE molecules. Switching characteristics of the photocurrent were investigated for the laser light with a wavelength of 410 nm, 630 nm, or 780 nm. Excellent on--off ratios of the photocurrent were achieved by irradiation at 630 nm and 780 nm. When the pulsed laser light with a wavelength of 780 nm was repeatedly irradiated to the colored and uncolored memory devices, no change of the photocurrent signal levels was observed, even after 8 x [10.sup.5] cycles, indicating a successful demonstration of the nondestructive readout. OCIS codes: 210.0210, 210.4810, 160.4890, 160.5335.

Geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) in conductor networks are among the ground-level effects of space weather. GICs are a possible source of problems to the system. Today, electric power transmission grids are the most important concern regarding GICs, which may in the worst cases lead to blackouts in large areas and permanent damage to transformers. The evaluation of GIC risks and the design of possible countermeasures require estimation of expected GIC magnitudes in transformers. This can be achieved by model calculations supplemented by GIC recordings at some sites. Although in principle GICs can flow all over a large galvanically-connected power grid, which should thus be included as a whole in a GIC calculation, the network must usually be restricted somehow in practical computations of GICs. By using a power grid test model, this paper provides a systematic numerical investigation showing that GICs do not flow over very long distances in a power grid, which is a good result and justifies the neglect of the parts of the network that lie far away from the area of primary interest. Besides practical significance in electric power engineering, studies of GICs can be used for space physics and geophysical research as well. It is also important to understand the features of the flow pattern of GICs in a network. PACS Nos: 95.05.Sd, 91.25.Qi, 91.25.Wb Les courants geomagnetiques induits (CGI) dans les reseaux de conducteurs comptent parmi les effets de sol en meteo spatiale. Les CGI sont une source possible de problemes pour nos systemes. Les reseaux de transmission electrique sont les plus touches par les CGI qui peuvent, dans le pire cas, conduire a un black-out couvrant un large territoire et causer des dommages permanents aux transformateurs. L'evaluation du risque de CGI et l'eelaboration de contre-mesures exigent l'estimation de l'ordre de grandeur de leur effet dans les transformateurs. Ceci peut se faire par modeelisation, avec l'aide de mesures de CGI sur certains sites. Bien qu'en principe les CGI peuvent affecter la totality d'un reseau electrique connecte, qui devrait alors etre inclus au complet dans un calcul de CGI, le reseau doit geeneralement etre reduit pour arriver de facjon realiste a faire des calculs de CGI. En utilisant un modele de reseau electrique, nous faisons ici une etude numeerique systematique qui montre que les CGI ne se propagent pas sur de tres longues distances, ce qui est un resultat interessant et justifie de negliger les parties du reseau qui sont eloignees de la region de premier interet. Au-dela de la signification pratique en genie des reseaux electriques, les etudes des CGI peuvent etre utiles en physique spatiale et en recherche geophysique eegalement. La aussi il est important de comprendre les caracteeristiques du patron de distribution des CGI dans un reseau. [Traduit par la Redaction], Space weather occurring in the near-Earth space and on the ground is driven by solar activity [1, 2]. At the Earth's surface, space weather storms manifest themselves as temporal variations [...]

We extend the analytical theory of propagating concentration polarization (CP) to describe and compare the effects of constant-voltage versus constant-current conditions on the transient development of CP enrichment and depletion zones. We support our analysis with computational and experimental results. We find that at constant voltage, enrichment and depletion regions spread as [t.sup.1/2] as opposed to the previously observed [t.sup.1] scaring for constant current conditions. At low, constant voltages, the growth and propagation of CP zones can easily be misinterpreted as nonpropagating behavior. 10.1021/ac100432q

Electrochemical studies on the Fc + [e.sup.-] [left and right arrow] [Fc.sup.+] (Fc = ferrocene) process have been undertaken via the oxidation of Fc and reduction of [Fc.sup.+] as the hexafluorophosphate (P[F.sup.-.sub.6]) or tetrafluoroborate (B[F.sub.4]) salts and their mixtures in three ionic liquids (ILs) (1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis[(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl]imide, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate, and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate). Data obtained at macro- and microdisk electrodes using conventional dc and Fourier-transformed large-amplitude ac (FT-ac) voltammetry reveal that diffusion coefficients for Fc and [Fc.sup.+] differ significantly and are a function of the Fc and [Fc.sup.+] concentration, in contrast to findings in molecular solvents with 0.1 M added supporting electrolyte media. Thus, the Faradaic currents associated with the oxidation of Fc ([Fc.sup.0/+]) and reduction of FcP[F.sub.6] or FcB[F.sub.4] ([Fc.sup.+/0]) when both Fc and Fc are simultaneously present in the ILs differ from values obtained when individual Fc and [Fc.sup.+] solutions are used. The voltammetry for both the [Fc.sup.0/+] and [Fc.sup.+/0] processes exhibited near-Nernstian behavior at a glassy carbon macrodisk electrode and a platinum microdisk electrode, when each process was studied individually in the ILs. As expected, the reversible formal potentials (E[degrees]') and diffusion coefficients (D) at 23 [+ or -] 1 [degrees]C were independent of the electrode material and concentration. However, when Fc and FcP[F.sub.6] or FeB[F.sub.4] were both present, alterations to the mass transport process occurred and apparent D values calculated for Fc and [Fc.sup.+] were found to be about 25-39% and 32-42% larger, respectively, than those determined from individual solutions. The apparent value of the double layer capacitance determined by FT-ac voltammetry from individual and mixed Fc and [Fc.sup.+] conditions at the GC electrode was also a function of concentration. Double layer capacitance values increased significantly with the concentration of Fc and FcP[F.sub.6] or FcB[F.sub.4] when species were studied individually or simultaneously, but had a larger magnitude under conditions where both species were present. Variation in the structure of the ILs and hence mobillties of the ionic species, when Fc and FcP[F.sub.6] or FcB[F.sub.4] are simultaneously present, is considered to be the origin of the nonadditivity of the Faradaic currents and variation in capacitance. 10.1021/ac9020159

We investigated spin-polarized current switching of elongated Pac-man (EPM) elements in a Pac-man shaped spin valve (Co/Cu/Py). The aspect ratio, pulse duration, and effect of antiferromagnetic (AFM) layer were simulated to obtain coherent switching. Pulse duration was varied on the picosecond (ps) scale and showed that ultra-fast switching could be achieved. A critical aspect ratio of 4.2 was found, where a minimum current density was observed. For antiparallel to parallel (AP-P) switching, a vortex formed during the switching process for aspect ratios less than 7. Aspect ratios of 7 or higher did not form a vortex and showed similar current densities to parallel to antiparallel (P-AP) switching as a result. It was found that the AFM layer prevented the formation of a vortex at the critical aspect ratio of 4.2 and effectively changed the switching mechanism. This allowed coherent switching with current densities for AP-P and P-AP to be only 7% from each other at the aspect ratio of 4.2. Index Terms--Current, MRAM, Pac-man, simulation.

We report the polarization dynamics in an optical ground wire (OPGW) network for a summer period and a fall period for what is believed to be the first time. To better observe the surrounding magnetic fields contribution to modulating the state of polarization (SOP) we installed a Faraday rotating mirror to correct reciprocal birefringence from quasi-static changes. We also monitored the OPGW while no electrical current was present in the towers' electrical conductors. The spectral analysis, the arc length mapped out over a given time interval on a Poincare sphere, histograms of the arc length, and the SOP autocorrelation function are calculated to analyze the SOP changes. Ambient temperature changes, wind, Sun-induced temperature gradients, and electrical current all have a significant impact on the SOP drift in an OPGW network. Wind-generated cable oscillations and Sun-induced temperature gradients are shown to be the dominant slow SOP modulations, while Aeolian vibrations and electrical current are shown to be the dominant fast SOP modulations. The spectral analysis revealed that the electrical current gives the fastest SOP modulation to be 300 Hz for the sampling frequency of 1 KHz. This has set the upper speed limit for real-time polarization mode dispersion compensation devices. OCIS codes: 060.2300, 060.2330.

The electric wind produced by corona discharge of a high-voltage electrode in air is employed for destabilizing a horizontal water film. In wire-to-plane geometry, the phenomenon is characterised by current versus voltage curves and visual observations of the onset of free-surface oscillations. The effect of the following parameters is examined for both positive and negative coronas: distance between the wire and the film (S), film thickness (h), wire diameter ([phi]) and composition, applied voltage (HV), and relative humidity (RH). The free-surface destabilisation is retarded by increasing d and [phi] and is insensitive to h in the tested range. The onset of corona discharge is predicted by Peek's law and compared with the experimentally observed threshold. In negative corona discharge, the current values are higher and the film is destabilised at lower HV than in positive polarity. Humidity tends to decrease the corona current at a given HV. Correlations are proposed for the current-voltage curves, in terms of the mean electric field in the inter-electrode gap and of RH, satisfactorily agreeing with the experimental data. Both positive and negative corona currents turn out to be stable for days of operation. The power loss by corona discharge is in any case lower than 12 W. Wave induction on the liquid-gas interface can effectively enhance heat and mass exchange between the two phases. Index Terms--Corona discharge, ionic wind, thin liquid films, free-surface waves, wire-to-plane geometry, current-voltage characteristics, humidity effects.

I introduce the exact relation between the displacement current [[member of].sub.0][partial derivative]E/[partial derivative]t and the ordinary current J. I show that [[member of].sub.0][partial derivative]E/[partial derivative]t contains a local term determined by the present values of J plus a nonlocal term determined by the retarded values of J. The nonlocal term implements quantitatively the suggestion made by Griffiths and Heald that the displacement current at a point is a surrogate for ordinary currents at other locations.

We have investigated the influence of the poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-blend-poly(styrene-sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) layer on the short-circuit current density ([J.sub.sc]) of single planar heterojunction organic solar cells based on a copper phthalocyanine (CuPc)-buckminsterfullerene ([C.sub.60]) active layer. Complete optical and electrical modeling of the cell has been performed taking into account optical interferences and exciton diffusion. Comparison of experimental and simulated external quantum efficiency has allowed us to estimate the exciton diffusion length to be 37 nm for the CuPc and 19 nm for the [C.sub.60]. The dependence of short-circuit current densities versus the thickness of the PEDOT:PSS layer is analyzed and compared with experimental data. It is found that the variation in short-circuit current densities could be explained by optical interferences. OCIS codes: 040.5350, 160.4890.

The reliability of Power/Ground networks is becoming significantly important in modern integrated circuits, while decap insertion is a main approach to enhance the power grid safety. In this brief, we propose a fast and efficient decap allocation algorithm, and adequately consider the leakage effect of decap. This approach borrows the idea of random walks to perform circuit partitioning and does subsequent decap insertion based on locality property of partitioned area, which avoids solving a large nonlinear programming problem in traditional decap optimization process. The optimization flow also integrates a refined leakage current model for decaps which makes it more practical. Experimental results show that our proposed method can achieve approximate 15X speed up over the optimal budget method within the acceptable error tolerance. Also this algorithm only causes a few penalty area to compensate the leakage effect. Index Terms--Leakage, optimization, power/ground (P/G) network, random walks.

The power-line infrastructure has been identified as an efficient system suitable for broadband power-line communication (BPLC) to connect and control various end users. However, the network is affected by stochastic attenuations due to the number of interconnected branches, their line lengths, associated terminal loads, etc. There is yet another parameter that could influence the above stated attenuations or distortions depending on the way the signals are allowed to return to the transmitting end. In this paper, we investigate whether a finitely conducting ground return could be used for BPLC and to investigate its performance over the conventional methods where one of the adjacent power-line conductors is used as signal return. This study could be helpful to those who are proposing the use of ground as a return conductor in BPLC systems. It will be shown that the use of ground return for the BPLC system is effective or better only when the ground conductivity is high (>50 mS/m). When ground conditions are poorer, attenuations increase with frequency, making them unsuitable for BPLC. There are situations where poor ground conditions can still be used but only the transmission-fine lengths are shorter. The analysis presented here is based on transmission-line solutions both under lossless (without ground return) and lossy (with ground return) conditions and are applied to typical low-voltage and medium-voltage channels. Comparisons are also made based on the power spectral densities and channel capacities. Index Terms--Branched network, broadband power line, channel capacity, frequency response, ground impedance, low-voltage (LV) channel, medium-voltage (MV) channel, multi-path, power-line channel, transfer function.

The article presents a SPICE-like approach for solving the detailed current and voltage distributions in vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). The mode changes are a result of hole burning due to anisotropy of the resistivity of the p-distributed Bragg reflector (p-DBR) mirror.

The alternating- and direct-current (a.c. and d.c.) Josephson effects were first discovered in a system of two superconductors, the macroscopic wavefunctions of which are weakly coupled via a tunnelling barrier [...]

A three-dimensional finite-element tool was developed to compute time-harmonic electromagnetic fields and impedance of substation grounding systems. The formulation employs edge-based finite elements for the magnetic vector potential A and nodal shape functions for the electric scalar potential V. The method has been applied in several configurations presented in the literature. The results are compared with both analytical and experimental data reported by other authors, with overall good agreement. Index Terms--Finite elements, grounding, impedance.

In this paper, we present how the finite-element method can be utilized to analyze the influence of an additional substance in the trenches surrounding the grounding grid's conductors on the grounding grid's performance. For this purpose, we modified the preliminarily existent FIELD_GS program code in such a way that the additional substance in the immediate vicinity along the grounding grid's conductors can be simulated. Different soil structures and various volumes of the additional substance in the soil have been analyzed to prove the suitability of surrounding the grounding grid's conductors in trenches with the additional substance. Index Terms--Electromagnetic fields, finite-element method (FEM), grounding electrodes, numerical analysis.

Based on finite-element method (FEM) of 1-D conductor element coupled with 3-D soil element, we take into account the frequency dependent characteristic of the discretized elements to analyze the grounding performance of the substation grounding grids. Compared with A-V formulation of 3-D FEM, the proposed method can greatly save the CPU time, and the frequency can be considered during FEM modeling. In comparison with the method of moment (MoM) and the measured results, the presented method is proved to be correct and effective. Furthermore, we can calculate the H-field generated by the substation grounding grids with both currents in the underground conductors and leakage currents flowing in the soil. The results show slight difference between FEM and MoM, which can be explained by the fact that the leakage currents in the soil are not taken into account for MoM. Index Terms--Finite-element method (FEM), frequency domain method, method of moment (MoM), substation grounding grids.

Spacer cable provides compact distribution of three-phase power. However, the close proximity of the phases to each other and the neutral carrier wire results in very high fields under lightning conditions. The concept of spacer cable is based on the assumption that the neutral carrier wire is grounded at each pole with an earth resistance no greater than 25 [OMEGA]. In many areas, this assumption is far from met. In this paper, we compute lightning-induced overvoltages for long lengths of spacer cable including the effect of every lightning arrester, transformer, etc., on the line and using measured ground resistances, for a range of lightning currents and rise times. Index Terms--Grounding, lightning, spacer cable.

Recent focus has been placed on improving the reliability and safety of new equipment. This paper describes a few cost-effective upgrades and retrofits for existing electrical systems, which can improve maintenance effectiveness, reduce process downtime, limit physical exposure to hazards, and improve personnel safety. A typical power system, which comprises a high-voltage substation, medium-voltage switchgear, and low-voltage switchgear, has many attributes that are prone to failure and misoperation. These common features in existing systems can be unsafe since failures and misoperations typically result in increased exposure to hazards. A few select cost-effective upgrades or modifications that increase reliability and safety are presented in the general categories of protection, control, operation, and diagnostics. Index Terms--Circuit-breaker diagnostics, control power, high-resistance grounding, protective relays, reliability, retrofits, safety, switchgear, upgrades.

This paper presents a novel converter configuration, based solely on conventional thyristors and aimed for the use with high voltage dc (HVDC) transmission. The converter utilizes resonant turn off and forced commutation with auxiliary thyristors to aid commutation in the converter switches. The PSCAD/EMTDC simulation confirms that the HVDC inverter is capable of operating with a wide range of firing angles, including operation with reactive power export. Further simulation proves that the system is immune to commutation failure even in the case of most severe close single-phase faults. The harmonic generation is comparable to the conventional converter and also the thyristor voltage stress is not significantly increased. The auxiliary thyristors do increase costs, but this is offset by the elimination of reactive power support and the improvements in performance. Index Terms--Commutated circuits, HVDC converters, HVDC transmission, reactive power.

This paper concerns the determination of the electric current requirements for an anti-icing technique based on the Joule effect. The minimum current intensity needed for preventing ice accretion depends on several conductor parameters, including external diameter, electrical resistance, as well as surface geometry (number and diameter of external strands). It depends also on meteorological conditions, such as air temperature, wind velocity, and liquid water content. The study comprises the elaboration of a mathematical model and the laboratory experiments for validation. This research work is mainly concerned with power-line conductor and atmospheric parameters. Therefore, four different types of single A1/S1 power-line conductors are investigated. The analytical model was validated with the experiments performed in the wind tunnel of CIGELE Icing Research Pavilion at the University of Quebec, Chicoutimi. In order to complete the mathematical model, it is necessary to assess the overall heat transfer coefficient (HTC) for stranded conductors. The HTC measurements are presented for conductors with different surface geometries. Index Terms--Atmospheric parameters, heat-transfer coefficient, ice prevention, Joule effect, stranded conductors, wind tunnel.

This paper is intended to present a comprehensive and objective approach to the behavior of grounding electrodes when subjected to lightning currents. Index Terms--Grounding, lightning currents, transient grounding behavior.

This paper presents an improved design method for a novel transformer inrush current reduction scheme. The scheme energizes each phase of a transformer in sequence and uses a neutral resistor to limit the inrush current. Although experimental and simulation results have demonstrated the effectiveness of the scheme, the problem of how to select the neutral resistor for optimal performance has not been fully solved. In this paper, an analytical method that is based on nonlinear circuit transient analysis is developed to solve this problem. The method models transformer nonlinearity using two linear circuits and derives a set of analytical equations for the waveform of the inrush current. In addition to establishing a set of formulas for optimal resistor determination, the results also reveal useful information regarding the inrush behavior of a transformer and the characteristics of the sequential energization scheme. This paper also proposed a method, the use of surge arrester, to solve the main limitation of the sequential phase energization scheme--the rise of neutral voltage. Performance of the improved scheme is presented. Index Terms--Inrush current, power quality, transformer.

Excitation thresholds for long nerve or muscle fibers with two point sources parallel to the fiber axis depend on the dipole length. The aim of this study was to find the optimal interelectrode distance for the minimum stimulation current. For a specific electrode-fiber distance (z_el) dipole length is constrained by the energy efficacy of the electrodes requiring small interelectrode distances, and by rather low stimulation currents requiring large dipole distances. Far-field values for optimal dipole distance (~ 1.4 * z_el) can be explained by the superposition of the positive parts of the activating functions for the monopolar elements of the dipole. A current redistribution effect in a target fiber close to the electrodes shifts the dipole length for threshold stimulation from the theoretical optimal activating function approach value towards greater dipole distances. Spike initiations in straight fibers and retinal ganglion cell axons are investigated. Index Terms--Activating function, dipole length, microelectrode, threshold current.

Shaped charges are a warhead technology often applied to rocket propelled grenades and represent a dangerous threat for armored vehicles in combat as well as in peace-keeping operations. Their armor piercing performance rests upon an explosively induced collapse of a metallic liner to a stretching jet with very high particle velocities. A copper jet produced by a shaped charge can be distorted by high electric currents injected into the jet by means of spaced electrode plates connected to a high voltage capacitor. In tests carried out at Fraunhofer EMI, a shaped charge with a well characterized jet was used for the experiments in order to examine the current flow through the jet and its effect on the jet evolution. The measured current flow is related to the jet dynamics and the distortion pattern observed by multiple flash X-ray images. As expected, the current flow starts when the jet tip reaches the back electrode plate. No significant change of the current flow is observed at the characteristic jet break-up time. The current flow continues after the tail of the copper jet has left the electrodes and resembles a damped sinusoidal. A distortion of the jet is observed where the jet particles are not aligned along the jet axis. Instead the particles are stretched orthogonally to the jet axis with increased separation along the jet axis. The tip part of the jet is hardly affected. The jet distortion is analyzed with respect to jet dynamics and current flow which allows formulating criteria for the design of electric armor systems. The current injection effective for jet distortion is limited to a time slot of a magnitude of 60 [micro]s for the 44-mm caliber-shaped charge used in the experiments. To a first approximation, the current flow can be modeled by an electric arc. An electric circuit model can describe the current flow behavior with respect to the electric impedance and allows designing an electrical circuit adequate for the time slot. By the analogy of a wire explosion the necessary current magnitude for an effective jet disruption with respect to the interaction time slot can be estimated to begin at 300 kA. For the tip portion of the shaped charge jet, the time of effective current injection is very short. When the current starts to set in, the jet tip is already passing the back electrode plate. For this reason, an effective distortion of the jet tip represents a challenge that has to be mastered. Index Terms--Electric armor, electromagnetic armor, shaped charge jet disruption.

Railguns involve both static and sliding electrical contacts, which must transmit the large transient electrical currents necessary to impart high forces onto a projectile for acceleration to hypervelocity. Static electrical contacts between metals initially take place through small asperities, or 'a-spots', distributed over the contact area. The voltage developed across the interface is directly related to the contact temperature and force, the number of a-spots, the thermophysical and mechanical properties of the contacting materials, the current history, and any interfacial materials that may be present. To physically simulate some of the conditions attained within a railgun, a pulsed current static electrical contact experimental facility has been developed at the Naval Research Laboratory. This facility employs a 500-kN capacity servohydraulic load frame equipped with an electrically insulated load train to establish a contact force on interfaces between metals through which a pulsed current is transmitted. The time dependent evolutions of the voltage drops across the interfaces, as detected by probes pushed into the contacting materials, are recorded during a 40-kA peak current pulse having a 300-[micro]s rise time with peak current densities on the order of 50 kA/[cm.sup.2]. The interface stack is assembled from a 12-mm outside diameter annular disk of metal with a 6.3-mm hole which is compressed between two hollow pedestals of a second metal. The evolution of the voltage drop across an interface during a pulse will be described as a function of initial contact pressures, current density, and polarity for dissimilar (AI/Cu) metal contacts. Thermal effects on the surfaces, including localized melting of the interlace materials, were also investigated. Index Terms--Dissimilar metals, electrical contacts, pulsed current, railgun.

Single Event Transient (SET) current is one of the most interesting issues for understanding and predicting Single Event Effects (SEEs) in real space environments. Since space radiation consists of high energy heavy ions, estimation of the energy dependence of SET currents is required. In order to estimate this effect, we have developed the Transient Ion Beam Induced Current (TIBIC) system combined with collimated high energy ion beams accelerated by AVF Cyclotron. We have demonstrated the function of TIBIC developed here. Using the newly developed TIBIC system and the Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD) simulator, the influence of ion energy on SET currents is estimated. Index Terms--Collimated beam, single event transient (SET) current, transient ion beam induced current (TIBIC).

Increasing the number of antennas for wireless communications, while concealing them within their environment, is an area of great importance as demand for wireless devices increases. One method to achieve this goal is to use the existing conducting objects in an environment as antennas. This requires altering the natural current distribution on conducting objects such that optimal radiation properties can be obtained. In this paper, a composite dielectric bead element is introduced for this purpose on electrically large wire structures. The operation of the bead element is described using transmission line theory, and a wire model of the element is given. Using the wire model, the loading for several electrically large wire structures is designed such that they resonate and radiate similarly to a half-wavelength dipole. Index Terms--Current control, cylindrical antennas, dielectric loaded antennas, linear antennas, loaded antennas, monopole antennas, wire antennas.

Here we have examined the voltage and pH dependence of unitary Slo3 channels and used analysis of current variance to define Slo3 unitary current properties over a broader range of voltages. Despite complexity in Slo3 channel openings that precludes simple definition of the unitary conductance, average current through single Slo3 channels varies linearly with voltage at positive activation potentials. Furthermore, the average Slo3 unitary current at a given activation potential does not change with pH. Consistent with macroscopic conductance estimates, the apparent open probability of Slo3 channel exhibits a pH-dependent maximum, with limiting values around 0.3 at the most elevated pH and voltage. Estimates of Slo3 conductance at negative potentials support a weaker intrinsic voltage dependence of gating than is observed for Slo1. For the pH-regulated Slo3 [K.sup.+] channel, the dependence of macroscopic conductance on pH suggests that the pH-sensitive mechanism regulates gating in an allosteric manner qualitatively similar to regulation of Slo1 by [Ca.sup.2+]. Together, the results support the view that the regulation of macroscopic Slo3 currents by pH reflects regulation of gating equilibria, and not a direct effect of pH on ion permeation. Specifically, both voltage and pH regulate a closed--open conformational change in a largely independent fashion.

Realistic and accurate numerical simulations of electrostimulation of tissues and full-body biomodels have been developed and implemented. Typically, whole-body systems are very complex and consist of a multitude of tissues, organs, and subcomponents with diverse properties. From an electrical standpoint, these can be characterized in terms of separate conductivities and permittivities. Accuracy demands good spatial resolution; thus, the overall tissue/animal models need to be discretized into a fine-grained mesh. This can lead to a large number of grid points (especially for a three-dimensional entity) and can place prohibitive requirements of memory storage and execution times on computing machines. Here, the authors include a simple yet fast and efficient numerical implementation. It is based on LU decomposition for execution on a cluster of computers running in parallel with distributed storage of the data in a sparse format. In this paper, the details of electrical tissue representation, the fast algorithm, the relevant biomodels, and specific applications to whole-animal studies of electrostimulation are discussed. Index Terms--Distributed currents, LU decomposition, parallel computing, tissue modeling, whole body.

This paper analyzes four basic ground methods for personal protection during maintained distribution transformers considering reverse energy from end users. The test in this paper considers that no loads are connected at both the primary and secondary of the distribution transformer. The results are summarized to determine the effective grounding method of protecting distribution line workers on de-energized lines during accidental-line energization from the end users. The secondary voltage at the transformer was recorded with various configurations of temporary grounds, and the primary voltage is then computed by using the transformer turn ratio. As a result, the case of installing no temporary ground is considered lethal. Moreover, the cases of installing temporary ground with a short circuit at either the primary or secondary of the transformer are considered to be the effective means of protecting distribution line workers. Index Terms--Electric shocks, overhead distribution lines, temporary grounding conductor.

In order to measure the grounding impedance of a grounding system more precisely and easily, two key problems of the measurement system: the location of the voltage electrode and the elimination of the noise and interference must be conquered. The new theoretical analysis and measurement system of the grounding impedance based on short-current lead wire and a swept frequency ac source is proposed. The compensating position of the voltage electrode to obtain the real grounding impedance is evaluated by analyzing the soil structure, the grounding system under test, and the position of the current electrode. This new system measures the ground impedance at several frequencies other than power frequency, then interpolates them to acquire the ground impedance at the power frequency. The mutual inductance between the potential and current wires is analyzed and eliminated. The industrial computer-based grounding impedance measurement system is developed and the analysis software is programmed. A field test was performed and compared with the traditional method in the substation and the novel system worked well. Index Terms--Grounding impedance, quasi-synchronous sampling algorithm, substation, swept frequency ac source.

A Fredholm integral equation of the first kind has been developed for analyzing the performance of the toroidal high-voltage direct current (HVDC) grounding system buried in the horizontal multilayer soil. The method of moment is used to solve the equations. The formulation of potential in the earth due to a circular current is proposed in closed form by means of conception of the complex resistivity and depth, which leads to the saving of the computational time greatly. The numerical results show the good agreements with those in other papers and the measured data. Index Terms--Galerkin's moment method, grounding electrodes, high-voltage direct current (HVDC), multilayer soil.

In a high-temperature superconducting (HTS) transformer leakage magnetic field, especially its radial component, decreases the critical current and increases the ac losses in the tapes. Because of zero resistance of HTS tapes a slight unbalance among the branch inductances of the windings may result in heavy circulating current, however, an accurate calculation of it must depend on the magnetic field analysis. Thus, a numerical analysis of the leakage magnetic field is especially necessary for an HTS transformer design. In this paper the leakage magnetic field of several transformer geometries is studied by finite element method, and based on it, the circulating current distribution is calculated. Some suggestions for improving the leakage field and circulating current distribution are presented to make HTS transformers more efficient. Index Terms--Circulating current, finite element method (FEM), HTS transformer, leakage magnetic field.

The grounding systems are simply handled as lumped resistances with constant values in traditional lightning transient analysis of substation. A complete transmission line model is proposed to consider the actual transient process of power network and the grounding grid of the substation and the grounding devices of transmission towers. A loss transmission line model with time-variable parameters is proposed to calculate the transient characteristics of grounding systems under lightning current in which the soil ionization phenomena around the ground conductors are considered. The analyzed results by the proposed model have large differences with those obtained by the traditional simplified method. The transient characteristics of grounding systems have strong influence on the lightning transient process of substation. Index Terms--Grounding system, lightning, soil ionization, substation, transient performance, transmission line model.

When dc current is injected into the earth through the grounding electrodes of a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) system, transformers in ac system may be under dc bias if the dc currents flowing through the transformers are large enough. In this paper, a numerical method coupling the method of moments (MOM) to circuit equations is presented to calculate the dc current distribution in ac power system caused by an HVDC system. The MoM is used to calculate the electric fields in complex earth structure caused by all the grounding systems including the dc grounding electrodes, the ac substation grounding systems and the long metal pipe lines. The circuit equations are coupled to the moment method to take account of the effects of the transmission lines. By using the method, the dc current distribution in an ac power system caused by an HVDC system is analyzed. Some useful conclusions are drawn from the analyzed results. Index Terms--Current distribution, grounding electrodes, high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission, method of moments (MOM).

The design of grounding system often relies on the performance simulations. The evaluation of the current distribution of grounding system for many frequencies by using the method of moments (MoM) may take a long time since the impedance matrix must be recomputed at each new frequency. A multiobject adaptive spatial sampling approach is presented to construct the fitted model of the electric field intensity generated by a horizontal electric dipole. The [Z] matrix spatial interpolation technology with MoM is described to reduce the computational time needed for the transient characteristics analysis of a horizontal grounding system. The accuracy and computational time of the [Z] matrix interpolation method are compared with those of the direct MoM. The numerical examples show that the [Z] matrix spatial interpolation method can reduce the computation requirement effectively. Index Terms--Adaptive sampling, fitting model, grounding grid, interpolation, method of moment (MoM).